Different types of organ systems in animals KEY UNDERSTANDING All animals have specific body paris to help them adapt and survive in the environment. @— KEY QUESTIONS Fs How do animals digest and get nutrition from their food? How do animals respire? What are the different kinds of circulation? |. What are the hormones in the body? |. What is the importance of an immune system to animals? What is the importance of the animals’ nervous system in their survival? ee cre designed for specific functions. To live and to survive is the ultimate goal of every living thing on Earth. Different organisms have different ways to survive. Animals and humans use various body parts and their mechanisms to carry out life processes. Body parts and organ systems work together in harmonious relationship to achieve homeostasis in one’ body. How do animals use their body parts? Do all animals have the same organ systems? For most part, this chapter focuses on general functions of specific organ systems common to all animals. Similarities and differences of the organ systems of representative animals are likewise presented. AV} Pre-Learnina CHECK |. How is animal survival related to their physiology? 2. How do the various organ systems coordinate with ech other?pigestion How do animals digest and get nutrition from their food? ‘the previous chapter discussed about ihe need for energy by all organisms ot in order to survive. Animals obtain their energy from the food that they consume, ge Digestion is the process by which the organisms break down food into forms that their cells may absorb and use. Different animals have different ways on how they digest their food. cnidarians, such as hydra and jellyfish, have a very simple body structure. They have an incomplete or a one-way digestive tract. Digestion and excretion of undigested food occur in their gastrovascular cavity, which has single opening (figure 8-1). Cnidarians use a stinging cell or nematocysts consisting of toxic chemicals to puncture, paralyze, and entrap their prey. Cells on the lining of this cavity secrete digestive enzymes for extracellular digestion. Some nutritive cells have flagella that move the food around the cavity and some have pseudopods that engulf food particles. The digestive tract of an earthworm (annelids) is a long tube. And it is considered as a complete digestive tract, since it has an entry for food, which is the mouth, and an exit for wastes, which is the anus. This digestive tube is Partitioned into hy have certain functions. An regions, eacl i earthworms digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, pe aad anus (figure ey eas a i ic matter $1 caying Se eu cath or™ eet into the ground, its mouth ingests the a with its food (the decaying eae an From the mouth, the food moves to the p| ary esophagus» and then to the crop where it P ca a ee Food enters the mouth and is diges enzymes Digested food are then engulfed by the body cel. Figure 6-2. n earhwors, the wphloscle increases he ‘area for absorption of digested food. GLIMPSE OF HISTORY® ‘Anatomy is the study of structure of organisms ‘and their parts. This is an important branch of biology since it leads to the understanding of the ‘animals’ body parts and mechanisms which is the key to cure certain diseases. The study of anatomy begins at least as early as 1600 BCE in Egypt as recorded in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, an ancient Egyptian medical text and the oldest known surgical treatise. It is followed by the records on advances in Greek medicine dated 480 BCE by Arcon. Hippocrates and Aristotle are just two of the well-known people who had great contributions in the field of anatomy. 4 Lee Chanter 8 How Animals Survive % 137 HIIis temporarily stored. Next to the crop is the gizzard which is made up of thick muscular wall that grinds up the food with the help of the sand or soil ingested along with the food. The rest of the digestion process Proventriculys is continued in the intestine where chemical digestion (izzard) and absorption of broken-down food happens. — feregut Absorption of nutrients is enhanced by the large fold in the upper surface of the intestine that increases the surface area called typhlosole, Soil particles and other undigested food (castings) are released from the earthworms body via the anus. midgut Insomeinsectslike the grasshopper (arthropod), the digestive system is divided into three regions: foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut consists of the mouth, esophagus, crop, and the gizzard. _hindgut ‘The grasshopper has specialized mouth parts that is used for tasting, biting, and chewing food. The food then passes through the pharynx and continues to the narrow, thin-walled esophagus. The canal