The Art of SXO: Placing UX Design

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Zuzanna Krüger
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Design Thinking

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Zuzanna Krü ger

The Art of SXO

Placing UX Design Methods into SEO Best Practices
Zuzanna Krü ger
Manchester, UK

ISSN 2945-7793 e-ISSN 2945-7807

Design Thinking
ISBN 978-1-4842-9211-2 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9212-9
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9212-9

© Zuzanna Krü ger 2023

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In memory of my sister, a gifted SEO expert, and my mother, a source of
inspiration.
To my father, who has been my constant pillar of strength during these
challenging times.
Introduction
Many companies have forgotten they sell to actual people.
Humans care about the entire experience, not just the marketing
or sales or service. To really win in the modern age, you must solve
for humans.1
—Dharmesh Shah, CTO and Cofounder, HubSpot

As the world of digital marketing continues to evolve, so too must

the way we think about optimizing our websites for search engine
visibility and conversion. With the latest algorithm updates from
Google and other major search engines, it’s become increasingly clear
that the traditional methods of SEO (search engine optimization)
design are no longer enough to guarantee success online.
Instead, a new approach is needed that takes into account the latest
changes in how search engines operate and how users interact with
websites. First and foremost, we must consider the needs of the user
and design our websites with their entire search journey in mind. This
means taking a holistic approach that combines the disciplines of SEO,
CRO (conversion rate optimization), and UX (user experience) design to
provide a smooth browsing experience that leads users from a search
engine all the way through to your checkout page. This approach is
known as search experience optimization, or SXO for short.

What Is SXO?
In essence, SXO is a new emerging field that combines the disciplines of
SEO, CRO, and UX, offering a comprehensive approach to website
optimization. Unlike traditional SEO, which is focused primarily on
ranking in search engine results pages (SERPs), SXO is focused on
creating a positive browsing experience for users at every stage of their
interaction with your website—from the initial search query all the way
through to the checkout page.
In order to achieve this, SXO must be considered at every stage of
the website design process, from the initial keyword research right
through to the final user testing. This requires a thorough
understanding of the user’s journey from start to finish and designing
every element of the website accordingly. It also implies using data and
experimentation to constantly improve the user experience.
In short, SXO is all about putting the user first and creating a search
experience that is both informative and enjoyable.
Who Is This Book For?
While the concept of SXO is still fairly new, there are a number of
experts who are already using this approach to great effect. In this
book, we will draw on the collective experience of some of the world’s
leading marketing experts to provide readers with a comprehensive
guide to SXO. We will cover everything from the basics of SXO to more
advanced tactics, making this the perfect resource for anyone looking to
get the most out of their search traffic.
So, whether you’re a business owner looking to grow your revenue
from organic traffic, an SEO professional wanting to learn about SXO, or
a CRO specialist or UX designer wanting to utilize organic traffic to
create high-converting user journeys, this book will give you the tools
and knowledge you need to succeed.
Acknowledgments
Writing this book has been a journey filled with love, support, and
encouragement from those closest to me. I am deeply grateful to
My husband Tom, who provided unwavering support, both physical
and emotional, throughout the writing process
My dear friend and colleague Leonardo, who offered invaluable
insights on digital marketing and encouraged me to pursue my
unconventional projects
My late mother Magdalena, who always believed in me and cheered
me on, even in the most trying times
My father Jarosław, who constantly encouraged and supported me,
giving me the strength to keep going
My dear grandma Bogna, who always showed enthusiasm for my
work, even when it seemed like black magic to her
And finally, my feline friends and muses Llwynog and Willow, who
kept me entertained and motivated when the writing was tough
I am humbled and grateful for the love and support of each and
every one of you.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Search Experience Optimization:​The New Way to Do
SEO
The Three Pillars of SXO
SEO
CRO
UX Design
The User-First Approach
Creating Content for Users
Making Information Easily Accessible
Creating a Pleasant Design
Key Takeaways
The Power of Data
Introduction to Data
Collecting Data
Analyzing Data
Making Decisions Based on Data
Implementing Changes Based on Data
Key Takeaways
The Importance of Design
The Role of Design in SXO
The Principles of Good Design
Creating a Good Design for Your Website
Applying the Design Principles
Designing for Different Devices
Key Takeaways
 The Role of Content
What Is Content?​
The Different Types of Content
Creating High-Quality Content
Key Takeaways
The Science of a Good Browsing Experience
How Search Engines Work
Meeting Expectations
Being Found
Serving Information
Providing Solutions
Building Loyalty
Key Takeaways
Summary
Chapter 2:​Applying SXO to Your Website
Understanding Your Website’s Current Search Experience
Gathering Data with Google Analytics
Gathering Data with Google Search Console
Gathering Data with Microsoft Clarity
Gathering Data with Screaming Frog
Analyzing Data with Google Spreadsheets
Setting Benchmarks and Goals for Your Website’s SXO
Performance
Step 1:​Prepare a Document to Track Your Progress
Step 2:​Know Your Target Audience
Step 3:​Identify Your Products or Services
 Step 4:​Set Realistic Goals
Step 5:​Decide Which Tools You Will Use
Step 6:​Create a Timeline
Key Takeaways
Identifying Your Target Audience
Gathering Customer Insights
Why Are Customer Insights Important?​
Defining Your Ideal Customer
Create Your Customer Persona
Use Google Analytics to Learn More About Your Audience
Key Takeaways
Keyword Research
Brainstorming
Trending Keyword Research
Evergreen Keyword Research
Competitor Keyword Research
People Also Ask
Evaluating and Organizing Your Keyword Ideas
Key Takeaways
Optimizing Website’s Structure
What Is Website Structure?​
How to Improve the Structure of Your Website
Key Takeaways
Summary
Chapter 3:​Creating Compelling Content
Types of Content That Work Well for SXO
 Industry News and Insights
Audience-Focused Content
Marketing Funnel Stage-Specific Content
Blog Posts
Articles
Whitepapers
Ebooks
Guides
FAQs
Product Demos
Webinars
Free Trials/​Samples
Case Studies
Formatting Your Content for Users and Search Engines
Formatting Your Content for Readability
Formatting Your Content for Shareability
Formatting Your Content for Accessibility
Formatting Your Content for Localization
Formatting Your Content for Search Engine Optimization
Writing Effective Calls to Action
What Is a CTA?​
How to Write an Effective CTA
Creating Visuals That Help Users Understand Your Content
Types of Visuals
Choosing the Right Visuals
Key Takeaways
 Improving Website Design and Functionality
Creating a Responsive Design
Implementing an Effective Navigation
Improving Usability with UX Design Principles
Creating a Style Guide
Key Takeaways
Experimenting and Iterating
The Importance of Experimentation
The Scientific Method
Types of Experiments
Creating an Experimentation Road Map
Key Takeaways
Reporting on SXO Success
Choosing SXO Metrics to Track and Setting the Frequency of
Your Reporting
Choosing What to Include in Your SXO Report
Creating a Report Template for Future SXO Reports
Key Takeaways
Summary
Chapter 4:​Advanced SXO Techniques
International SXO
The Difference Between International and Multilingual SEO
Optimizing Website Structure for International Search
Engines
Improving Website Design and Content for International
Users
Monitoring International Search Engine Rankings
 Key Takeaways
Generating Demand with SXO
Choosing High-Converting Keywords
Creating a Long Landing Page with a Lead Magnet Ranking
High in SERP
Creating Blog Content to Answer Common Questions
Using Round-Up Blogs to Increase Brand Awareness and
Website Traffic
Key Takeaways
AI, Machine Learning, and Automation in SXO
Content Creation
Scraping Data
Advanced Pattern Matching with Regex for SXO
Key Takeaways
Summary
Chapter 5:​The Future of SXO:​How It Will Shape the SEO, CRO, and
UX Design Landscape
How SXO Will Shape the Future of SEO
How SXO Will Shape the Future of CRO
How SXO Will Shape the Future of UX Design
The Bottom Line
Index
About the Author
Zuzanna Krüger
is a passionate and innovative SEO
professional with a deep understanding
of how to effectively drive organic traffic
and build sustainable growth strategies.
With experience working with clients
from around the globe, she has a diverse
background in both small businesses and
large enterprises and is known for her
emphasis on providing real value to
customers through her holistic and user-
centric approach to website design and
optimization. Zuzanna is particularly
interested in exploring the potential of
AI solutions in the realm of SEO,
including natural language processing
(NLP) and generative pre-training (GPT).
She is constantly seeking out new ways to push the boundaries of what
is possible in this rapidly evolving field and is dedicated to helping
businesses achieve their full potential through cutting-edge SEO
strategies.
About the Technical Reviewer
Federico Fioravanti
A senior technical SEO by profession,
Federico Fioravanti’s core interests are
site speed optimization, findability and
indexing, site architecture, and on-page
technical SEO. He was born and raised in
the north of Italy, and after completing
his studies, he spent various years
between Lisbon (PT) and Budapest (HU)
where he currently resides. He has
applied experience in online marketing
and product management, in particular
on projects related to SEO, UX/UI, and
front-end design. He has more than eight
years of experience in international
marketing, working in agile
environments and with a strong understanding of industry trends. He is
currently a member of an international team made of three senior
technical SEO specialists, working closely with stakeholders from
different departments on websites with very high organic traffic (33
languages, 50 million users, 200 million monthly organic sessions) and
with a technical SEO–reliant architecture. He is also an electronic music
composer and an avid photographer who likes taking photos especially
while traveling.
Footnotes
1 Haden, J. (2013). How to Sell to Humans. [online] Inc.​c om. Available at
www.inc.com/magazine/201311/jeff-haden/hubspot-co-founder-
says-inbound-marketing-is-not-the-answer.html [Accessed Feb. 19,
2023].
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to APress Media, LLC, part of Springer
Nature 2023
Z. Krü ger, The Art of SXO , Design Thinking
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9212-9_1

1. Search Experience Optimization: The

New Way to Do SEO
Zuzanna Krü ger1
(1) Manchester, UK

As mentioned in the Introduction, SXO is a new approach to website

optimization that combines the disciplines of SEO, CRO, and UX design.
In this chapter, we will take a more in-depth look at what SXO entails,
its main components, and the theory behind it.

