‭GeoE 406 – Mineralogy‬

‭ ctivity No. 5‬
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‭Petrographic Microscopes‬

I‭nstruction: Answer the following questions. (60 points)‬

‭1. What is a Petrographic Microscope?‬
‭ petrographic microscope, also known as a polarizing microscope, is a‬
A
‭specialized type of optical microscope used to examine and identify rocks and minerals‬
‭in thin sections. These thin sections are extremely thin slices of rock, typically around 30‬
‭micrometers thick, that allow light to pass through them for detailed‬
‭observation.Petrographic microscopes utilize a technique called polarized light‬
‭microscopy (PLM) which involves passing light through polarizing filters. These filters‬
‭alter the properties of the light, allowing scientists to observe specific characteristics of‬
‭the minerals within the rock sample that wouldn't be visible under normal light‬
‭microscopy. By analyzing these characteristics, such as the interaction of the light with‬
‭the mineral's crystal structure and its birefringence (the ability to split a light ray into two‬
‭rays), scientists can identify the mineral composition of the rock.‬

‭ here are numerous petrographic microscope designs available. While each is different‬
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‭in detail, all have fundamentally. the same design and construction. From the bottom up, they‬
‭consist of an illuminator, substage assembly, stage, objective tenses, upper polar, Bertrand lens,‬
‭and ocular lens. Most modern microscÓpes are equipped with a prism between the upper polar‬
‭and ocular that allows the microscope tube to be tilted from the vertical, and all have a focusing‬
‭mechanism.‬

‭Petrographic microscopes are crucial tools in various fields, including:‬

‭●‬ G ‭ eology:‬‭Petrologists use them to study the composition‬‭and formation of rocks,‬

‭which helps them understand geological processes and history.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mineralogy:‬‭Mineralogists employ them to identify‬‭and characterize minerals,‬
‭which is essential for understanding their properties and applications.‬
‭●‬ ‭Material science:‬‭They are used to analyze the composition‬‭and microstructure‬
‭of materials, such as ceramics and concrete.‬
‭●‬ ‭Environmental science:‬‭Petrographic microscopes can‬‭be used to study the‬
‭composition of soils and sediments, which provides insights into environmental‬
‭conditions and processes.‬