then enlarges into the crop. Just below the crop lies a pair of salivary gland branching out to the mouth which produce saliva which helps in the digestion. The crop opens into a short muscular organ called gizzard or proventriculus. In the gizzard are plates made of chitin that help in grinding food. Figure 8-3. The digestive and excretory’systems of a grasshopper ‘The midgut consists of stomach or ventriculus. It is lined by a peritrophic membrane which protects the stomach wall from abrasion during the digestion of food. Near the gizzard and the stomach are six pairs of gastric caeca where microbes aid in the digestion of the cellulose. These pouchlike structures secrete digestive enzymes in the stomach, aiding in the digestion of food. ‘The hindgut is lined with cuticle. It includes the coiled intestine parts (anterior ileum, middle colon, and posterior rectum) which leads to the anus. Connected to the stomach and ileum are numerous long coiled tubules, called Malpighian tubules, which serve as the main excretory orga” of the grasshopper. Undigested food and other waste products are excreted via the anus. Digestion in Humans The human digestive system has two major roles in the human body system: to break dow" food into smaller usable food molecules, and to absorb the food molecules for further use ofthe bod cells. Fats from food are broken down into glycerol and fatty acids, starch into monosaccharides proteins into amino acids, and nucleic acids into nucleotides, Some vitamins, minerals, 2 water are directly absorbed without being digested. The human digestive system is also called the {gastrointestinal tract. The gastrointestinal tract measures about 30 ft or about 9 m long, Itis made involuntary muscles (smooth muscles) which move food with the aid of peristaltic movement. GI tract is consists of the buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus. II) 138 & Science in Today’s World—Earth and 1 ife Sciencepathway of Food Digestion Found in the mout te tongue andthe diferent aca ea digest the food mechan livary i ‘4 cating anya cy at ‘helps dip i the in the food, i = a Gai italy digested food the pharynx (throat) going to ih 6a aie No digestion occurs in the esopha ‘The bolus proceeds to the stomach where it on hi Cn ia and chemically digested, The stomach is are organ about twice the size of a clenched ft It is made ofa strong muscle responsible for titra : the food. Digestive enzymes and gastric juice : secreted in the stomach to aid in the digestion of bolus. Pepsinogen, an enzyme, and hydrochloric acid are released to break the protein molecules. The acidic environment of the stomach (about pH 2 to 3) starts the activation of pepsinogen and become the active enzyme pepsin and also kills some germs. Bolus mixed with stomach acids becomes a soupy mixture. This semi-fluid mixture is called chyme. The stomach wall is protected against erosion from the acids and gastric juices by the peritoneal fluid and mucus secreted by the wall. The stomach is a J-shaped sac, which has cardiac sphincter that prevents the back flow of food, and the pyloric sphincter to keep the food in the stomach long enough to be digested. The stomach can store as much as two liters of chyme. Figure 8-4, The human digestive system nutrients in small Figure 8-5. The villi is microscopic microvli. ‘composed of epithelial cells covered with inet d is completed in the small intestine. ‘The small intestine has three segments: Digestion of foo Pieter hehe duodenum, the intestinal enzymes and the pancreatic and ileum. starch and glycogen ulsifier to further br digestion is col Q the digested food duodenum, jejunum, amylases hydrolyze the tis needed to act as em! the gall bladder. Once the the intestine, called villi, absorb absorb the amino acids, vita absorbs the fatty acids and BY"? cytoplasmic appendages © intestine is the large intestine before they are eliminat in the further breakdown © ins, and carbohy¢ rol. Lining the 5 microvilli, ich absorbs wal e anus. In f the un’ into maltose. Bile is also released into the small intestine. eak down fats. Bile is produced in the liver and stored in mplete, the tiny fingerlike projections in the lower part of (figure 8-5). Each villus contains capillaries which cdrates, and a lymphatic vessel called lacteal, which mall intestine are epithelial cells with microscopic that increase the rate of absorption. Next to the small ter and temporarily store undigested food (feces) the large intestine are symbiont bacteria, which aid cb ed thro ted food Chapter 8 How Animals Survive * 139 UUsPurchf~aurz 81 a 1. Where does digestion not occur in the digestive system? Explain your answer. 