The Three Pillars of SXO

The foundation of SXO is built on three pillars: SEO, CRO, and UX design.
In order to understand SXO properly, it’s important to have a basic
understanding of each of these disciplines. Figure shows them in more
detail.
SEO
Search engine optimization (SEO) is the process of optimizing a website
for Google and other major search engines. The goal of SEO is to
improve the visibility of a website in organic (nonpaid) search results,
with the ultimate aim of driving more traffic to the site.
There are two main types of SEO: on-page SEO and off-page SEO.
On-page SEO refers to the optimization of a website’s content and code,
in order to make it more accessible and relevant to search engines. This
includes optimizing titles, descriptions, and keyword usage. Off-page
SEO, on the other hand, refers to all SEO tactics that don’t involve
working with the content within a website. This includes link building,
brand building, citation building, content marketing, and social media,
all of which aim to help both search engines and users understand the
website better and increase its authority, trust, and relevance.
In recent years, there has been a shift away from traditional SEO
techniques such as keyword stuffing1 and link buying.2 These days,
Google’s algorithms are much more sophisticated and are designed to
penalize3 sites that engage in black hat4 practices. Instead, the focus is
on creating high-quality content that is relevant and useful to users.5
CRO
Conversion rate optimization (CRO) is the process of optimizing a
website with the goal of increasing the percentage of visitors who take
a desired action. This could be anything from making a purchase to
signing up for a newsletter or downloading a PDF.
CRO is usually accomplished through A/B testing, which involves
showing two different versions of a web page to two groups of users
(“A” and “B”). The version that performs better in terms of the desired
conversion rate is then used as the new standard.
CRO can be used to test anything from the copy on a web page to the
design, layout, and even the location of elements. By constantly testing
and improving your website’s conversion rate, you can significantly
increase your revenue without necessarily driving more traffic to the
site.

UX Design
User experience (UX) design is the process of designing websites and
applications with the goal of providing a positive and enjoyable
experience for users. This includes everything from the overall look and
feel of a site to how easy it is to navigate and use.
Good UX design is essential for keeping visitors on your site and
ensuring that they have a positive experience. It’s also been shown to
improve conversion rates, as users are more likely to take the desired
action when they enjoy using your site.

The User-First Approach

All three of these disciplines (SEO, CRO, and UX design) share a
common goal: to improve the experience of users on your website. This
is what sets SXO apart from traditional SEO, which often focuses on
game-playing search engine algorithms instead of actual users.
The user-first approach of SXO means that everything you do should
be aimed at improving the experience of users on your site. This
includes creating high-quality and useful content, making it easy for
users to find what they’re looking for, and ensuring that the overall
design of your site is pleasing to the eye.
 Let’s say, for example, that you want to increase the number of
visitors to your site who take the desired action. In order to do this, you
need to first understand what users want and need from your site. Once
you know this, you can make the necessary changes to your content,
design, and code to make it more user-friendly and thus more likely to
convert.
The user-first approach is not only more effective, but it’s also more
sustainable in the long run. By focusing on providing a positive
experience for users, you’re more likely to build a loyal following that
will continue to use your site even as algorithms change.
What are the key components of the user-first approach?

Creating Content for Users

One of the most important aspects of SXO is creating content that is
informative and helpful to users. This means writing articles, blog
posts, and even product descriptions with the user in mind, rather than
trying to game the system with keyword-stuffed content.
Let’s take a look at an example.
Suppose you run an ecommerce website selling men’s shoes. Your
goal is to increase the number of visitors to your site and convert more
of them into paying customers.
To do this, you could focus on creating keyword-rich content that
ranks highly in Google search results and stuff your text with several
long-tail keywords6 that are easy to rank for, for example, black leather
men’s shoes size 10 or elegant men’s shoes carbon fiber. However, if the
content is not relevant or useful to users and it’s long and difficult to
read due to too many oddly placed synonyms, they’re likely to click
back to the search results page and continue looking for a better option.
In this case, you’ve wasted your time and effort creating content that
doesn’t actually help you achieve your goal.
Instead, it would be more effective to focus on creating helpful and
informative product descriptions that make it easy for users to browse
and skim through the most important details to find the right shoes for
them. In addition, include images and videos that show the shoes in use
so users can get a better idea of what they look like and how they might
fit. By creating content with the user experience in mind, you’re more
likely to keep visitors on your site and increase the chances of them
making a purchase.
The goal is to create content that is so useful and relevant that users
will want to share it with their friends and followers. This not only
helps to improve your SEO, but it also helps to build trust and
credibility with your audience.
The most efficient way to create content for users is to focus on
solving their problems. This could be anything from teaching them how
to do something to providing information that they’re looking for. Once
you know what kinds of problems your users are trying to solve, you
can create content that addresses those needs.
To find out what problems your users are trying to solve, you can
use a variety of methods, such as
Asking them directly through surveys or polls
Reviewing customer service logs to see what questions people are
asking
Checking social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook to see
what people are saying about your industry
Using Google Ads7 to see what keywords people are searching for
related to your business
Once you know what problems your users are trying to solve, you
can create content that addresses those needs. For example, if you run a
website selling products for dogs, you could create blog posts with
titles such as “5 Ways to Keep Your Dog Entertained During Winter” or
“How to Choose the Right Dog Food for Your Pet.” By creating content
that helps users solve their problems, you’re more likely to keep them
engaged with your site.

Making Information Easily Accessible

In addition to creating helpful content, it’s also important to make sure
that information is easy for users to find. This means structuring your
website in a way that is logical and easy to navigate.
One way to do this is to use a clear and consistent hierarchy on your
website. This means organizing your pages in a way that reflects the
importance of the information. For instance, if you have a page about
your company’s history, it would make sense to place it under the
“About Us” section.
It’s also important to use clear and descriptive titles for your pages
and blog posts. This makes it easier for users to find the information
they’re looking for, and it also helps search engines index your site
more effectively. For example, instead of titling a blog post “5 Tips for
Choosing the Right Dog Food,” it would be more effective to title it “How
to Choose the Right Dog Food for Your Pet.”
In addition to using clear titles, you should also use descriptive
headings and subheadings throughout your content. This makes it
easier for users to skim through and find the most relevant information.
Finally, you should also include links to related content throughout
your site. This helps users find additional information that they might
be interested in, and it also helps to improve your SEO. For example, if
you have a blog post about choosing the right dog food, you could
include links to your company’s page about dog food.
By making information easily accessible, you’re more likely to keep
users engaged with your site.

Creating a Pleasant Design

Creating helpful and easy-to-find content is important, but it’s also
essential to make sure that your website is pleasant to look at. This
means using a clean and consistent design that is easy on the eyes.
There are a few key elements to creating a pleasant design, such as
Use of whitespace: Using long walls of text on a page can be
overwhelming for users. To make your pages more readable, you
should break long paragraphs into sections, lists, and tables—all
separated by ample whitespace.
Use of color: Using color effectively can help to create a more
pleasant design. You should use colors that complement each other
and make sure that there is enough contrast between the text and the
background.
Use of images: Adding images to your pages can help to break up the
text and make your site more visually appealing. However, you
should only use images that are relevant to the content and add value
for users.
 Use of fonts: When it comes to choosing a font for your website,
readability should be a top priority. Sans-serif fonts such as Arial,
Verdana, and Helvetica are generally considered to be the easiest to
read on digital screens.8 It’s also important to consider the size of the
font, as both too small and too large text can cause strain on readers’
eyes. Google recommends using a minimum font size of 16px for
body text,9 as this size provides a good balance between readability
and the amount of content that can fit on the screen.
Another important aspect of design is usability. If your site is
difficult to use, chances are good that users will give up and go
elsewhere.10
Some common usability issues include
Confusing navigation
Hard-to-read text
Small buttons or links
Pop-ups and other intrusive ads
All of these things can make it difficult for users to use your site,
which is why it’s important to avoid them.
In addition to these technical aspects, it’s also important to create a
site that feels welcoming. This means using language that is friendly
and easy to understand. It also means avoiding anything that could
come across as pushy or salesy. Your website should be a reflection of
your company, so make sure that it conveys the same values and
message.
By creating a site that is pleasant to look at and easy to use, you’re
more likely to keep users engaged.

Key Takeaways
The user-first approach is all about creating a website that is designed
with the user in mind. This means creating helpful and easy-to-find
content, using a clean and consistent design, and making sure that your
site is easy to use. By putting the user first, you’re more likely to create
a successful website that users will want to come back to.
Some key takeaways from this section include
 It’s important to create helpful and easy-to-find content. This means
using clear titles and descriptive headings, as well as including links
to related content.
Your website should have a clean and consistent design. This means
maintaining an optimum level of whitespace in the design
composition, using colors that complement each other, and using
images that add value for users.
Your site should be easy to use. This means avoiding anything that
could make it difficult for users to navigate or find the information
they’re looking for.
Remember to put the user first. This means creating a site that is
designed with the user in mind. By doing this, you’re more likely to
create a successful website.
By following these guidelines, you can create a website that is both
search engine- and user-friendly, which will help you to improve your
search rankings and grow your business.

The Power of Data

In order to create a successful website, it’s important to use data. Data
can help you understand how users are interacting with your site and
what they’re looking for. This information can then be used to improve
the user experience and make sure that your site is meeting their
needs.

Introduction to Data
If you want to be successful with SXO, it’s important to have a strong
understanding of data. Data can help you understand how visitors are
interacting with your site, what they’re looking for, and what they’re
interested in.
There are a number of data types that are important to SXO,
including
Website data
Search data
User data
 Website data includes things like pageviews, bounce rate, and time
on site. This type of data can help you understand how visitors are
interacting with your site.
Search data includes things like keyword rankings and organic
traffic. This type of data can help you understand what people are
searching for and how well your site is ranking for those keywords.
User data includes things like age, location, and gender. This type of
data can help you understand who your audience is and what they’re
interested in.
All of these types of data are important to consider when optimizing
your website. By understanding how visitors are interacting with your
site, you can make changes to improve the experience.

Collecting Data
Collecting data is the first step to understanding your visitors. There
are a number of ways to collect data, including
Using web analytics tools
Conducting user research
Setting up conversion tracking
Using heatmaps
A/B testing
Web analytics tools, such as Google Analytics, can give you a wealth
of data about your website. These tools can track things like pageviews,
time on site, and bounce rate. This data can be helpful in understanding
how visitors are interacting with your site.
Conducting user research can also be helpful in understanding your
audience. This can be done through surveys, interviews, or focus
groups. This type of research can help you understand things like what
people are looking for on your site and what their pain points are.
Setting up conversion tracking is also important if you want to
understand how effective your site is at converting visitors into
customers or subscribers. This can be done through tools like Google
Analytics or Crazy Egg. By tracking conversions, you can understand
which areas of your site are working well and which need
improvement.
 Heatmaps are another helpful tool in understanding how visitors
are interacting with your site. Heatmaps track things like where people
are clicking and how far they scroll down the page. This data can be
helpful in understanding what people are interested in and where
they’re getting stuck.
A/B testing is also a helpful way to collect data. This involves
showing two different versions of your site to users and then
measuring which one performs better. This can be helpful in
understanding what changes to make to improve the user experience.