‭ . Manually draw the Petrographic Microscope. Label each part of the petrographic‬
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‭microscope and provide each function.‬
‭●‬ O ‭ cular (Eyepiece):‬‭Oculars are lenses that slide into‬‭the upper end of the‬
‭microscope tube. They magnify the image provided from the objective lens and‬
‭focus the light so that it can be accepted by the human eye.‬
‭●‬ ‭Bertrand Lens:‬‭The Bertrand tens (also called the‬‭Amici-Bertrand lens) is a‬
‭small lens just below the ocular. It is mounted on a pivot or slide, so that it can be‬
‭easily introduced or removed from the optical path. lts function is to allow the‬
‭observer to view optical phenomena called interference figures that are seen‬
‭near the top surface of the objective lens.‬
‭●‬ ‭Rotating Nosepiece:‬‭This turret holds multiple objective‬‭lenses with different‬
‭magnifications. It allows the user to quickly switch between different‬
‭magnifications without re-focusing.‬
‭●‬ ‭Objective Centering Screw:‬‭This screw allows for fine‬‭adjustments of the‬
‭position of the objective lens relative to the optical axis. This helps ensure proper‬
‭alignment and image quality.‬
‭●‬ ‭Objective Lens:‬‭The objective lenses provide the primary‬‭magnification of the‬
‭optical system and are, in effect, the heart of the microscope. This lens is located‬
‭closest to the sample and is responsible for the initial magnification. Different‬
‭objective lenses offer varying degrees of magnification.‬
‭●‬ ‭Stage:‬‭The circular stage of the petrographic microscope‬‭is mounted on bearings‬
‭so that it can be rotated smoothly. This flat platform holds the thin section of the‬
‭rock sample being examined. It can be moved vertically and horizontally using‬
‭the mechanical stage.‬
‭●‬ G ‭ oniometer:‬‭The stage goniometer on the outside edge of the stage is marked‬
‭in degrees so that angles of rotation can be measured accurately. This scale on‬
‭the rotating stage allows for precise measurement of the angle of rotation, which‬
‭can be helpful for certain optical analyses.‬
‭●‬ ‭Mechanical Stage:‬‭A mechanical stage is mounted on‬‭the stage of the‬
‭microscope and grasps a slide so that the slide can be moved in a systematic‬
‭way. It is most commonly employed when it is desired to determine the‬
‭abundance of the different minerais in a rock thin section.‬
‭●‬ ‭Iris Diaphragm:‬‭The aperture diaphragm is an iris‬‭diaphragm mounted either‬
‭above or below the fixed condensing lens. lts function is to adjust the size of the‬
‭cone of light that passes up through the microscope. This adjustable diaphragm‬
‭controls the amount of light entering the objective lens and helps to improve‬
‭image contrast and resolution.‬
‭●‬ ‭Lower Polar (Polarizer):‬‭The lower polar on most modem‬‭microscopes consists‬
‭of a piece of optical-quality polarizing film mounted in a ring that can be rotated at‬
‭least 90º and usually 180º or 360º. This allows the vibration direction of the‬
‭polarized light passing through the microscope to be set in any desired‬
‭orientation.‬
‭●‬ ‭Substage Centering Screw:‬‭This screw allows for fine‬‭adjustments of the‬
‭position of the substage condenser, which helps to ensure proper illumination of‬
‭the sample.‬
‭●‬ ‭Illuminator in Base:‬‭This component houses the light‬‭source that illuminates the‬
‭sample from below the stage. Most modem microscopes are equipped with an‬
‭incandescent light mounted in the base. The light from the bulb is directed‬
‭upward with a combination of tenses and mirrors.‬
‭●‬ ‭Upper Polar (Analyzer):‬‭This polarizing filter is‬‭located above the objective lens‬
‭and can be inserted or removed from the optical path. It interacts with the lower‬
‭polarizer to enable specific observation modes like crossed-nicols.‬
‭●‬ ‭Accessory Plate:‬‭This is a general term for various‬‭filters or compensators that‬
‭can be inserted into the optical path to modify the light beam for specific‬
‭analytical purposes. The usual accessory plates are the gypsum plate, mica‬
‭plate, and quartz wedge.‬
‭●‬ ‭Arm:‬‭This is the supporting structure that holds the‬‭head of the microscope and‬
‭connects it to the base.‬
‭●‬ ‭Vernier:‬‭This scale on the mechanical stage allows‬‭for more precise‬
‭measurement of the stage's movement compared to the main scale.‬
‭●‬ ‭Auxiliary Condensor:‬‭This is mounted on a pivot so‬‭that it can swing in or out of‬
‭the optical path. lts function is to provide conoscopic illumination, which consists‬
‭of strongly converging light. This lens is swung into the optical path to allow‬
 ‭ roduction of optical phenomena called interference figures, which are examined‬
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‭with the high-power objective.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Focusing Knobs:‬‭The microscope is focused by turning‬‭the focusing knobs‬
●
‭mounted on the microscope base. These knobs are used to adjust the focus of‬
‭the image by moving the stage vertically (coarse and fine focus knobs).‬
‭●‬ ‭Condenser Lens:‬‭This lens serves to concentrate the‬‭light onto the area of the‬
‭sample immediately beneath the objective lens. The fixed condensor lens usually‬
‭has a numerical aperture about the same as the numerical aperture of the‬
‭medium-power objective lens.‬
‭●‬ ‭Base:‬‭This is the sturdy, stable platform that supports‬‭the entire microscope‬
‭body.‬

‭3. Differentiate Conoscopic and Orthoscopic Petrographic Microscope.‬

‭ petrographic microscope itself is not inherently conoscopic or orthoscopic.‬

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‭These terms refer to‬‭two different observation modes‬‭used with a petrographic‬
‭microscope to analyze minerals in thin sections:‬

‭In‬‭orthoscopy‬‭, the microscope is used in its‬‭standard‬‭configuration‬‭with both‬

‭ olarizing filters in place. Light passes through the sample and the objective lens,‬
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‭allowing direct observation of the‬‭morphology, color,‬‭and pleochroism‬‭(the ability of a‬
‭mineral to exhibit different colors under different light directions) of the minerals. This‬
‭mode provides a‬‭general overview‬‭of the minerals present‬‭in the rock sample.‬
I‭n‬‭conoscopy‬‭, the‬‭ocular lens‬‭of the microscope is‬‭replaced with a‬
‭specialized lens system‬‭called an‬‭analysers‬‭, which‬‭acts like a telescope. This setup‬
‭focuses the light rays emerging from the objective lens to form‬‭interference figures‬‭in‬
‭the microscope's‬‭back focal plane‬‭. These interference‬‭figures are‬‭characteristic‬
‭patterns of light and dark‬‭that depend on the‬‭optical‬‭properties‬‭of the minerals in the‬
‭sample, particularly their‬‭birefringence‬‭. By analyzing‬‭the shape, color, and other‬
‭characteristics of the interference figures, scientists can gain‬‭detailed information‬
‭about the‬‭optical properties and crystal structure‬‭of the minerals.‬