2. What are the different digestive enzymes and juices? Which part of the body produces them? Foss 2. suegs tnd carbon denide enter ond exit through the pores. Respiration @~ How do animals respire? ‘The exchange of respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the external environment and the organism's body or cel] is called respiration. This process occurs passively by diffusion, Different animals differ in respiratory body parts and ways of respiration. @— In simple animals like the sponges (Porifera) and hydra (Cnidaria), oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange happen in the cells on their body surface. Since these animals have no distinct respiratory system, respiration occurs when the water passes through the organism's body cavity. Together with the food substance, the oxygen carried inside the body is absorbed by the cells. Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and exit through the pores. In exchange, the carbon dioxide, together with other waste materials, is released through the body cavity going out to the outside environment. In earthworms (annelids) and flatworms (Platyhelminthes), respiration occurs in their moist skin surface where oxygen is carried by the hemoglobin dissolved in the blood. In the same way, carbon dioxide is released through the skin to the external environment. heart cerebral ganglion mouth pharynx Figure 8-7. Gas exchange in earthwor exchange occurs on their moist skin, * In some aquatic animals like O;7 300; i nephridium - fish, gas exchange occurs with the help of special organ called gills Gills are very efficient in removing oxygen from the water. It takes advantage of the countercurrent flow. Countercurrent flow happens when water flows over gills in on¢ nesing _direction while blood flows in the gizzard opposite direction through gi! blood vessel crop capillaries. esophagus rms. Oxygen and carbon dioxideGas Exchange in Humans Inhumans and most mammals, exchange of gases occurs in an organized Tespiratory ste. The human respiratory system is divided into two sections, the upper and Jower respiratory tracts. The upper respiratory wract comprises the nasal cavity, oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx. The lower respiratory tract is mainly composed of the trachea, bronchi, and a pair of lungs, Figure 8-8. The human respiratory system Respiration starts when air enters the nasal cavity and/or the oral cavity wherein air is moistened, warmed, and filtered. From there, the air passes through the pharynx, the larynx, and then down to the trachea and bronchi. Inside the lungs, bronchi branch out to smaller brionchiole, which end in the microscopic sacs called alveoli. There are millions of alveoli in the human lungs. ‘The air will then diffuse in the thin lining of the alveoli made of single layer of cells surrounded by capillaries. The oxygen in the air is attached to the hemoglobin molecules in the blood. These oxygenated blood cells then travel to the heart, from where they are pumped and distributed to all cells of the body. The oxygen is then absorbed by the body cells. Body cells release carbon dioxide as waste product. The blood that carries the carbon dioxide travels back to the lungs, absorbed by the alveoli, and is expelled in the environment. Purch J aurs 02 1. How is respiration different from cellular respiration? 2. Outline the pathway of breath of air from the nose fo the alveoli. Circulation Q@r= What are the different types of circulation? i ials i imal’s body is very important. The irculation of materials in the anim: ly is very Ba Gia of circulation are to transport nutrients, oxygen, and also MISCONCEPTION ALERT! id of waste products of the body cells. Primitive animals like the Ss ea circulatory system. The nutrients, oxygen, It is a common misconception have no sponges and hydra is ‘ that when an earthworm is directly absorbed by their body cells. Their wastes | Citi Sch wil become Iwo worms. Anterior regeneration is limited to number of earthworm and other minerals are materials are also direst f circulation in the animals, the closed wo types of circulation in the animals, the close a mesg cicuatory system) andthe open circulation (open circulation (10%). The blood in closed circulatory system runs through circulatory: Baie art, the veins, arteries, and capillaries. Earthworms and closed vessels: hea shes, birds, and mammals (including humans) ome vertebrat rip ; ie ed ‘circulatory system. While in open circulatory system, after expelled to the environment. species. When Chapter 8 How Animals Survive % 141 HMIthe hemolymph (blood and interstitial fluid) has been pumped by the heart into the blood vessel, (arteries), it leaves the vessels and seeps through the sinuses or hemocoels, where they are fed to the body cells of the nutrients and oxygen they