Analyzing Data
Once you’ve collected data, it’s important to analyze it to see what it’s
telling you. This involves looking for patterns and trends and then
trying to understand what they mean.
For example, if you see that your website’s bounce rate is high, this
could be an indication that something is wrong with the site. Maybe the
design is confusing, or the content is not relevant to what people are
looking for.
If you see that your organic traffic is increasing, this could be an
indication that your SXO efforts are paying off. It could also be a sign
that you’re ranking for more keywords or that your site is being shared
more often.
Data analysis is an important part of understanding your website’s
performance. By understanding what the data is telling you, you can
make changes to improve your site.

The Importance of Data Interpretation

It’s important to remember that data is only helpful if you can interpret
it correctly. Just because you see a pattern in the data doesn’t mean that
it’s accurate. There could be other factors at play that you’re not
considering.
For example, let’s say you see a sharp decrease in your website’s
traffic. This could be caused by a number of things, such as a change in
your ranking or a decrease in the number of people searching for your
keywords. It could also be caused by something unrelated to your
website, like a change in the seasonality of searches.
 It’s important to consider all of the factors that could be affecting
the data before you make any decisions. Otherwise, you could make
changes that don’t actually improve your website.
But how do you ensure that you’re interpreting the data correctly?
One approach is to use multiple data sources. For example, if you’re
trying to understand why your traffic is down, you could look at your
website’s analytics, as well as your search engine rankings. This would
give you a more complete picture of what’s going on and would help
you to make more informed decisions.
Another approach is to use data from multiple time periods. For
instance, you could compare your current traffic levels to those from a
month ago or a year ago. This would help you to see if the decrease is
part of a larger trend or if it’s an isolated incident.
Lastly, it’s important to talk to other people about the data. This
could be your team or other people in your industry. By talking to
others, you can get different perspectives on the data, and this can help
you to understand it better.

Data Visualization Techniques

Once you’ve collected and interpreted your data, it’s important to
visualize it in a way that’s easy to understand. This is where data
visualization comes in.
There are a number of different data visualization techniques that
you can use, and the best one for you will depend on the type of data
you’re working with and what you’re trying to achieve.
Some common data visualization techniques include
Bar charts
Line graphs
Pie charts
Maps
Tables
Each of these techniques has its own strengths and weaknesses, so
it’s important to choose the right one for your needs.
For example, bar charts are great for comparing data points, but
they don’t show changes over time very well. Line graphs, on the other
hand, are great for showing trends over time. Pie charts are good for
showing proportions, but they can be difficult to interpret if there are
too many data points.
Once you’ve chosen a data visualization technique, it’s important to
make sure that the visualization is easy to understand. This means
using clear and concise labels and choosing colors that are easy to
distinguish.
It’s also important to make sure that the visualization is accurate.
This means double-checking your calculations and using a tool like
Excel to create the visualization.
Creating an effective data visualization can be a challenge, but it’s
worth taking the time to do it right. A well-designed visualization can
be very helpful in understanding your data and making better decisions
for your website.

Making Decisions Based on Data

Once you’ve collected and interpreted your data, it’s time to make some
decisions.
This can be a difficult process, as you need to weigh up all of the
different factors that are affecting your website. However, there are
some general guidelines that you can follow to make sure that you’re
making the best decisions for your website.
One of the most important things to remember is that you can’t
make decisions based on a single data point. It’s important to look at all
of the data and to understand how it fits together.
Another important thing to remember is that data can be
misleading. This is why it’s so important to interpret the data correctly
and to understand what it’s telling you.
For example, if you’re looking at your website’s traffic, it’s important
to understand where the traffic is coming from. If most of your traffic is
coming from a single source, then that source could be skewing your
data.
It’s also important to remember that data changes over time. This
means that you need to regularly check your data and make sure that
you’re making decisions based on the most up-to-date information.
What are some of the most important things to remember when
making decisions based on data?
1. You can’t make decisions based on a single data point.

2. Data can be misleading.

3. Data changes over time.

4. You need to understand what the data is telling you.

5. You need to make sure that you’re making decisions based on the
most up-to-date information.

Making decisions based on data can be difficult, but it’s important to

remember that data is a valuable tool. Used correctly, it can help you to
make better decisions for your website and to improve your website’s
performance.

Implementing Changes Based on Data

Once you’ve made some decisions about your website, it’s time to
implement those changes. This can be a difficult process, as you need to
make sure that the changes you’re making are effective and that they
don’t cause any problems for your website.
There are a few things to keep in mind when implementing changes
to your website.
First, it’s important to make sure that you’re making small,
incremental changes. This will help you to avoid any major problems
and will make it easier to track the results of your changes.
Second, it’s important to test your changes before you implement
them. This means creating a test website or using a tool like Google
Optimize to test how your changes will affect your traffic.
Third, it’s important to monitor the results of your changes. This
means regularly checking your data and making sure that your changes
are having the desired effect. If they’re not, then you can make further
changes or revert back to the original version of your website.
What are some of the most important things to keep in mind when
implementing changes to your website?
1. Make small, incremental changes.

2. Test your changes before you implement them.

3. Monitor the results of your changes.

4. Be prepared to make further changes if necessary.

Introducing changes on your website can be a challenge, but it’s

important to remember these guidelines. By following these guidelines,
you can be sure that you’re making effective changes that won’t cause
any problems for your website.

Key Takeaways
In this section, we’ve looked at some of the most important things to
remember when making decisions about your website. Here are the key
takeaways from this section:
Data is a valuable tool that can help you to make better decisions for
your website.
There are a number of ways to collect data, including web analytics
tools, A/B testing, and surveys.
You need to make sure that you’re making decisions based on the
most up-to-date information.
When implementing changes to your website, it’s important to make
small, incremental changes.
You should test your changes before you implement them.
Monitor the results of your changes, and be prepared to make further
changes if necessary.
By following these guidelines, you can be sure that you’re making
the best decisions for your website and that you’re implementing
effective changes that won’t cause any problems for your website.

The Importance of Design

Design is an important part of SXO. It’s not enough to just optimize your
website for search engines and conversions; you also need to make sure
that it looks good and provides a positive user experience. Good design
can help you to improve your website’s SXO, while bad design can hurt
it.
In this section, we’ll talk about the importance of design and how
you can incorporate it into your SXO strategy. We’ll also discuss the
principles of good design and how you can create a good design for
your site.

The Role of Design in SXO

There are a few reasons why design is an essential part of an effective
SXO strategy.

User Experience
As we mentioned before, good design will improve the user experience
of your site. This is important because it can encourage visitors to stay
on your site and convert them into customers or subscribers.
Let’s take a look at an example. Imagine that you’re looking for a
new pair of shoes. You find a website that has a lot of shoes to choose
from, but the site is difficult to navigate. The shoes are arranged in
random order, and it’s hard to find the size and style that you’re looking
for. After a few minutes of frustration, you give up and leave the site.
Now, imagine that you find another website that sells shoes. The site
is well-designed, and it’s easy to find the size and style that you’re
looking for. There aren’t as many shoes to choose from, but you’re able
to find the perfect pair quickly and easily. You make your purchase, and
you’re happy with the experience.
Which site are you more likely to visit again in the future? Which
site would you recommend to a friend? The answer is obvious. Good
design has a positive impact on user engagement and retention.

Search Engine Rankings

Good design can also impact your search engine rankings. Google’s
algorithms take into account the design of your site when determining
your rankings.11 This means that a good design can help you to improve
your search engine rankings and to get more traffic to your site.
 There are a few factors that Google looks at when determining the
design of your site. These include
The layout of your site
The use of whitespace
The font size and style
The color scheme
The imagery
The overall user experience
Let’s take a look at an example. Imagine that you have two websites,
and both websites sell shoes. Website A has a well-designed layout,
with a clear navigation system and easy-to-read text. Website B is
cramped and cluttered, with a confusing navigation system and small,
hard-to-read text. Which website do you think Google is going to rank
higher?
The answer is website A. Google wants to provide its users with the
best possible experience, and that means returning results from
websites that are well-designed and easy to use.

Brand Reputation
Good design can also help to build trust with your visitors. Have you
ever been to a website that looked like it was made in the 1990s? If so,
you probably didn’t stay for long. On the other hand, have you ever
been to a website that looked modern and professional? If so, you were
probably more likely to trust the site and to consider making a
purchase.
People are naturally distrustful of businesses that don’t invest in
their online presence. A well-designed website shows visitors that
you’re a professional, credible business.
Good design is essential for an effective SXO strategy. But it’s
important to remember that design isn’t just about how your website
looks. Design is also about how your website works. In the next section,
we’ll take a look at the principles of good design and how you can
create a good design for your site.

The Principles of Good Design

There are a few principles that all good designs share. These principles
include
Simplicity
Consistency
Clarity
A focus on the user

Simplicity
The best designs are often the simplest ones. This doesn’t mean that
your design should be boring or basic. It just means that your design
should be easy to understand and use.
When it comes to simplicity, less is almost always more. This is
especially true when it comes to the use of whitespace. Whitespace is
the empty space around the elements on your page. It’s important to
use whitespace in your design, as it can help to make your page more
readable and easy to navigate.

Consistency
Consistency is another important principle of good design. This means
using similar colors, fonts, and styles throughout your website. This
helps to create a cohesive look, and it makes your site easier to
navigate.
It’s important to be consistent with the overall look and feel of your
site. But you also need to be consistent with the user experience. This
means using the same navigation system on every page of your site and
making sure that all of your links work correctly.

Clarity
Clarity is another essential principle of good design. This means making
sure that your text is easy to read and that your website is easy to
understand.
One way to achieve this is to use headings and subheadings. This
helps to break up your text and to make it easier to scan. It’s also
important to use clear and concise language. Avoid using technical
jargon, unless you’re sure that your audience will understand it.
A Focus on the User
The final principle of good design is a focus on the user. This means
creating a website that is easy to use and that meets the needs of your
target audience.
It’s important to think about who your target audience is and what
they need from your website. For example, if you’re targeting a mature
audience, you’ll need to make sure that your website is easy to use. This
might mean using larger fonts and avoiding complicated navigation.
If you’re targeting a younger audience, on the other hand, you might
want to focus on creating a more engaging design. This could include
adding images and videos and using bolder colors.
Remember, your goal is to create a design that meets the needs of
your target audience. By doing this, you’ll be more likely to create a
successful website.

Creating a Good Design for Your Website

Now that we’ve looked at the principles of good design, let’s take a look
at how you can create a good design for your website.
There are a few things that you need to consider when creating your
design. These include the following.

Your Industry and Market

The first thing you need to consider when creating your design is your
industry and market. You need to understand the trends in your
industry and what your competitors are doing. This will help you to
create a design that is unique and that will stand out from the crowd.