‭ herefore, both conoscopy and orthoscopy are crucial techniques used with a‬
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‭petrographic microscope, but they serve‬‭different‬‭purposes‬‭:‬

‭●‬ O ‭ rthoscopy‬‭provides a‬‭general overview‬‭of the minerals‬‭based on their visual‬

‭characteristics.‬
‭●‬ ‭Conoscopy‬‭offers‬‭in-depth information‬‭about the minerals'‬‭optical properties‬
‭and crystal structure through the analysis of interference figures.‬
‭4. Differentiate Reflected and Transmitted Petrographic Microscope.‬
‭ he core difference between reflected light and transmitted light petrographic‬
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‭microscopes lies in how they illuminate the sample, which allows them to study different‬
‭aspects of rocks and minerals:‬

‭Transmitted Light Petrographic Microscopes‬

‭●‬ I‭llumination:‬‭Light originates from a source below‬‭the sample stage, passes‬

‭through the thin section, and is then magnified by the microscope's objective‬
‭lenses.‬
‭●‬ ‭Use:‬‭Ideal for analyzing transparent or translucent‬‭minerals within thin sections.‬
‭Scientists can observe optical properties that depend on light transmission, such‬
‭as:‬
‭○‬ ‭Color and Pleochroism:‬‭How color changes with light‬‭polarization.‬
‭○‬ ‭Birefringence:‬‭The way light splits into two rays‬‭within a mineral.‬
‭○‬ ‭Crystal Habit:‬‭The shape and manner in which the mineral‬‭grows.‬
‭○‬ ‭Internal Inclusions:‬‭Foreign materials trapped within‬‭the mineral.‬

‭Reflected Light Petrographic Microscopes‬

‭●‬ I‭llumination:‬‭Light comes from a source above the‬‭sample stage and is reflected‬
‭off its surface.‬
‭●‬ ‭Use:‬‭Primarily used to study opaque minerals that‬‭do not allow light to pass‬
‭through them (like metal ores). Reflected light microscopy helps examine:‬
‭○‬ ‭Color and Luster:‬‭Observation of a mineral's true‬‭color and how it reflects‬
‭light (metallic, glassy, etc.).‬
‭○‬ ‭Hardness:‬‭Deducing how resistant a material is to‬‭scratching through‬
‭reflected light intensity.‬
‭○‬ ‭Opacity:‬‭Whether a material reflects light or not.‬
‭○‬ ‭Anisotropy:‬‭Variations in a mineral's optical properties‬‭with different‬
‭crystallographic directions‬

‭ . Define, and provide functions and photograph of the following instruments:‬

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‭a. X-Ray Diffractometer‬
‭●‬ D
‭ efinition:‬‭An X-ray diffractometer (XRD) is an analytical‬‭technique used to‬
‭identify the crystallographic structure of crystalline materials. It utilizes X-rays and‬
‭the principle of diffraction to analyze the arrangement of atoms within a crystal‬
‭lattice.‬
 ‭●‬ F
‭ unction:‬‭XRD works by directing a beam of X-rays onto the sample. The X-rays‬
‭interact with the atoms in the sample, causing them to diffract (scatter) in specific‬
‭directions. The diffracted X-rays are then detected and their intensity is‬
‭measured at various angles. This data is used to create a pattern, called an‬
‭X-ray diffraction pattern, which is unique to each material. By comparing the‬
‭pattern to a database of known patterns, scientists can identify the crystalline‬
‭phases present in the sample.‬

‭b. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer‬

‭●‬ D ‭ efinition:‬‭An X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF)‬‭is an analytical technique‬
‭used to determine the elemental composition of a material. It works by irradiating‬
‭the sample with X-rays, which excite the electrons in the atoms, causing them to‬
‭emit fluorescent X-rays of characteristic energies.‬
‭●‬ ‭Function:‬‭XRF works by directing a beam of X-rays‬‭onto the sample. The X-rays‬
‭interact with the electrons in the atoms of the sample, causing them to be excited‬
‭to higher energy levels. When these electrons relax back to their ground state,‬
‭they emit X-rays of specific energies, which are characteristic of the elements‬
‭present in the sample. By measuring the energy and intensity of these X-rays,‬
‭scientists can identify and quantify the elements present in the sample.‬