bring. The used up hemolymph then passes through the veins and move back to the heart. Anthropods like grasshoppers and cockroaches have open circulatory system. Sal I sinuses =>—. surrounding organ: capillaries of head «and forelimbs pulmonary artery superior vena cava pulmonary artery, capillaries of copillaries of pulmonary vein {eft atrium left ventricle ‘aorta inferior vena cava : nena ebdominal organs ‘and hind limbs Figure: 8-10. The circulation of human blood (main heart) Weal branch vessel in each organ (b) Figure: 8-9. Grasshoppers have an open circulatory system while earthworms have a closed circulatory system. Circulation in Humans Humans have closed circulatory system which includes the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. Blood, which is composed of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets run through this closed system. The heart is about the size of a clenched fist and beats about 70 per minute. ‘The oxygenated blood is carried by the arteries to the cells of the body and returned back to the heart through the veins. Blood circulates in the body by coronary circulation (heart) pulmonary circulation (lungs), renal circulation (kidneys), and hepatic circulation (liver),excretion 97 How do animals remove body wastes? Various organisms have di osmoregulation is the management of water acid sles concentrations in the body. Excretion is the ee ral of metabolic wastes, which includes carbon, dloslast Gi from cell respiration, and nitrogenous wastes. Table ei jows some organism: i ing r on gi ‘s and their corresponding excretory Table 8-1. Organisms and Their Excretory Structure Organism Exei Structure Protista (paramecium, amoeba} Contractile vacuole Platyhelminthes (planaria) Flame cells Annelids (earthworm) Nephridia Insects (grasshopper) ‘Malpighian tubules Mammals (humans) Nephrons Sponges and jellyfish may not have specialized excretory systems. Their wastes are eliminated through simple cellular diffusion. The more complex the tissues and the bigger the organisms are, the greater the amount of ammonia and other wastes produced. There are three nitrogenous wastes produced from excretion: ammonia, urea, and uric acid. Ammonia is soluble in water and is highly toxic. It is generally excreted by organisms found living in water, including hydra and fish. Earthworms and humans excrete urea, a substance that is not as toxic as ammonia. In other mammals, urea is formed in the liver from ammonia. Uric acid is insoluble substance excreted by insects, birds, and most reptiles. jeuteh ‘ s = Chest In, Chest Out asuring tape around the chest and directly below the armpit of your Note the size of his/her chest while inhaling. of the chest. Take turns in doing this activity until both 1. Find a partner. Place o me im/her inhale. partner. Let him/| , 2. Then let him/her exhale. Record the size measurements are taken. 3. How do the sizes compare? Whe ‘excretory canal ‘tubule cells flame cell ‘excretory. ‘nucleus: Pore fluid movement Planar bladder capillaries metanephridium ; _____nephrostome cosmic pephridiopores Eorthworm ‘Malpighian tubules Figure: 8-11. Excretory systems of some representative animals 1 is responsible for the size differences?Excretion in Humans ‘The organs for excretion in humans include the skin, lungs, and kidneys. The skin eliminates water in the form of sweat, ang the lungs expel carbon dioxide during exhalation. The kidney, function both as osmoregulator that regulates blood volume ang its concentration, and as organ for excretion of waste. Humans have a pair of kidneys supplied with blood by the renal a and vein. Every day, about 1000 to 2000 liters of blood is filtereq by the kidneys, and they produce about 1.5 liters of urine a day. The kidneys adjust both the concentration and volume of ureter the urine based on animal’s intake of water and salt and the ome production of urea. Figure 8-12. The human excretory system urethra Immunity @-~ What is the importance of the immune system? As living things, animals have the need to protect themselves to things that are capable of causing them harm, @~ The immune system is a biological structure within an organism that acts as protection against diseases. Most vertebrates have a general protective mechanism within their body that acts as protection against pathogens (disease-causing) or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, some fungi, and other parasites. However, simple or lower form of animals do not have this kind of body system. The human immune system is the most complex. The human body has three cooperating lines of defense that quickly react to new threats. First Line of Defense ‘The human body has important parts that support the immune system but are not actually