The Message You Want to Communicate

The next thing you need to consider is the message you want to
communicate. What do you want your website to say about your brand?
What are your goals for your website? Once you know this, you can
start to create a design that reflects your message.

Your Target Audience

As we mentioned before, it’s important to think about who your target
audience is when creating your design. You need to consider their
needs and what they’re looking for from your website. By
understanding your target audience, you can create a design that
appeals to them.

Data from Your Analytics

Finally, you need to consider the data from your analytics. This includes
things like the average time spent on your website, the bounce rate, and
the most popular pages. This data will help you to understand how
people are using your website and what needs to be improved.
By considering all of these factors, you can create a good design for
your website. Remember, your goal is to create a design that is
appealing to your target audience and that helps you to achieve your
goals.

Applying the Design Principles

Now that we’ve looked at the principles of good design, let’s take a look
at how you can apply them to your own website in a few easy steps.

Use Typography to Create a Hierarchy of

Information
One way to apply the principle of hierarchy is to use typography. This
means using different font sizes, and bold or italic text, to create a
hierarchy of information. By doing this, you can ensure that the most
important information is easy to see.

Use Whitespace to Create Visual Interest

Another way to apply the principle of whitespace is to use it to create
visual interest. You can do this by adding margins and padding to your
design. This will help to break up your text and to make your website
more visually appealing.

Use Color to Create Contrast

You can also use color to create contrast. This means using two or more
colors that are different, but that work well together. For example, you
could use a light color for your background and a dark color for your
text. This will help to make your text easier to read.

Use Imagery to Add Visual Interest

Finally, you can use imagery to add visual interest. This includes adding
photos, illustrations, and videos to your website. By doing this, you can
make your website more visually appealing and help to break up your
text.
By applying the principles of good design, you can create a website
that is easy to use and that meets the needs of your target audience.

Designing for Different Devices

It’s important to remember that people will be accessing your website
from a variety of different devices. This includes desktop computers,
laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
There are a few things you need to consider when creating a
responsive design.

The Layout of Your Website

When creating the layout for your website, you need to think about how
it will look on different screen sizes. You should avoid using fixed
widths and instead use percentages or fluid grids.12 This will help to
ensure that your website looks good on all screen sizes.

The Size of Your Text

You also need to consider the size of your text. This is particularly
important for mobile devices. You should use a large, easy-to-read font
size for your text.

The Size of Your Images

Finally, you need to consider the size of your images. When using
images on your website, you should use responsive images. This means
using images that are automatically resized to fit the screen they’re
being viewed on.
By considering all of these factors, you can create a responsive
design that looks good on all devices.

Key Takeaways
In this section, we’ve looked at the principles of good design. We’ve also
looked at how you can apply these principles to your own website.
Remember, your goal is to create a website that
Makes it easy for visitors to navigate your site: This includes using a
clear navigation system and adding links to relevant pages, which
will make your information structure easy to understand and follow
for both real users and search engine bots.
Meets the needs of your target audience: This includes considering
who your target audience is and what they’re looking for on your
website.
Serves information in an easy-to-digest format: This includes using
typography, whitespace, and color to create a hierarchy of
information and adding imagery to add visual interest.
Creates a positive first impression: This includes ensuring that your
website looks professional and builds trust.
Is designed for different devices: This includes creating a responsive
design that looks good and loads fast on all screen sizes, reducing the
amount of scrolling and clicking required, and reducing the amount
of data that needs to be downloaded.
By following these tips, you can create a website that is appealing to
both users and search engines.

The Role of Content

In this section, we’re going to look at the role of content in SXO. We’ll
start by looking at what content is and what it’s used for. We’ll then look
at the different types of content that you can use on your website.

What Is Content?
Content is the information on your website that helps visitors to
understand what your website is about. Content can take many
different forms, including text, images, videos, and infographics.
Content serves several different purposes:
It helps visitors to understand what your website is about.
It helps search engines to understand what your website is about and
to index your website correctly.
It can help to improve your website’s conversion rate by providing
visitors with information that they’re looking for.
It can help to build trust with your visitors by providing accurate and
reliable information.
It can be used to promote your brand, products, or services.
Without good quality content, it will be difficult to achieve success
with your SXO efforts. How do you create good quality content? In the
next section, we’ll look at some tips for creating content that is both
informative and engaging depending on the industry/vertical in which
you’re working.

The Different Types of Content

When creating content for your website, there are several things that
you should keep in mind:
The needs of your target audience: What information are they
looking for?
The goals of your website: What do you want visitors to do on your
website?
The tone of voice of your website: What is the overall tone or voice
that you want to use on your website?
The format of your content: How do you want to present the
information on your website?
The length of your content: How long should each piece of content
be?
The frequency of your content: How often should you add new
content to your website?
The keyword density of your content: How many keywords should
you use in each piece of content?
 Based on these factors, there are several different types of content
that you can use on your website:
Text-based content: This is the most common type of content and
includes articles, blog posts, product descriptions, and FAQs.
Visual content: This includes images, infographics, and videos.
Interactive content: This includes quizzes, surveys, and polls.
User-generated content: This includes reviews, testimonials, and
comments.
Text-based content is the most common type of content because it’s
relatively easy to create and can be used to target a wide range of
keywords. However, visual content can be very effective at grabbing
attention and promoting your brand. Interactive content can be used to
engage visitors and get them involved with your website. User-
generated content can help to build trust and credibility and can also be
used to target long-tail keywords.
You can also classify content based on its purpose:
Informational content: This includes articles, blog posts, tutorials,
and FAQs. Its purpose is to educate the reader and provide them with
information that they’re looking for.
Promotional content: This includes product descriptions, sales pages,
and banner ads. Its purpose is to promote your products or services.
Branding content: This includes your website’s design, logo, and
tagline. Its purpose is to build trust and credibility and to promote
your brand.
Different types of content will be more effective at different stages
of the customer journey. For example, informational content is most
effective at the top of the funnel, when visitors are just beginning their
research. Promotional content is most effective at the bottom of the
funnel, when visitors are ready to buy. Branding content is important
throughout the entire customer journey, in order to build trust and
credibility with your visitors.
Now that you know what content is and what it’s used for, let’s look
at some tips for creating good quality content.

Creating High-Quality Content

Creating great content isn’t easy, but it’s definitely worth the effort.
High-quality content will help you to rank higher in search results,
improve your conversion rate, and build trust and credibility with your
target audience.
Before you start creating content, you need to know who your target
audience is and what they’re looking for. Once you know this, you can
create content that is relevant to their needs and interests.
Your content should also be well-written, engaging, and informative.
It should be free of grammar and spelling errors and should flow
smoothly from one sentence to the next.
In order to make your content more engaging, you can use images,
infographics, and videos. You can also use headings and subheadings to
break up your text and make it easier to read.
Finally, your content should be keyword-rich. This means including
words and phrases related to your topic that people may search for in
order to find content like yours. Including these keywords helps search
engines identify what the content is about, making it easier for users to
discover. You should also use relevant terms throughout the text so
readers can understand the context of what they are reading. This will
help them better understand the content and the associated topic or
concept. However, you should be careful not to overuse keywords, or
else your content may sound unnatural and be difficult to read.
Creating high-quality content takes time and effort, but it’s
definitely worth it. To make it easier, you can use this checklist that
covers the most important points:
Who is your target audience?
What are they looking for?
Is your content relevant to their needs and interests?
Is your content well-written, engaging, and informative?
Does it flow smoothly from one sentence to the next?
Do you use headings and subheadings to break up your text?
Do you use images, infographics, and videos to make your content
more engaging?
Is your content keyword-rich?
Are you careful not to overuse keywords?
 If you can answer yes to all of these questions, then you’re well on
your way to creating high-quality content.

Key Takeaways
In this section, you learned about the different types of content and
what they’re used for. You also learned about some tips for creating
high-quality content. Remember to keep these points in mind when
creating content for your website:
Always know who your target audience is and what they’re looking
for.
Create content that is relevant to their needs and interests.
Make sure your content is well-written, engaging, and informative.
Use headings and subheadings to break up your text.
Use images, infographics, and videos to make your content more
engaging.
Include relevant keywords throughout your text.
If you follow these tips, you’ll be on your way to creating high-
quality content that will help you to improve your search ranking,
increase your conversion rate, and build trust and credibility with your
target audience.

The Science of a Good Browsing Experience

How Search Engines Work
Search engines are designed to help users find the information they’re
looking for. To do this, they use a number of different algorithms to
crawl13 (scan) the Internet and index websites.
When a user types a query into a search engine, the search engine
looks through its index to find the websites and pages that are relevant
to the query. The search engine then ranks these results in order of
relevance and displays them to the user.
The ranking of results is determined by a number of factors,
including the quality of the content, the relevancy of the keywords used,
and the popularity of the website.
 In order to ensure that your website is found by search engines and
ranked highly in results pages, you need to make sure that your website
is optimized for search engines.

