METACOGNITION: 14 LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
Lesson 1: Metacognition
▪ Metacognition is "thinking about thinking" or "learning how to learn."
▪ It refers to higher order thinking that involves active awareness and control over the cognitive
processes engaged in learning.
▪ Metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences
or regulation.
▪ Metacognitive skills are authentic procedures and strategies performed during task execution to
monitor and control one's cognition.
▪ Metacognitive knowledge is declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge stored in one's
long-term memory.
▪ Metacognitive experience involves conscious reactions and self-judgments regarding personal
performance before, during, or after task execution.
▪ Person variables include how one views oneself as a learner and thinker.
▪ Task variables include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing
demands that it will place upon the individual.
▪ Strategy variables involve awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and
evaluating whether this strategy is effective.
▪ Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention
focused on the topic or task at hand.
▪ Metamemory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
▪ The practices of metacognition include knowing the limits of one's learning and memory
capacities, knowing what learning task one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount
of time, knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not, planning an
approach to learning tasks that are likely to be successful, and using effective learning strategies
to process and learning new material.
▪ Monitoring one's knowledge and comprehension is also important, as is using effective
strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
▪ Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer questions about the
subject, task, or issue.
▪ Researchers such as Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness was evident in
preschoolers and in students as young as eight years old.
▪ Teaching strategies to develop metacognition includes having students monitor their own
learning and thinking, learn study strategies, make predictions about information to be
presented next based on what they have read, relate ideas to existing knowledge structures,
develop questions, ask questions of themselves and what's going on around them, know when
to ask for help, and show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills to
other situations or tasks.
▪ Novice learners have limited knowledge in different subject areas, employ rigid strategies that
may not be appropriate to the task at hand, and attempt to process all information they receive.
▪ Expert learners have a deeper knowledge in different subject areas because they look for
interrelationships in things they learn, design new strategies that would be appropriate to the
task at hand, and select important information to process, able to break down information into
manageable chunks.
14 Learner-Centered Principles:
▪ Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors:
1. Learning is an active process of constructing meaning
2. Successful learners can create meaningful representations of knowledge
3. Successful learners can link new information with existing knowledge
4. Successful learners can use thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals
5. Successful learners can reflect on their thinking and learning process
▪ Motivational and Affective Factors:
6. Learner's internal world can enhance or interfere with learning
7. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks relevant to personal interests and providing
for personal choice and control
8. Effort is an indicator of motivation to learn
▪ Developmental and Social Factors:
9. Learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across domains
is taken into account
10. Social interaction and collaboration can enhance learning
▪ Individual Differences Factors:
11. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
12. Individuals have unique capabilities and talents. Learning preferences should be
examined and expanded if necessary.
13. Basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all learners
14. Assessment provides important information to learners and teachers
ALEXANDER AND MURPHY'S SUMMARY OF THE 14 PRINCIPLES:
1. Knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning
2. Learners can develop skills to regulate their thoughts and behaviors for effective learning
3. Motivation and affect have a crucial role in the learning process
4. Learning is unique to each person
5. Learning happens in the context of society and the individual.
 RELATED TO THE LEARNERS' DEVELOPMENT (PART 1): ▪ A child's cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to
develop the ability to think about complex systems and concepts.
Theories Related to the Learner's Development: ▪ Four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
▪ Freud: 3 components of personality and 5 psychosexual stages of development. operational, and formal operational.
▪ Kohlberg: 3 levels and 6 stages of moral development.
▪ Erikson: 8 psychosocial stages of development, where personality develops through LEV VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
each stage, and successful completion of each stage results in healthy personality and
acquisition of basic virtues. I. Introduction
▪ Vygotsky: on language and zone of proximal development. ▪ Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development in children is widely known as Lev Vygotsky’s
▪ Piaget: 4 stages of cognitive development. Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development.
▪ Bronfenbrenner: bio-ecological system. ▪ Unlike Piaget’s theory, Vygotsky believed that social learning comes before cognitive
development in children and that children construct knowledge actively.
Erik Erikson's 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development:
▪ Infancy: trust vs. mistrust. II. Defining Characteristics
▪ Early Childhood: autonomy vs. shame and doubt. ▪ Piaget: Stages, development drives learning, learner-centered, innate development,
▪ Preschool: initiative vs. guilt. assimilation, accommodation, equilibration, and genetic development growth.
▪ School Age: industry vs. inferiority.
▪ Vygotsky: Social interactions, Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), learning drives
▪ Adolescence: identity vs. role confusion.
development, scaffolding, social interactions, cultural development, internalization, ZPD has to
▪ Young Adulthood: intimacy vs. isolation.
contain the capabilities that are being taught, scaffolding, interact with instructors, peers, and
▪ Middle Adulthood: generativity vs. stagnation.
socio-cultural environment to solve problems, and engage learners in socially-organized
▪ Maturity: ego integrity vs. despair.
activities.