part of the system. Most pathogens first encounter these structures. They act as barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body. These include the skin, mucous membranes, cilia in the respiratory system, and stomach acid. The skin and the substance it produces (e.g., oil and mucous) act as the protective covering of the entire body ofall vertebrates, Although some animals like lizards, crocodiles fish, turtle, and others have specialized kind of coverings they still have the same function, which is to protect. This part of the body has the ability to repair itself and product new cells. When the skin is cut or wounded, pathogens most likely enter and cause infections. Notall pathogens enter the bod} in. Some : ly through the skin. So” Figure: 8-13. Allergens (spheres) trapped of them are inhaled f ; as Rae tS ee eriieiee «the akin defends the tees oe ee ag tre prevented From going ino the ngs. ty, fe the mucoi and ‘lid nk t jus membrane he uaing the repiratory system also do the same functio” ‘cous membrane secretes mucus, a sticky substa®™ 144 ¢ Science in Today's World—Earth and Life Sciencethat coats the membranes of ucus also contains antimicrote poe t inthe respiratory system as they aPstances, ‘The siibome id other parts of the respiratory tract. are lined with cilia Which sweep os ePPed by the muc pathogens are prevented to go further ; ; Cie oe materials ate carried out throw cue holding the eee a mucus, these organs ing or sneezin acteria. The unwanted ig. rachea, bronchi, Ingestion of contami 5 nated food 5 Most invaders do not survive eae OF water is one of the ‘ways microbes enter inside the bod) ly. sae mach aci i arethen eliminated from the body." “14 Wbichis strong enough oil them, Dead pathogens Second Line of Defense Microbes that are able get into the b mits th : get into : es 7 ¢ body encounter the second line of defense. This limits the 7 the specific i includes the infl: ‘pecific immune responses. The in inflammatory responses, phagocytes, interferons, ai natural een attachment ingestion ing degradation bacterium Cs °: ® (b) (d) () Figure 8-14. The stages of phagocytosis he phoooo aces the boro () engulf th bacterium by forming pseudopods. (c) The bacterium is inside the hago wth Iyoajmes and ‘other chemicals. (d) The bacterium is degraded and inated. ted, the surrounding area becomes inflamed or swollen. Histamine is secreted by basophils (a type of white blood cell) and mast cells, triggering the inflammation, This inflammation is caused by the vasodilation (enlargement of the blood vessels), which increases the blood supply in the area of ee bringing meee race Histamine i : toms of common cold—sneezing, coughing, red and itchy eyes, is also responsible for the symp! sels and monocytes also attract phagocytes to ines secreted by blood ve re runny nose. soa by certain leukocytes, increase the body temperature to speed up the le area. Pyrogens, Tee al function of microbes. Notice that infected wounds are : em: immune response and ee oe sotild and short-lived fever indicates thatthe body is fighting > Therefore, often hot or “feverish. disease-causing organisms. ; As the inflammation attracts, phagocytes F microbes. There are two tyes 7 fa ona 2 microbes and kill them within anism as that ofthe neutrophils, but they engulfhuge amounts or “giant eaters.” Ithas the same me +t the microbes through a combination of lysozyme and toxic ey digest In addition to inflammation and phagocytes, or larger sizes of microbes. ‘They itric oxide. fink ce oxygen: superoxide anion an nt ed interferons. Interferons ae signaling proteins : 5 o the body has another second line When a cut or wound is the infe 1 the infected area, the phagocytes attack the invading the neutrophils and monocytes, Neutrophils engulf onthe other hand, transform into macrophages Chapter 8 How Animals Survive ¢ 145 IMIMIMLsally viruses. The invad produced by body cells when they are attacked by microbes, especially viruses ° 1 IY ed cel will produce interferon to signal the other cells, causing them virus. Natural killer (NK) cells destroy virus-infected body cells (as 0 = cases). They attack the cell membrane of the infected cells, causing it t0 to heighten their defense against the Is (as well as cancerous cells in some yse and die. fate tissue repair blood vessel Figure 8-15. Nonspecific second line of defense in a wound ‘When a wound is infected, the immune system triggers a nonspecific second line of defense. Study figure 8-15. 1. Microbes or pathogens enter the wound. 