Meeting Expectations
When a user types a query into a search engine, they have a specific
goal or need in mind. This is known as user intent.
There are a number of different types of user intent, and it’s
important to understand which type of intent your target audience has
when they’re searching for keywords related to your business.
There are four main types of intent:
Navigational: The user is looking for a specific website or page.
Informational: The user is looking for information on a topic.
Transactional: The user is looking to buy a product or service.
Commercial: The user is looking for a coupon or discount.
Depending on the type of intent, the user will be at different stages
of the marketing funnel. It’s important to understand where your target
audience is in the marketing funnel so that you can create content that
is relevant to their needs.
For example:
If your target audience has navigational intent, they are likely looking
for your website specifically. In this case, you need to make sure that
your website is easy to find and navigate.
If your target audience has informational intent, they are likely
looking for information on a topic related to your business. In this
case, you need to create high-quality content that is relevant to their
needs.
If your target audience has transactional intent, they are likely
looking to buy a product or service from you. In this case, you need to
make sure that your website is designed for conversion and that your
offer is attractive.
If your target audience has commercial intent, they are likely
browsing and comparing different products or services before
making a purchase. In this case, you need to make sure that your
prices are competitive and that you are offering a competitive deal.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
behalf of humanity is a duty;[1232] and this notwithstanding the
remedy be tenfold more inhuman than the disease.
Not that the Spaniards were insincere in their proffers of such
excuses; duty comes to us in the color of our desires. Moreover, they
were fresh from the Moorish wars; they were imbued with a religious
exaltation and chivalric sentiment that placed before them in varied
light duty to their God, their king, and themselves. For centuries they
had been trained to devote life and possessions to advance the
interests of sovereign and church. Many of the noblest
characteristics were interwoven in the nature of Cortés, and also with
admirable distinctness in such men as Juan Velazquez, Sandoval,
and Puertocarrero. In others we find the dignity of the hidalgo upheld
without marked stain, and this notwithstanding the tendency to
intrigue, the disregard for truth and justice, and a yielding to certain
vices on the part of leaders, and the greed and brutality of rank and
file. But even among the common soldiers, in fairness we cannot
disregard the echo of noble sentiment, the aspiration toward high
emprise there present. It is the leader, however, who with all his
selfish cruelties and unprincipled trickeries must ever remain the
central figure of our admiration. If ever there was a hero, a genius of
war worthy the adoration of war worshippers, if ever there were
grand conception and achievement, all were vividly displayed in the
mind and person of Hernan Cortés.
An able French writer, comparing the siege of Mexico with that of
Troy, depicts Cortés as an Achilles in whom were combined the
talents of Agamemnon and Ulysses.[1233]
In some respects, and as compared with his companions, he
indeed approached the deity the Mexicans thought him. Behold him
out upon this venture, throwing life to the winds that waft him from
Cuba, sinking his ships behind him, plunging into the heart of a
hostile country, and with a handful of men opposing powerful armies,
quelling insurrections, capturing his captors, turning enemies into
allies, balancing upon his finger contending powers, and after the
grand cataclysm opened by him on the central plateau has spent
itself, he quietly pockets the prize. No Alexander, or Scipio, or
Cæsar, or Napoleon ever achieved results so vast with means so
insignificant. It was indeed a rare piracy!
Taken as a whole, the testimony of eye-witnesses and the early chroniclers on
the conquest may be considered as fully up to the average of historical evidence.
While there was no little exaggeration, and some downright mendacity, such were
the number of the witnesses, the time, place, and circumstances of their several
relations, and the clearness of their testimony, that we find no difficulty with regard
to any important matters in determining truth and falsehood. When in addition to
the writings of the Spaniards we have native records and architectural remains as
collateral evidence, every honest searcher after truth may be satisfied.
In regard to the two writers by the name of Diaz who accompanied the first
expedition to Mexico, I have spoken of the Itinerario de Grijalva of the priest, and
before closing this volume I will review the Historia Verdadera of the soldier.
Following these were the memorials of the relatives of Velazquez, wholly
unreliable; the relation of the Anonymous Conqueror, whose statements were for
the most part true; many documents, such as the Carta del Ejército, and Probanza
de Lejalde, as well as the Cartas de Cortés, in the main true, but which may
properly be accepted only after close scrutiny and careful comparison; the reports
of Zurita, and the innumerable papers and documents lately brought to light by
Navarrete, Ramirez, Icazbalceta, Ternaux-Compans, and others, and published as
Coleccion de Documentos Inéditos, Coleccion de Documentos para la Historia de
Mexico, etc.; native and Spanish historians, Tezozomoc, Camargo, and Ixtlilxochitl;
Duran, Veytia, Sahagun, Mendieta, and Las Casas; Oviedo, Peter Martyr, and
Gomara; Herrera, Torquemada, Solis, and Clavigero; Bustamante, Robertson,
Prescott, and Brasseur de Bourbourg. These and others of but little inferior
importance offer ample foundation on which the modern historian may safely rear
his superstructure.
I say that it is easy enough to determine truth from falsehood in such a study
as this, where the evidence is so abundant and the witnesses are so widely
separated. When Torquemada enters into a long argument to show that the misery
wrought by the conquest was the punishment by God for the vices of the
Mexicans, I do not discuss the matter. I willingly admit that the ancient historian
knew, if indeed he knew anything about it, more concerning the mind of the deity
than the modern, though the latter might ask if the sufferings of the Spaniards
were not in like manner on account of their vices.
The books treating of Cortés’ achievements, as I have said, form an immense
array, as may be expected from the importance and interest of what Robertson
justly terms “the most memorable event in the conquest of America,” involving the
subjugation of the richest and most advanced country therein, the fall of its
beautiful and renowned city, and one of the most daring campaigns ever
undertaken. The narrative reads indeed like a romance rather than history based
on stern facts, and it is not strange that men have arisen who seek to cast doubt,
not alone on certain incidents, but on the main features of the achievement and
the field.
One method of doubt has been to lower the estimate of native culture and
resources; to sneer at the large cities, magnificent palaces, regal state, certain
industrial and fine arts, picture-writing, and other evidences of a higher culture.
Such statements reveal to the experienced student a lamentable disregard or
ignorance of evidence extant, of ruins with their massive form, their beautifully
designed ornamentation, their admirable sculptured and plastic delineation of the
human figure, both far in advance of the conventional specimens of Egypt, and the
former equal in many respects to the productions of the higher Greek art. The
picture-writing, again, reveals the phonetic element so developed as to endow the
Mexicans with that high proof of culture, written records, applied not only to historic
incidents and common facts, but to abstract subjects of philosophic, scientific, and
poetic nature, as instanced in my Native Races.
It needed not the official investigation instituted by the Spanish government to
confirm the mute testimony of relics, and the vivid declaration of chroniclers.
Native records exist in sufficient abundance to speak for themselves; records
written by and for the people, and therefore free from any suspicion of
misrepresentation; records used by a number of writers for obtaining that insight
into esoteric features of Nahua institutions which could not well be acquired by
Spaniards. The translation of these records, as reproduced in the volumes of
Sahagun, Ixtlilxochitl, Kingsborough, and others, with copies of original paintings,
have been carefully used both for the Native Races and the histories of Mexico
and Guatemala, and introduced indeed more thoroughly in this series as evidence
than by any modern writer on the subject, not excepting the learned Abbé
Brasseur de Bourbourg, though unlike this enthusiast I have not allowed myself to
accept this evidence with the same non-critical bias. I have merely used it for what
it is worth, after applying severe analytic tests. Certain points may be covered by
merely one or two authorities; but even then the erudite student will readily
determine the value of the testimony from internal evidence, while in the generality
of cases he will find a number of versions by natives and Spaniards, by partisans
and rivals, whose contradictions will aid him in determining the truth.
In a previous bibliographic note I have pointed out the many internal evidences
furnished by the letters of Cortés, of undoubted reliability on most points, in their
minuteness, their frank soldierly tone, and other features. They are besides
confirmed in all the more essential points by the contemporaneous letters from the
municipality of Villa Rica and the army, the sworn depositions before the royal
notary by leading officers, the narratives of Andrés de Tápia, and others. Still
stronger confirmation is given in the complaints and memorials issued by enemies
and rivals of the great captain, who in their efforts to detract from his character and
achievements provide the historian with material that enables him to avoid the
pitfalls abounding even in the honest narratives of partisans, either from sympathy,
from lack of thorough knowledge, or from hearsay. Such testimony is abundant in
the residencia investigations of Cortés, Alvarado, Guzman, and others, all which
contain voluminous testimony on the most important questions. Prescott’s
opportunities for consulting new material were vastly superior to those of his
predecessors. If mine have been correspondingly greater, it may perhaps to some
extent be due to the example set by him in his earnest researches, and because
since the publication of his volumes, private individuals and learned societies have
striven with increased enthusiasm to bring to light hidden material, notably from
the rich archives of Spain and certain Latin-American states.
From this mass of what may be termed documentary evidence we turn to the
regular historians and narrators, beginning with Peter Martyr and Oviedo, who both
adhere chiefly to Cortés, though the latter adds other versions by different eye-
witnesses. Sahagun’s account contains a strange admixture of native absurdities
and vague recollections of converted soldiers. A more complete version is given by
Gomara, the biographer of the great captain, who had access to private and public
archives and individual narratives now lost; but he frequently colors the incidents
to the credit of his hero and his profession. Nevertheless the value of the text is
testified to by his Mexican translator Chimalpain, who adds some interesting facts
from native records and personal knowledge. The Tezcucan writer Ixtlilxochitl also
follows him pretty closely for the Spanish side, while the archives left him by his
royal ancestors and different narratives furnish the other side, frequently absurd
and highly colored. Camargo gives a rather brief Tlascaltec version. Gomara’s
coloring, which, in accordance with the method of most historians, leaves the
credit for achievements with the leader, roused the feelings of more than one of
the soldiers who had shared in the glories of that period, and Bernal Diaz promptly
began to write his celebrated Historia Verdadera, which professes to tell the true
story and rectify in particular the so-called blunders of Gomara. Although this
profession is not always to be relied on, the story is most valuable from its
exceeding completeness, its many new facts, and its varied version. Not long after,
Herrera, the official historiographer, began his decades, wherein for the conquest
he uses the material already printed, with a leaning toward Gomara, yet with
several additional narratives to perfect his own revised version, notably that of
Ojeda, a leading officer under Cortés, and also no small mass of material from the
archives of Spain. Torquemada copies him for the most part, though he adds much
native testimony from Sahagun, from a Tezcucan writer, and others, making his
account of the conquest the most complete up to that time. Solis elaborates with
little critique, and with a verboseness and grandiloquence that tire. Vetancurt’s
version is comparatively brief, with few additions, and Robertson’s is a brilliant
summary; but Clavigero, while adding not much to Torquemada’s bulky account,
presents it in quite a new form, pruned of verboseness, re-arranged in a masterly
manner, and invested with a philosophic spirit altogether superior to anything
presented till Prescott’s time. On the above historians and some of Cortés’ letters
are founded the immense array of minor accounts and summaries on the
conquest, both in separate and embodied form, some of them provided with
occasional observations, but for the great part they contain nothing of any value to
the student. Those after Prescott’s time follow him as a rule. Mexican accounts
might naturally be expected to present useful features, but such is hardly the case.
Alaman, Ramirez, Icazbalceta, Orozco y Berra, Bustamante, and certain writers in
the Boletin of the Mexican Geographical Society, have brought to light several
documents and monographs bearing on particular incidents and features; but no
complete account of real value has been written, Carbajal’s pretentious version
being almost wholly a plagiarism from Clavigero, Mora’s a hasty compilation, and
so on. As for the new bulky Spanish version by Zamacois, it is not only verbose
but superficial and narrow in its research, blundering even where Prescott points
the way, and representing more a feuilleton issue than a history.
Bernal Diaz del Castillo is, as I have said, the main historian of the conquest,
from the exhaustive thoroughness of his material, as compared with other original
writers, and from his participation in all its leading scenes, including the discovery
voyages. For about half a century he survives, and sees comrade after comrade
disappear from the field till but five of Cortés’ original company remain, “all of us
very old, suffering from infirmities, and very poor, burdened with sons and
daughters to marry, and grandchildren, and with but a small income; and thus we
pass our days in toil and misery.” He is not so badly off, however, as he would
have us believe, for a comfortable encomienda supplies every want, and
numerous descendants throng round to minister to his comfort and listen to his
tales. But as he recalls the great achievements wherein he participated, he swells
with the importance of the events, and dwelling on the multiplied treasures he has
assisted to capture, the reward sinks to insignificance. It is but the chronic
grumble, however, of an old soldier that half the continent would not satisfy.
Springing from a poor and humble family of Medina del Campo, in old Castile, he
had embarked at an early age with the expedition of Pedrarias in 1514 to seek
fortune in Darien. Failing there, he drifts to Cuba in time to join the discovery
parties of Córdoba and Grijalva. Subsequently he enlists under Cortés as a