● Educational Implications of Erikson's Theory:
▪ Strengths: stage theory, formation of ego identity from birth, every individual has to go
through crisis in his/her life.
▪ Weaknesses: focus on the competing forces rather than emotional development of
individuals, difficult to be tested scientifically as it is not possible to measure some of
the concepts upon which the theory is based, fails to specify the effect of failure in one
stage impacts which other stages.
▪ Various educational implications depending upon the age group of the learner and the
tasks they are expected to perform:
▪ Allowing the child to play with various natural, simple materials, and role-
playing for the expression of fantasy and imagination.
▪ Games, stories and songs can be used. Real-life activities like serving food,
chopping vegetables or making chapattis, prepare children for participation in
the community around them.
▪ Child-directed activities where the child chooses his or her activity and repeats
it as often as they want must be encouraged.
▪ Erikson’s psychosocial theory is a very powerful way for building self-awareness and for
improving oneself, as it helps to understand a person’s learning according to his or her
personal differences.
III. Vygotsky’s Concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
▪ Children who are in the zone of proximal development for a particular task can almost perform
the task independently, but not quite there yet.
▪ Factors essential in helping a child in the zone of proximal development include the presence of
a “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO), receiving instructions from the MKO, and the MKO
offering temporary support (scaffolding) to the child during the learning process.
IV. Vygotsky’s Concept of More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
▪ Children learn through social interaction that includes collaborative and cooperative dialogue
with someone who is more skilled in the task they are trying to learn.
▪ MKO can be teachers, parents, tutors, or peers.
V. Vygotsky’s Concept of Scaffolding
▪ Temporary support given to a child by a More Knowledgeable Other that enables the child to
perform a task until they can perform it independently.
▪ Changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a teaching
session.
▪ MKO adjusts the level of guidance to fit the student’s current level of performance.

● Jean Piaget's Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development: VI. Conclusion