2. Blood platelets release blood-clotting proteins at the wound site. 3. Mast cells secrete substances that trigger vasodilation causit blood and phagocytes to the infected area. 4, Neutrophils and macrophages phagocyte, kill, and remove the pathogens. Tissue repair follows as the macrophages secrete hormones that attract the cells involved in tissue repair. ing the increased delivery 6. The inflammation continues until all pathogens are eliminated and wound is completely healed.th es of infections but th a respond ey specific cell type. The third lin target a Neat ealis e wR other hand, is specific an aa on ain! + oo B lymphocytes and T lymph ny & a via bk ove from the bone marrow. Both ay Wee ©O® ey types, jrd Line of ied 1 ; Defense bone marrow Both first and second jj : ye nonspecific responses— line of defenses © thymus once mature, circulate in the bl immature and lymphatic tissues (spleen, oe vat lymphocytes jdenoids, and tonsils). Each can reco, ce ¥ aie different specific antigens, the dabstareer th: . x receptor tause the production of antibodies, . eo B lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow and fight disease through humoral immunity bh (immunity mediated by macromolecules like fe antibodies). An activated B lymphocyte secretes blood roughly 2000 antibodies per second over the callslifespan (four to five days). They are usually stimulated by viruses and bacterial toxins — Fiavre 8-16. The antigen-specific B and T lymphocytes fating in the blood or by the T lymphocytes, ‘T° ethene deere cat frien bi T lymphocytes, by contrast, mature in the thymus gland and fight the pathogens through cell-mediated responses. They are activated by the cells that are infected by bacteria, parasites, or viruses, and by the antigen-representing cells (APCs) that has foreign antigens on their surface. There are two main types of T lymphocytes: the cytotoxic and helper T cells. The cytotoxic T (Te) cells kill the infected cells with pathogens and cancer cells. Activated Te cells attack and kill infected cells by releasing a protein called perforin, which causes the cell to burst and die. The other type of T lymphocytes are the helper T (Th) cells. They signal to the immune system, with the aid of the macrophages and some B cells, that foreign antigens or pathogens have entered the body. They release cytokines that stimulate the Tc cells, B lymphocytes, and other helper cells. Lymph nodes and other parts of lymphatic system Hormones: Chemical Signals in the Body > What are the hormones in the body? eae eeen 2 ‘, ually common in verte! ral a chemical signals are Wr he body that release the chemical Similar to the immune response, and the nervous system that releases and some arthropods. There are two major regulatory systems Signals, namely, the endocrine system that secretes hormones, ees work together in body Ueutotranemiters, Although the two systems are separate tDeY S00 oof emergencs "egulation, One good example is the fight or flight mechanism Of WO" transmitters in the nervous ‘he endocrine system (adrenal gland) secretes epinephrine and eos the current situation. ‘jtem send message from one neuron sec other forthe whole body toreact!0@r- Hormones are chemical signals produced by ductless (endocrine) gland that circulate with blood to the target cell, tissue, or organ that is distant from the original endocrine gland, They can produce an immediate short-lived response, such as when adrenaline aus the heart to speed up. Hormones can also have a long-term, life-altering response, such as when somatotropin stimulates growth in humans, Hormones are used to regulate physiological and behavioral activities, such as digestion, respiration, excretion, growth and development, movement, reproduction, sensory perception, and mood response. Table 8-2 lists some of the hormones of the endocrine system of most mammals; Table 8-2. Glands, Hormones, and Hormonal Effects Gland Hormone Effect/s growth hormone (GH) _| Stimulates the growth of bones follicle stimulating Stimulates the gonads for production of sperm and hormone (FHS) ova luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulates testes and ovaries Anterior pituitary i ; thyroid-stimulating Stimulates the thyroid gland fommons eee Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release adrenocortico! a hormone (ACTH) glucocorticoids I ‘antidiuretic hormone _| Helps water retention by kidneys Posterior pituitary | oxytocin Stimulates milk production in mammary glands and contraction of the uterus during child birth Adrenal cortex cortisol Increases blood sugar level epinephrine or Both serve as chemical mediators for transmitting the Adcencl faeces adrenaline nerve impulses to effector organs norepinephrine Troi thyroxin Controls the body's metabolic rate calcitonin Decreases blood calcium level Parathyroid rathormone Increases blood calcium level Ponerecs insulin (by 6 cells) Lowers blood glucose level (lslets of Langerhans) glucagon (by a