common soldier, yet somewhat above the mass in the favor of his chief. “Soldado
distinguido,” says Juarros, implying higher birth; but this is doubtful. There is hardly
a prominent incident of the conquest in which he does not participate, being
present in no less than one hundred and nineteen battles, according to his
enumeration, whereof many a scar remains to bear witness, and many a trophy to
attest his valor. In due time he receives his share of repartimientos of land and
serfs, and settles in Goazacoalco as regidor, with sufficient means to feed a taste
that procures for him the not ill-esteemed nickname of Dandy. From his life of
contentment, though not equal to his claims, he is torn by the Honduras expedition
under Cortés, who gives him at times the command of a small party, whence
comes the sported title of captain. Afterward for a time he drifts about, and finally
settles in Guatemala city with the rank of regidor perpétuo, and with a respectable
encomienda, obtained partly through the representations of Cortés to the king. He
marries Teresa, daughter of Bartolomé Becerra, one of the founders of the city,
and repeatedly its alcalde, and has several children, whose descendants survive
to witness the overthrow of the royal banner planted by their forefather. Grandsons
figure as deans of the city church, and an historian of the adopted country rises in
Fuentes y Guzman. Pinelo, Epitome, ii. 604; Gonzalez Dávila, Teatro Ecles., i.
177; Memorial de Conquistadores, in Monumentos Admin. Munic., MS.; Juarros,
Guat., i. 338, 350; Torquemada, i. 351.
The leisure afforded him in Guatemala, broken by little save the inspection of
his estate, gave opportunity for indulging in the reveries of by-gone days. Histories
of achievements were nearly all connected with the great Cortés, famed on every
lip; yet that fame had been acquired with the aid of soldiers who like himself had
been consigned to an obscure corner of the vast domains conquered by them. It
did not seem right to the scarred veteran that the fruits of combined toil should fall
to one or two alone; that he himself should be regarded far less than hundreds of
upstarts whose only deeds had been to reap the field won by him and his
comrades. He would tell his tale at all events; and forthwith he began to arrange
the notes formed during his career, and to uplift the curtains of memory for
retrospective views. While thus occupied he came upon the history by Gomara,
and perceiving “his great rhetoric, and my work so crude, I stopped writing, and
even felt ashamed to let it appear among notable persons.” But finding that the
biographer of Cortés had committed many blunders, and had colored the narrative
on behalf of his patron, he again seized the pen, with the double purpose of
correcting such errors and of vindicating his slighted comrades. Faithfully he
carried out his plan, recording name after name of brave fellows who shed lustre
on the flag, who freely risked their lives in gallant encounters, or who gave their
last breath for church and king. While dwelling lovingly on humble companions,
whose cause he espoused, he detracts little from the leaders and cavaliers. He
describes their appearance and traits with a graphic fidelity that seems to bring
them before us in person; he freely accords them every credit, and if he spares not
their vices they are seldom brought forward in a captious or ill-natured spirit. On
the contrary, he frequently covers disagreeable facts in deference to the dead.
This general fairness of dealing is particularly noticeable in regard to Cortés, whom
nevertheless he sometimes severely criticises; and while Diaz assumes for his
side the credit of many a suggestion and deed, yet he is ever the loyal soldier, and
frequently takes up the cudgel in behalf of the honored leader when others seek to
assail him. He admires the great captain hardly less than himself. Indeed, to say
that the old campaigner was vain is stating it mildly. Two licentiates who read the
manuscript pointed this out to him, but he replied, “Whom does it harm? No one
praises an old, broken-down soldier, so I must even praise myself. It is a duty I
owe not only to my fair name but to my descendants.” He revives in his narrative
and carries us back with him to those stirring days, depicting now the hardships of
the march, now the new countries and races that appear; then he enters into the
heat of battle with a fidelity that brings the din and turmoil vividly before us; and
anon we see the adventurers in camp, in their social relations, relieved by pleasing
episodes. He enters thoroughly into their hopes and feelings, deeds and life; he
grows eloquent and pathetic by turns, and reveals also the undercurrent of piety
and zeal which pervaded the rakish crew. Here is the gossipy frankness of
Herodotus, illumined by many a quaint observation and many a blunt sally. Bernal
Diaz had but the rudiments of education, which nevertheless was above the
average among his fellow-soldiers; but he had evidently read a little in later years,
to judge by his allusions to classic history, though not enough to acquire more than
a mediocre proficiency in grammar. There is a minuteness of detail at times
wearisome, and garrulous digression and repetition; but a simple perspicuity
pervades the whole narrative, which makes it easy to follow, while the frankness
and frequent animation are pleasing. Much of it appears to have been dictated,
perhaps to some one of his children, “cuyo manuscrito se conserva en el archivo
de esta municipalidad.” Jil, in Gaceta Nic., June 24, 1865. It was given for perusal
to different persons, and several copies made; but none cared to assume its
publication. Sixty years later, however, Friar Alonso Remon, chronicler of the
Merced order in Spain, found one set in the library of Ramirez del Prado, of the
Council of the Indies, and perceiving the importance of the narrative, he caused it
to be printed at Madrid in 1632 under the title of Historia Verdadera de la
Conquista de la Nueva-España. Remon dying during the publication, Friar Gabriel
Adarzo, “nunc Hydruntinus præsul,” Antonio, Bib. Hisp. Nova, iii. 224, took it in
charge. Several discrepancies indicate that revisions have been made, and
Vazquez, Chron. Guat., 524, whose jealousy as a friar was aroused by allusions to
Father Olmedo, Cortés’ companion, compared the print with the original copy and
pointed out several differences. A second edition, bearing the date 1632, though
published later probably, contains an additional chapter on omens, which appears
in others of the many editions and translations issued in different countries, even
of late years.
Perhaps the most clear-sighted writer on Mexico during the last century was
Francisco Javier Clavigero, himself a native of that country, and born at Vera Cruz
in 1731. His father was a Leonese, whose official duties called him to different
parts of the country, and young Francisco profited by this to acquire a knowledge
of its resources and idioms. After a novitiate of three years at the Jesuit college of
Tepozotlan, he passed to that at Puebla, and there studied philosophy and
theology, and showed particular fondness for languages, both classic and native.
He taught rhetoric and philosophy in the principal schools of the country, though
restricted somewhat by the superiors in his too liberal ideas, for which Mexico was
not yet considered ripe. Meanwhile his enthusiasm centred on the study of Aztec
history and hieroglyphs, which received a serious check in the expulsion of Jesuits
from America in 1767. He sought refuge in Italy, staying chiefly at Bologna, where
he founded an academy, and having considerable leisure he began to shape the
results of his late studies, impelled in no small degree by the writings of De Pauw
and Robertson, which grated on his patriotic spirit. They were prepared in Spanish,
but the authorities giving no encouragement for their publication in Spain, an
Italian translation was made and issued in four volumes, as Storia Antica del
Messico, Cesena, 1780, dedicated to the university at Mexico. Subsequently a
Spanish version appeared, but not before several editions had been published in
England and other countries. The first volume treats of resources and ancient
history, the second of manners and customs, the third of the conquest, and the
fourth consists of a series of dissertations on the origin of the Americans, on
chronology, physique, languages, and other points. They have been widely quoted,
and Francisco Carbajal de Espinosa has shown such appreciation of it as to copy
almost the whole text in what he calls his Historia de Mexico, Mex., 1856, 2 vols.
Clavigero’s work is based to a great extent on aboriginal records and personal
observation, and the old chronicles have been largely used; but their cumbrous
and confused material is here arranged in a manner worthy of the liberal-minded
philosopher and rhetorician. Indeed, no previous work in this field can at all
compare with it for comprehensiveness and correctness, depth of thought and
clearness of expression. In the former respect he greatly surpasses Robertson and
in the latter he may be classed as his equal. His death, which took place at
Bologna in 1787, found him in the midst of a number of literary projects, called
forth in part by the success of the Storia, and by the different subjects which he
had therein touched but lightly. Among these works was the Storia della California,
issued at Venice two years after his death. It will be noticed in due order.
There can be no more fitting close to this volume on the conquest of Mexico
than a tribute of esteem to William Hickling Prescott. I have noted in a previous
volume his amiable weakness, incident to the times rather than to the man, of
intensifying the character of prominent personages so as to present the good
better and the bad worse than they truly were, in order to render his narrative
stronger and more interesting than it would be otherwise; but this is nothing as
compared with his general fairness, united with a magnificent style and philosophic
flow of thought. I have noted some inaccuracies and contradictions in his history,
but these are nothing as compared with his general care and correctness as a
writer. I have mentioned material which he lacked, but this is nothing as compared
with the great mass of fresh evidence which he brought to enrich his subject.
Words fail to express my admiration of the man, the scholar, the author. Apart from
the din and dust of ordinary life, he lived as one in the world but not of it, pure of
mind, gentle of heart, and surpassingly eloquent.
Mr Prescott was born at Salem, Massachusetts, May 4, 1796. His father, a
lawyer of rising reputation, then thirty-four years of age, removed his family to
Boston in 1808. At the age of fifteen William entered Harvard College. While
engaged in a boyish frolic one day during his junior year a large hard piece of
bread, thrown probably at random, struck full in his left eye, forever depriving him
of its use. Pursuing his studies with his wonted cheerfulness, he graduated in
1814, and entered upon the study of law in his father’s office. In 1815 a rheumatic
inflammation settled in his right eye, now his sole dependence, causing him much
pain and anxiety. A change of climate having been determined upon, he embarked
for the Azores, on a visit to his grandfather Hickling, then United States consul at
Saint Michael. There he remained about six months, confined the greater part of
the time to a dark room. In April 1816 he embarked for London, crossed to Paris,
made the usual Italian tour, and the following year, his eye becoming worse, he
returned home. But hope for the restoration of his sight still lingered, and the
marvellous buoyancy of his spirits never deserted him. A devoted sister cheered
the long hours of his solitude by readings from his favorite authors. A literary
venture made at this time in a contribution to the North American Review failed; his
manuscript was returned, and his sister, alone in the secret, was enjoined to
silence.
Leaving his darkened chamber and mingling again with society, of which he
was ever a bright ornament, he became attached to a daughter of Thomas C.
Amory, a Boston merchant, whom he married on his twenty-fourth birthday.
Mr Prescott now abandoned the hope of the entire restoration of his eye. If by
restrictions of diet and dieting and by persistent open-air exercise he might
preserve a partial use of the organ he would rest content. And thus he passed the
remainder of his life. At times he was in almost total darkness, but ordinarily he
could read and revise his manuscripts; for the purpose of writing, however, he was
obliged to use a noctograph.
Possessing strong literary tastes, and an aversion to law, Mr Prescott
determined upon literature as a pursuit, and in 1826, with the aid of a secretary, he
began a systematic course of reading for a history of Ferdinand and Isabella. For
three years and a half he pursued this preparatory labor; in 1829 he began writing,
publishing the work in 1837. Ten of the best years of his life Mr Prescott claims to
have devoted to this book; and for the use of the stereotype-plates, which Mr
Prescott supplied at his own cost, and the right to publish twelve hundred and fifty
copies, the American Stationers’ Company agreed to pay the sum of one thousand
dollars. But money was not the author’s object. The publication in London was
offered to John Murray and to the Longmans, and was declined by both. Bentley
finally became the London publisher. The work was well received on both sides of
the Atlantic; it was translated into several languages, and procured for the author
at once a world-wide reputation. The Conquest of Mexico was a worthy outgrowth
of so splendid a creation as the Ferdinand and Isabella. The year following the
publication of his first work, and after having sent to Spain and Mexico for
materials for histories of the conquests of Mexico and Peru, Mr Prescott learned
accidentally that Mr Irving was engaged on similar work. He wrote Irving,
acquainting him of the fact, and the latter retired gracefully from the field. In 1843
the Conquest of Mexico appeared, under the auspices of the Harpers, who paid
$7500 for the use of the plates and the right to publish 5000 copies. The Conquest
of Peru was published in 1847; Philip the Second in 1855-8; and Robertson’s
Charles the Fifth in 1856. Mr Prescott died of apoplexy in the sixty-third year of his
age.
 For his Conquest of Mexico, besides all printed material extant, Mr Prescott
drew upon a large mass of new information in manuscript, from several sources,
notably from the valuable collection of Muñoz, brought together for an intended
history of America; that of Vargas Ponce, obtained chiefly from Seville archives;
that of Navarrete, president of the Royal Academy of History at Madrid; and the
archives of Cortés’ heirs, all of which shed new light on almost every section of the
subject. His deep research, manifest throughout in copious foot-notes, is
especially displayed in the very appropriate introduction on Mexican civilization,
which enables the reader to gain an intimate knowledge of the people whose
subjugation he follows. Good judgment is also attested in the dissertation on the
moot question of the origin of this culture, wherein he prudently abstains from any
decided conclusions. The fact of occasional inaccuracies cannot be severely
criticised when we consider the infirmity under which the author labored. Since his
time so great a mass of material has been brought to light that the aspect of
history is much changed. This new material consists partly of native records, and it
is due to his unacquaintance with these records that a great lack is implied in his
pages. The fact that Prescott relied too much on Spanish material may account for
the marked bias in favor of the conquerors in many instances where strict
impartiality might be expected, and for the condemnatory and reflective assertions
which at times appear in direct contradiction to previous lines of thought. At times,
as if aware of this tendency, he assumes a calmness that ill fits the theme, giving it
the very bias he seeks to avoid. Yet with all this it is safe to say that few histories
have been written in which the qualities of philosopher and artist are so happily
blended.