▪ Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that intelligence changes as ▪ Lev Vygotsky believed that social influences, particularly getting instructions from someone, are
children grow. of immense importance in the cognitive development of early childhood.
 ▪ Scaffolding and the MKO help a child in their zone of proximal development and enable them to FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:
perform tasks independently in the future.
The Oral Stage
FREUD'S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT: ▪ Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
▪ Erogenous Zone: Mouth
▪ Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development theory describes how personality develops over ▪ Infant's primary interaction source is the mouth, deriving pleasure from oral stimulation such as
childhood. tasting and sucking.
▪ The five psychosexual stages are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, each with an ▪ The primary conflict is weaning process; fixation can lead to issues with dependency or
associated erogenous zone. aggression.
▪ The psychosexual energy or libido drives the behavior of an individual in each stage. ▪ Positive oral stimulation leads to the development of trust and comfort.
▪ Each stage presents conflicts that can promote growth or hinder development, depending on how
they are resolved. Trust vs. Mistrust: Psychosocial Stage 1
▪ Fixation can occur if conflicts are not successfully resolved, resulting in a persistent focus on an
▪ Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
earlier psychosexual stage.
▪ Fixation at a stage can lead to personality issues, such as an oral fixation resulting in dependence on
▪ Infants develop trust and comfort through oral stimulation.
others or oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
The Anal Stage
▪ The oral stage is from birth to 1 year, with the mouth as the erogenous zone.
▪ The anal stage is from 1 to 3 years, with bowel and bladder control as the erogenous zone. ▪ Age Range: 1 to 3 years
▪ The phallic stage is from 3 to 6 years, with the genitals as the erogenous zone. ▪ Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
▪ The latent stage is from 6 to puberty, with no erogenous zone, and sexual feelings are dormant. ▪ The major focus is on controlling bladder and bowel movements, toilet training is a major
▪ The genital stage is from puberty to death, with sexual interests maturing. conflict.
▪ Fixation in the latency stage can result in immaturity and difficulty forming non-sexual relationships ▪ Positive experiences in toilet training lead to competence and productivity, negative
as an adult. experiences lead to negative outcomes.
▪ Fixation in the genital stage can lead to frigidity, impotence, sexual perversion, or difficulty forming a ▪ Inappropriate parental responses lead to either anal-expulsive or anal-retentive personalities.
healthy sexual relationship with another person. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
▪ Age Range: 1 to 3 years
ID, EGO, AND SUPEREGO: FREUD'S ELEMENTS OF PERSONALITY ▪ Developing control over bodily needs leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
▪ Human personality is composed of three elements: id, ego, and superego. The Phallic Stage
▪ The id is the primary component of personality, present from birth, and entirely unconscious. ▪ Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
▪ The ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in an ▪ Erogenous Zone: Genitals
acceptable manner in the real world.
▪ Primary focus of libido is on the genitals, and children begin to discover differences between
▪ The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.
males and females.
▪ The superego is the last component of personality to develop and holds internalized moral standards
and ideals.
▪ Boys view fathers as rivals for mother's affection, experience Oedipus complex, and fear
castration.
▪ The superego has two parts: conscience and ego ideal.
▪ Conscious level, preconscious level, and unconscious level are the three levels at which these ▪ Girls experience Electra complex and penis envy.
elements operate. ▪ Eventually, children identify with same-sex parent.
▪ The ego is responsible for mediating between id impulses and superego inhibitions and testing
reality. Initiative vs. Guilt: Developing a Sense of Purpose
▪ The superego operates mostly at the preconscious level and provides guidelines for making ▪ Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
judgments. ▪ Children develop a sense of purpose and become concerned with peer relationships and
▪ The id operates at the unconscious level and includes basic impulses seeking immediate gratification. hobbies.