‭c. Atomic Absorption Spectrometer‬

‭●‬ D ‭ efinition:‬‭An atomic absorption spectrometer (AAS)‬‭is an analytical technique‬
‭used to determine the concentration of specific elements in a liquid sample. It‬
‭works by atomizing the sample and then measuring the amount of light absorbed‬
‭by the atomized elements at specific wavelengths.‬
‭●‬ ‭Function:‬‭AAS works by first converting the sample‬‭into an atomic vapor. This is‬
‭typically done by heating the sample in a flame or furnace. The atomic vapor is‬
‭then exposed to a beam of light of specific wavelengths. The atoms in the vapor‬
‭can absorb light of specific wavelengths, which are characteristic of the element.‬
‭The amount of light absorbed is measured by the instrument and is proportional‬
‭to the concentration of the element in the sample.‬

‭d. Electron Probe Microanalyzer‬

‭●‬ D
‭ efinition:‬‭An electron probe microanalyzer (EPMA)‬‭is an analytical technique‬
‭used to determine the chemical composition of a sample at a microscopic level. It‬
 ‭ orks by focusing a beam of electrons onto a small area of the sample and then‬
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‭measuring the X-rays emitted by the elements present in that area.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Function:‬‭EPMA works by directing a beam of focused‬‭electrons onto the‬
●
‭sample. The electrons interact with the atoms in the sample, causing them to‬
‭emit X-rays. The energy and intensity of these X-rays are measured by the‬
‭instrument and used to identify and quantify the elements present in the sample.‬
‭Additionally, by scanning the electron beam across the sample, a map of the‬
‭distribution of the elements can be created.‬

‭e. Induced Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometer‬

‭●‬ D ‭ efinition:‬‭Inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry‬‭(ICP-MS) is an‬
‭analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of a sample. It‬
‭works by nebulizing the sample into a liquid aerosol, which is then introduced into‬
‭an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) source. The ICP heats the aerosol, causing‬
‭it to atomize and ionize the elements present. The ions are then separated based‬
‭on their mass-to-charge ratio and measured by a mass spectrometer.‬
‭●‬ ‭Function:‬‭ICP-MS works by first converting the sample‬‭into an aerosol or‬
‭plasma using an inductively coupled plasma (ICP). The ICP is a‬
‭high-temperature, ionized gas that can break down the sample into its constituent‬
‭elements. The elements are then separated based on their mass-to-charge ratio‬
‭by a mass spectrometer. The intensity of the signal for each element is measured‬
‭by the instrument and is proportional to the concentration of the element in the‬
‭sample.‬

‭f. Induced Coupled Plasma – Liquid Chromatography‬

‭●‬ D ‭ efinition:‬‭Inductively coupled plasma – liquid chromatography‬‭(ICP-LC) is a‬
‭hyphenated technique that combines the separation capabilities of liquid‬
‭chromatography (LC) with the elemental analysis capabilities of ICP-MS or‬
‭ICP-OES (optical emission spectrometry).‬
‭●‬ ‭Function:‬‭ICP-LC works by first separating the components‬‭of a sample using‬
‭liquid chromatography. The separated components are then introduced into an‬
‭ICP-MS, where they are identified and quantified based on their elemental‬
‭composition. This technique is particularly useful for analyzing complex samples‬
‭that contain multiple elements and compounds.‬
‭g. Scanning Electron Microscope‬
‭●‬ D ‭ efinition:‬‭A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is‬‭an instrument that uses a‬
‭focused beam of electrons to image the surface of a sample. The electrons‬
‭interact with the atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be used‬
‭to create an image of the sample surface.‬
‭●‬ ‭Function:‬‭SEM works by directing a beam of focused‬‭electrons onto the sample.‬
‭The electrons interact with the atoms in the sample, causing them to emit various‬
‭signals, including secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and X-rays. The‬
‭SEM detector collects these signals and uses them to create an image of the‬
‭sample surface. SEM images can provide information about the‬‭topography,‬
‭composition, and morphology‬‭of the sample at a much‬‭higher resolution than‬
‭optical microscopes. This makes SEM a valuable tool in a wide range of fields,‬
‭including materials science, biology, and forensics.‬

‭References:‬