FOOTNOTES
[1190] Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. ii., lib. i. cap. xx., places this incident on the third
day of entry into the city.

[1191] ‘Todos los mas principales y esforzados y valientes.’ Cortés, Cartas, 244.
And 2000 captives. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades, 43. ‘Tuuieron bien q̄ cenar
aquella noche los Indios nuestros amigos,’ observes Gomara, unctuously. Hist.
Mex., 209. Bernal Diaz, who claims to have been among the 100 select, intimates
that Alvarado also formed an ambuscade that day, though less effective. Hist.
Verdad., 153-4. In rushing from the hiding-place, says Cortés, two horses collided,
one of them throwing its rider and charging alone amid the foe. After receiving
several wounds it sought refuge among the soldiers and was conducted to camp,
where it died.

[1192] ‘Fué bien principal causa para que la ciudad mas presto se ganase,’
Cortés, Cartas, 245, but this must be regarded as an exaggerated estimate.

[1193] Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. ii. Torquemada, i. 560, 564, wavers, intimating in
one place that all were determined to die. When the people at last inclined to
peace, says Gomara, Quauhtemotzin opposed it on the ground that they had once
decided for war, ‘contra su voluntad y consejo.’ Hist. Mex., 213. Most of the
revelation was made by a woman of rank, it appears. Carried away by his love for
hero-painting, Prescott has either missed or ignored the facts which now reveal his
false coloring.

[1194] ‘Y asi escondidas huvo algunos Principales de las Provincias cercanas que
acudieron con algun maiz para solo llevar joyas.’ That is, where the cruisers
allowed such smuggling. Duran, Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 497.

[1195] About 1000 were killed, says Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades, 44; but Cortés
puts the killed and captured at more than 800. Cartas, 245.

[1196] ‘Osauan nuestros vergantines romper las estacadas ... remauan con gran
fuerça y ... a todas velas.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 150.

[1197] ‘De la Capitana, que èl havia salvado,’ says Herrera, while asserting that
the captain Villafuerte abandoned her; but this hardly agrees with his own later
statements that Villafuerte remained in charge of the fleet, dec. iii. lib. i. cap. xxi.;
lib. ii. cap. viii. The slain leader is called the lieutenant-general of Quauhtemotzin,
and his death ‘fue causa, que mas presto se ganase la Ciudad,’ Torquemada, i.
558, all of which is doubtful. A similar reward to that of Lopez was accorded on
another occasion to a soldier named Andrés Nuñez, who after the captain had
abandoned his vessel led her to the rescue of two consorts. When the commander
came to resume his post Nuñez refused to admit him, saying that he had forfeited
it. On being appealed to, Cortés sustained the brave fellow and gave him the
command, in which capacity he rendered important service. Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. i.

[1198] July 25th, according to Clavigero, while Torquemada less correctly makes it
August 5th.

[1199] The Spanish corruption of Quauhtemotzin. ‘La calle qe ba al tianguiz de

Tlatelulco qe se llama de Guatimosa.’ Libro de Cabildo, MS., 88.
[1200] Herrera names Magallanes as one of those who succumbed under the
onslaught of a chief, but his death was avenged by Diego Castellanos, a noted
marksman. dec. iii. lib. i. cap. xx. On this occasion Ixtlilxochitl intimates that his
namesake captured his brother, the usurper king of Tezcuco, and surrendering him
to Cortés, he was at once secured with shackles. Hor. Crueldades, 42-3. ‘De
manera que de cuatro partes de la ciudad, las tres estaban ya por nosotros.’
Cortés, Cartas, 246.

[1201] At the corner of the street leading to Sandoval’s quarter. Id., 247.

[1202] I knew three of them, writes Bernal Diaz. ‘Las enterramos en vna Iglesia,
que se dize aora los Mártires.’ Hist. Verdad., 153.

[1203] For a full description see Native Races, ii. 382 et seq.

[1204] Cortés saw the smoke from his camp, from which he was preparing to start.
Cartas, 247. Herrera leaves the impression that Alférez Montaño captured the
temple, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. i., but he was probably only the first to step on the
summit. Bernal Diaz, who fought under Alvarado, states distinctly that Badajoz led
the party, but he is no doubt incorrect in adding that the fight on the top continued
till night. Hist. Verdad., 153. Torquemada, i. 565, refers to the temple as the
Acatliyacapan. Duran makes Cortés appeal to the Chalcans, and they ‘tomando la
delantera del Ejército, y con ellos Yxtlilxachitl ... ganaron el Cue grande.’ Hist. Ind.,
MS., ii. 506. This must be a Chalcan version.

[1205] Gomara, Hist. Mex., 210. Cortés calls them wounded merely. Sahagun’s
native version of the plaza fight is very confusing, and mixed with that of the
struggle against the other divisions, ‘y tomaron los bergantines [two] á los
españoles, y lleváronlos á una laguna que llaman Amanalco.’ Hist. Conq. (ed.
1840), 202-3. But this must be a mistake.

[1206] ‘Que se llama Atenantitech, donde ahora està edificada la Iglesia de la

Concepcion, junto de la Albarrada.’ Torquemada, i. 553. Tetenamitl ward, says
Sahagun in one edition. Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 209.

[1207] This or a third relic bore the name of Mamalhuaztli. Sahagun also refers to
a divine bow and arrow. Hist. Conq., 53-4. But his editions vary in text; see that of
1840, 210-12. The serpent was invoked even after the conquest, says the pious
friar, and he heard Father Tembleque relate that he one day opened his window
during a storm and had his left eye injured by a ray of lightning, which damaged
the house and adjoining church. This ray, the Mexicans assured him, was the
Xiuhcoatl, conjured up by the sorcerers, for they had seen it issue in the form of a
big snake through the door. The editor Bustamante tells an equally impressive
story in connection with an attempt to account for the snake and lightning.
[1208] One being killed and two horses wounded. Bernal Diaz, loc. cit.

[1209] Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 213. The editor Bustamante speaks of a
similar phenomenon in Michoacan in 1829. Id. (ed. 1829), 68.

[1210] ‘De los niños no quedó nadie, que las mismas madres y padres los
comian,’ is the statement of the native records. Id., 210. Yet Torquemada, i. 572,
assumes that the Mexicans would not eat of their own race. Thousands had
already died of starvation without touching the flesh of countrymen, though priests
partook of children sacrificed during ordinary festivals; but at last the scruple
among the masses was overcome by despair. See Native Races, ii. passim.

[1211] ‘Porque no acabas cõ el que nos acabe?... Desseamos la muerte por yr a

descansar cõ Quetçalcouatlh,’ adds Gomara, Hist. Mex., 210-11.

[1212] The chroniclers call him an uncle of the Tezcucan king, but this appears to
be a misinterpretation of Cortés’ text, wherein he says that such an uncle had
captured the prisoner.

[1213] Cortés, Cartas, 251. This was partly in accordance with the law against
nobles who returned from captivity, as already instanced.

[1214] ‘Tenia mucho miedo de parecer ante mí, y tambien estaba malo.’ Cortés,
Cartas, 253. ‘Empacho,’ explains Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. vii. He feared to be
shot. Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 164.

[1215] ‘Ni tenian ni hallaban flechas ni varas ni piedras con que nos ofender.... No
tenian paso por donde andar sino por encima de los muertos y por las azoteas.’
Cortés, Cartas, 254.

[1216] ‘Mataron y prendieron mas de cuarenta mil ánimas.’ Id. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor.
Crueldades, 48, raises the number to 50,000, while Duran states that over 40,000
men and women perished while fleeing. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 510. What pained the
conquerors most, however, was the sight and knowledge of what immense
quantity of booty eluded them to pass into the hands of these marauders.