The Latent Period

▪ Age Range: 6 to Puberty
 ▪ Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
▪ Superego continues to develop while id's energies are suppressed, and children develop social
skills and relationships outside of the family.
▪ Sexual energy is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions.
▪ Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as
an adult.
Industry vs. Inferiority During Child Development
▪ Age Range: 6 to Puberty
▪ Children develop social and communication skills and self-confidence.
The Genital Stage
▪ Age Range: Puberty to Death
▪ Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
▪ The libido becomes active once again, and the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
opposite sex.
▪ The focus is on establishing a balance between the various life areas.
▪ A well-balanced individual is warm and caring.
▪ The ego and superego are fully formed and functioning at this point.
PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who developed a theory of cognitive development that describes
how children construct a mental model of the world. His theory comprises four stages of development:
▪ Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years. Infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. Major characteristics of this stage include understanding
the world through movements and sensations, learning through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking, and listening, realizing that things continue to exist even when they cannot be
seen, understanding that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them,
and realizing that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.
▪ Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7. At this stage, children learn through pretend play but still
struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They begin to think symbolically
and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects, but they tend to be egocentric and
struggle to see things from the perspective of others. They also think in very concrete terms.
▪ Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11. Children at this stage become more skilled at
organizing information and thinking logically, although thinking is still tied to concrete reality.
They can understand the concept of conservation and can think through problems in a
systematic and logical fashion.
▪ Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up. At this stage, individuals are capable of thinking
abstractly and can formulate and test hypotheses through deductive reasoning. They become
capable of thinking about multiple variables in systematic ways, understanding the
consequences of actions, and thinking about abstract ideas and concepts.
Piaget's theory emphasized the role of children's active involvement in the learning process, as they
experiment and observe the world around them. He proposed that cognitive development progresses
through a series of stages and that children's thinking differs qualitatively from that of adults. Piaget also
believed that external factors such as culture and social interactions play a role in cognitive development.
Piaget's theory of cognitive development differed from that of Lev Vygotsky, another influential figure in
child development. Piaget believed that development is largely fueled from within, while Vygotsky
believed that external factors and people play a more significant role.
Piaget's observations of his own children led him to believe that children's minds are not simply smaller
versions of adult minds. He also proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of
stages, and that older children think differently from younger children.
In conclusion, Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes how children construct a mental model
of the world through a series of stages. The theory emphasizes the role of children's active involvement
in the learning process and the importance of external factors such as culture and social interactions.
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT:
Sociocultural theory is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the contributions of society to
individual development. Here are the key points about sociocultural theory:
▪ Sociocultural theory stresses the role that social interaction plays in psychological development.
It suggests that human learning is largely a social process, and that our cognitive functions are
formed based on our interactions with those around us who are "more skilled."
▪ Psychologist Lev Vygotsky is the founder of sociocultural theory. He believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are responsible for developing the brain's higher-
order functions.
▪ According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other people. Each culture
provides "tools of intellectual adaptation," which allow children to use their abilities in a way
that is adaptive to the culture in which they live.
▪ The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is an important concept in sociocultural theory. It is
the distance between the actual development level (of the learner) and the level of potential
development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration
with more capable peers. Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person
cannot yet understand or perform on their own but is capable of learning with guidance.
▪ Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development is often compared to Vygotsky's theory. While
Piaget's theory stressed that a child's interactions and explorations impact development,
Vygotsky asserted the essential role that social interactions play.
▪ In classroom settings, teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level.
Educators can then offer instruction that stretches the limits of each child's capabilities. At first,
 the student may need assistance from an adult or a more knowledgeable peer. Eventually, their ▪ Adults develop a sense of contribution to society and future generations through work and
zone of proximal development will expand, and they will be able to perform the task on their family
own. ▪ Successfully developing generativity results in a sense of care, while failure to do so results in
ERIK ERIKSON'S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: feelings of unproductivity and a lack of purpose.

Background: Integrity vs. Despair (65 to death)

Erik Erikson developed a popular theory of development centered on psychosocial development ▪ Older adults reflect on their lives and develop a sense of acceptance and fulfillment
Erikson's theory is based on the epigenetic principle, suggesting people grow in a sequence that ▪ Successfully developing integrity results in wisdom and acceptance of the life lived, while failure
occurs over time and in the context of a larger community to do so results in feelings of despair and regret.

Stages of Psychosocial Development: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:

Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 18 months) Definitions of Individual Differences:

▪ Infants develop trust based on the dependability and quality of their caregivers
▪ Successfully developing trust results in feeling safe and secure in the world, while failure to do 1. Drever James: Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the mental or
so results in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable. physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the group are individual differences.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (18 months to three years)
▪ Toddlers develop a sense of control over their environment and their bodies
▪ Successfully developing autonomy results in willpower and self-control, while failure to do so
results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Initiative vs. Guilt (three to five years)
▪ Children develop initiative and the ability to plan and achieve goals
▪ Successfully developing initiative results in a sense of purpose, while failure to do so results in
feelings of guilt and inadequacy.
2. Good, C.V.: The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single characteristic or a
number of characteristics, those differences which in their totality distinguish one individual from
another.
3. Skinner, C.E.: Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the
total personality.
4. Woodworth, R.S. and Marquis, D.G.: Individual differences are found in all psychological
characteristics physical mental abilities, knowledge, habit, personality and character traits.

Industry vs. Inferiority (six to 11 years) TYPES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

▪ Children develop a sense of competence in academic and social skills ▪ Physical differences ▪ Differences on account of sex
▪ Successfully developing industry results in confidence, while failure to do so results in feelings of ▪ Differences in intelligence ▪ Racial differences
inferiority and incompetence. ▪ Differences in attitudes ▪ Differences due to nationality
▪ Differences in achievement ▪ Differences due to economic status
Identity vs. Confusion (12 to 18 years) ▪ Differences in motor ability ▪ Differences in interests
▪ Adolescents develop a sense of self and an understanding of their place in the world ▪ Emotional differences ▪ Personality differences
▪ Successfully developing identity results in a sense of fidelity, while failure to do so results in
confusion and an unclear sense of self.
CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 to 40 years)
▪ Young adults develop close, intimate relationships with others
▪ Heredity ▪ Age and intelligences
▪ Successfully developing intimacy results in the ability to form strong relationships, while failure
to do so results in feelings of loneliness and isolation. ▪ Environment ▪ Temperament and emotional stability
▪ Influence of caste, race and nation ▪ Economic condition and education
▪ Sex differences ▪ Other Causes: interests, aptitudes,
achievements, sentiments, character,
educational and home background.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 to 65 years)
 ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATION 3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:
▪ Individuals who are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns, and logically analyzing problems.
▪ One of the important objectives of modern education is the complete development of the individual. ▪ Strengths include analyzing problems and mathematical operations.
▪ Individuals have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different ▪ Characteristics include having excellent problem-solving skills, enjoying abstract ideas and
abilities. conducting experiments, and solving complex computations.
▪ We cannot afford to ignore these individual differences in imparting education to children. ▪ Potential career choices: scientist, mathematician, computer programmer, engineer,
▪ Some practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences are suggested: accountant.
▪ Limited size of the class
▪ Proper division of the class 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence:
▪ Homework ▪ Individuals who are good at body movement, performing actions, and physical control.
▪ Factors of Sex ▪ Strengths include physical movement and motor control.
▪ Curriculum ▪ Characteristics include being skilled at dancing and sports, creating things with their hands,
▪ Methods of Teaching having excellent physical coordination, and remembering by doing.
▪ Educational Guidance ▪ Potential career choices: craftsperson, dancer, builder, surgeon, sculptor, actor.
▪ Vocational Guidance
▪ Individual Training 5. Musical Intelligence:
▪ Individuals who are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: ▪ Strengths include rhythm and music.
Introduction: ▪ Characteristics include enjoying singing and playing musical instruments, recognizing musical
▪ Learners have multiple intelligences and varied learning styles. patterns and tones easily, remembering songs and melodies, and having a rich understanding of
▪ Multiple intelligence theory helps to align teaching with the strengths of individual learners. musical structure, rhythm, and notes.
▪ Teachers should use a variety of assessment tools and tasks to enable learners to demonstrate their ▪ Potential career choices: musician, composer, singer, music teacher, conductor.
learning.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence:
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences: ▪ Individuals who are good at understanding and interacting with other people.
▪ Howard Gardner proposed the concept of multiple intelligences. ▪ Strengths include understanding and relating to other people.
▪ Intelligence is more than just IQ testing. ▪ Characteristics include communicating well verbally and nonverbally, seeing situations from
▪ Gardner's theory suggests there are multiple different types of intelligence. different perspectives, creating positive relationships, and resolving conflicts in group settings.
▪ Potential career choices: psychologist, philosopher, counselor, salesperson, politician.
Types of Intelligence:
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence:
1. Visual-Spatial Intelligence: ▪ Individuals who are good at being aware of their own emotional states, feelings, and
▪ Individuals who are good at visualizing things, directions, maps, charts, videos, and pictures. motivations.
▪ Strengths include visual and spatial judgment. ▪ Characteristics include being introspective, having self-awareness, being reflective, and having a
▪ Characteristics include enjoying reading, puzzles, drawing, painting, and recognizing patterns. deep understanding of oneself.
▪ Potential career choices: architect, artist, engineer. ▪ Potential career choices: writer, philosopher, artist, psychologist, counselor.

2. Linguistic-Verbal Intelligence:
▪ Individuals who are good at using words both in writing and speaking.
▪ Strengths include words, language, and writing.
▪ Characteristics include remembering information, debating, explaining things well, and using
humor.
▪ Potential career choices: writer/journalist, lawyer, teacher.