[1217] ‘Entre la Garita del Peralvillo, la place de Santiago de Tlatelolco et le pont

d’Amaxac.’ So says Pichardo. Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 193. ‘Donde se
embarcaban para Atzlapotzalco,’ adds Bustamante. Ixtlilxochitl, Hor. Crueldades,
50.

[1218] Chimalpain calls him Tlacotzin, afterward baptized as Juan Velasquez. Hist.
Conq., ii. 71. ‘Ciguacoacin, y era el Capitan y gobernador de todos ellos, é por su
consejo se seguian todas las cosas de la guerra,’ says Cortés, Cartas, 255.
[1219] ‘Porque les queria combatir y acabar de matar.’ Cartas, 256. ‘Pues eran
barbaros, que no queria dexar hombre vivo, q̄ se fuessen.’ Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. vii.

[1220] The distinguished captive said: ‘Capitan señor, dáte buena maña, que
aquellos indios ... son esclavos de Guatimuçin, é podrá ser quél va allí huyendo,
porque su bandera ya no paresçe.’ Oviedo, iii. 516. A canoe of twenty rowers and
bearing a number of people. Gomara, Hist. Conq., 212. See also Vetancvrt, Teatro
Mex., pt. iii. 164; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 230. A small canoe, says Duran.

[1221] Torquemada, i. 570-1, followed by Clavigero, mentions besides

Tetlepanquetzaltzin, king of Tlacopan, the fugitive king of Tezcuco; but this is
doubtful, as we have seen. He enumerates several dignitaries. Brasseur de
Bourbourg names Tlacahuepan, son of Montezuma, while his authority,
Ixtlilxochitl, states that his namesake captured him and Tetlepanquetzaltzin in
another canoe, and in a third Papantzin Oxomoc, widow of Emperor Cuitlahuatzin.
Hor. Crueldades, 50. ‘Quahutimoc se puso en pie en la popa de su canoa para
pelear. Mas como vio ballestas ... rindiose.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 213. This
probably assumed fact has been elaborated by some writers into an heroic act.
The incident has been placed by tradition as occurring near the later Puente del
Clérigo. But this can hardly be. See note 27. According to Bernal Diaz, Sandoval
came up shortly after, on learning the news, and demanded the surrender of the
captives to him as the commander of the fleet, who had ordered Holguin to pursue
the canoes. The latter refused, and a delay occurred, during which another crew
hurried to bear the tidings to Cortés and claim the reward granted for first reports.
Two captains were now sent to summon the disputants and captives. Hist.
Verdad., 155. Cortés, while according in his letter the credit of the capture to
Holguin, promised to refer the claim to the king. Holguin figures some years later
as regidor and estate owner in the city.

[1222] ‘Esta casa era de un principal tlatilulcano que se llamaba Aztaoatzin.’

Sahagun, Hist. Conq., 55.

[1223] The versions of this remarkable speech vary greatly. ‘Habia hecho todo lo
que de su parte era obligado para defenderse á si y á los suyos hasta venir en
aquel estado, que ahora ficiese dél lo que yo quisiese.’ Cortés, Cartas, 257.
‘Diçiéndole que le diesse de puñaladas é lo matasse, porque no era raçon que
viviesse en el mundo hombre que avia perdido lo que’l avia perdido,’ adds Oviedo,
iii. 422. ‘Preguntáronle por los chripstianos, é dixo: No me preguntés esso; é si me
quereys matar; matadme ya: que harto estoy de vivir,’ says another version. Id.,
517. ‘Iria mui consolado adonde sus dioses estaban, especialmente haviendo
muerto à manos de tal Capitan.’ Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii. cap. vii. ‘Why so stubborn?’
is the way Duran opens the conversation on Cortés’ part. Hist. Ind., MS., ii. 509.
‘Toglietemi con questo pugnale una vita, che non perdei nella difesa del mio
Regno.’ Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 230. See also Ixtlilxochitl and others. Writers
generally go into ecstacy over this utterance. ‘Magnanimo,’ exclaims Peter Martyr,
dec. v. cap. viii. ‘Heroic,’ ejaculates Bustamante in support of Chimalpain’s
encomium. Hist. Conq., ii. 75. ‘Ce trait est digne du plus beau temps de la Grèce
et de Rome.’ Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 193. ‘A spirit worthy of an ancient Roman,’
echoes Prescott, Mex., iii. 206. Bernal Diaz says the emperor wept, and with him
his chiefs. Hist. Verdad., 155.

[1224] Made a few years later by order of the city council. It was not, as many
suppose, the original standard, for this was hidden during two centuries among
rubbish in the university, as stated in its records. It now exists in the museum,
forming a piece about a yard square, which shows on one side the Virgin of the
Immaculate Conception with hands joined in prayer, and bearing on her head a
crown of gold surrounded by a halo and a circle of stars; on the other are the royal
arms. Boturini, Idea, 157. In his Catálogo, 75, this author assumes it to be the
standard given to the Tlascaltecs, but Carbajal states that at Tlascala exists
another standard of Cortés’, with royal arms, Hist. Mex., ii. 637, with a picture of
the above named virgin. See also Beaumont, Crón. Mich., ii. 345-6. By order of
July 31, 1528, the city council orders bull-fights and other entertainments in honor
of the day, ‘e q todos cabalguen los q tovieren bestias.’ Libro de Cabildo, MS.,
127, 234. Mexicans are never seen to share in the procession. ‘Tan profundo está
en sus ánimos la herida.’ Cavo, Tres Siglos, i. 3; Humboldt, Essai Pol., i. 192. A
minute account of the ceremonies on the occasion is given in Monumentos Hist.
Admin. Colon., MS., 365, copied from the Archivo General.

[1225] Counting from May 30th, Cartas, 257, and so it is stated in the grant to
Cortés of Escudo de Armas. Duran and Ixtlilxochitl extend it to 80 and Bernal Diaz
to 93 days. ‘Despues de muchos combates, y mas de sessenta peleas
peligrosisimas.’ Acosta, Hist. Nat. Ind., 525.

[1226] Over 60 soldiers were lost in the great defeat, and small numbers now and
then, while the auxiliaries, less skilled in fighting and chiefly unarmored,
succumbed in hordes. Gomara says about 50 soldiers, 6 horses, and not many
Indians; Herrera modifies to ‘a little over’ 50; Torquemada advances to ‘less than
100,’ and Clavigero to ‘more than 100 Spaniards.’ Hernandez, in his Estadist.
Méj., 232, computes such curiously exact figures as 107 Spaniards, 18,915
Tlascaltecs, and 33,240 Aztecs. Ixtlilxochitl, ever eager to enlarge upon the
services of his race, claims that 30,000 Tezcucans fell out of 200,000 employed,
Hor. Crueldades, 51; but this is evidently exaggerated.

[1227] ‘En que murieron infinitos.’ Gomara, Hist. Mex., 213; Herrera, dec. iii. lib. ii.
cap. viii.; Clavigero, Storia Mess., iii. 232-3. Bustamante raises the number killed
to ‘150,000 at least.’ Chimalpain, Hist. Conq., ii. 74; Ixtlilxochitl, loc. cit., to
240,000, including most of the nobles; while Torquemada, i. 577, observes ‘que de
veinte partes, no quedò vna, aviendo perecido, y muerto las diez y nueve,’ he and
several others allowing the estimate of fully 300,000 inhabitants. The survivors are
estimated at from 30,000 persons, by Torquemada to 70,000 warriors by Oviedo,
iii. 516.

[1228] ‘Hiço herrar algunos Hombres, y Mugeres por Esclavos; à todos los demàs
dexò en libertad.’ Torquemada, 573. ‘À muchos indios é indias, porque estaban
dados por traydores,’ says Oviedo, iii. 517. Cortés stayed and punished those who
took slaves, ‘aunque todavia herraron en la cara á algunos mancebos y mugeres.’
So states the native record of Sahagun, Hist. Conq. (ed. 1840), 231. But if he
punished slave-takers it was for not declaring the capture to the royal official.
Duran reduces his account of Spanish liberality to an absurdity, but more from
politic reasons than because he had not at hand better evidence, Hist. Ind., MS., ii.
510.

[1229] Hist. Verdad., 156. ‘Io sospetto, che da’ Messicani lasciati fossero a bella
posta insepolti i cadaveri, per iscacciar colla puzza gli Assediatori.’ Clavigero,
Storia Mess., iii. 231. But this is unlikely. A severe siege will produce such results.

[1230] Bernal Diaz relates that although wine and provisions from Cuba were
abundantly dispensed at the banquet, yet there was not room for one third of the
soldiers, and much discontent grew out of it, partly from the utterances of drunken
men. A dance followed. Father Olmedo complained of so much revelry before the
rendering of due thanks to God. Cortés pleaded that soldiers must be allowed
some license, but the following day was set apart for religious services. Hist.
Verdad., 156.

[1231] Bustamante comments on the non-fulfilment of the promises to Tlascala,

saying that the republic was rightly served for lending herself to the invaders.
Sahagun, Hist. Conq., 144. On their way home, says Ixtlilxochitl, the Tlascaltecs
and their neighbors plundered Tezcuco and other towns. With the slaves carried
home by his namesake, he adds consolingly, the destroyed palaces of Tezcuco
were rebuilt. Hor. Crueldades, 52-3. The Tlascaltecs ‘aun lleuaron hartas cargas
de tasajos cecinados de Indios Mexicanos, que repartieron entre sus parientes ...
por fiestas.’ Bernal Diaz, Hist. Verdad., 157.

[1232] ‘Non dubitamus quin justa sint bella ... in eos qui humanam carnem
epulantur,’ etc. De Jure Belli, lib. ii. cap. xx.

[1233] Alvarado was Ajax; Maxixcatzin, Nestor; Quauhtemotzin, Hector. Chevalier,

Mex. Ancien, 232-41.
 Transcriber’s Note
Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original
document have been preserved. Simple typographical errors
have been corrected.
In some cases, Bancroft uses both “u” and “v” to spell an
author’s name, e.g. Vetancurt and Vetancvrt.
Other archaic letter substitutions include “b” for “v”, “i” for
“y”, “x for “j”, “i for “j”, “ç” or “c” for “z” and vice versa. These
have been left as printed.
Accents and other diacritics are inconsistently used.
Some possible printer’s errors or inconsistencies include:

Barucoa and Baracoa

Basan and Bazan

Luis Becerra Tanco and Luis Bezerra Tanco

casy should be casi

Cholula and Chulula

Rᵒ de de guaqaqa is a possible double word error

overset thinge should possibly be oversetthinge

Footnotes, originally at the bottoms of pages, have been

sequentially renumbered, collected together, and placed after
the last page of each chapter.
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