cells) | Increases sugar level in the bloodstream, causes the tipaon i to convert stored glycogen to glucose ymosin iological response modifiers, sti T Thymus. lymphocytes , stimulates latoni [Anticipates the dal Ghrg atc | Pineal Reece fitlpates the daily onset of darkness; involved in estrogen Promotes and maintains pri '$ primal dar Ovaries progesterone characteristics in female” ny on SeeoneenY Stimi bind aan See the thickening of the uterine linin Testes cee characterisier ten and promote secondary lesensory Input and Resp sa 9r- What is the importance of ee Animals need to sense and Tespond to ae ia animes survivat remperature, acidity, food, or the gave ©° ¢"Vitonment in order ; Nger in th Simple animals, such as Sponges, : have @ NeTVOUS system, However ce Ro neuron cells in their body. Therefore, they do not pressure via calcium waves, Jelh h Imes their whole body contracts with direct contact or ggstem rather, they have connected 'ydra, and other related animals have no central nervous These interconnected neuron cel jet cells forming a netlike structure all over their body. 2 rm @ nerve net. It senses chemical, tactile, and light signals. zed by a radial nerve running the lenght of each arm and mouth area, Starfishes can detect odor, texture, light, to find ind of nervous system. _Animals “ike flatworms, annelids, insects certain mollusks, and all vertebrates (fshes, birds, reptiles, amphibians, mammals) exhibit bilateral body symmetry. Bilateral symmetry means the left and the right side of the body.are approximate mirror images of each other. The major bilateral body form a hollow tube cavity running from the mouth to the anus. Its nervous system consists of anerve cord with ganglion for each body segment, and/or a large ganglion at the front area which is often the brain. to survive. They need to sense the environment they live in. eyepot brain ventral radial nerve brain inareat cord nerve cords segmental nerve net : transverse nerve ganglia nerve ring ; ium (lao Leech (anneli) Hydra (enidarian) Sea stor (echinederm) cee ™ brain nterior f nerve ring anna brain ‘entral ganglia re ord segmental jongitdinal ganglia nerve cords seu roll Solomander (vertebrate) Chiton (mollusk) any ve animal Insect (arthropod) 17. Bilaterian nervous system of representative on Figure 8-17‘The Human Nervous System ‘The nervous system is responsible for sensing, processing of information, and responding tg stimuli, Invertebrate animals have different forms of nervous syste! nervous system consists only of one form: central and peripheral components. system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of all nerves outside the CNS. m. On the other hand, vertebrate ‘The central nervoyg Neurons are specialized cells that carry messages or nerve impulses through an electromechanica| process, A group of neuron cells called ganglion i found in the nervous system of some animals. A typical neuron contains a nucleus, organelles, and two cytoplasmic extensions called dendrites, and the axons. The branching ends called dendrites, carry the nerve impulses towards the cell body while axons carry the impulses away from the cell body and another cell. Many axons are wrapped around ea by myelin sheaths, which speed up the rate of te nerve impulse transmission. There are three types of neurons:. sensory neuron, motor neuron, and interneuron. The sensory neurons, receive the initial receptors stimulus from a sense organ, such as the eyes and the skin, or from another neuron. The motor neurons transmit the impulse from the brain or spinal cord to the organs or muscles that stimulates response. ‘The interneuron or association neuron lies within the neuron spinal cord and brain. It receives stimuli from the sensory neurons then transfers the information t0 a motor neuron. Figure 8-19 shows the relationship between the three neurons as an impulse run throug? the body. pin in skin spinal cord Figure 8-19. The reltionship between sensory, motor, and interneuron ‘The simplest response of a nerve is called reflex, An example of a simple reflex is the knee-jetk reflex, wherein the knee automatically kicks when it is tapped with a small hammer. An example eee ve complex reflex action isthe automatic jerking of a hand when it touches a hot object stimulus is felt by the sensory neuron of the hand. ‘This sends an impulse to the interneuron in spinal cord, which then sends a signal to the brain for processing and simultaneously sends ont the motor neuron, which directs the hand muscles to contract immediately. Thi oul " oe already contracts even before the brain figures out what has occurred. ly. This is why Neurons do not actually touch each other. There is gay ‘wo neurons. Although an impulse runs through the axon Seetrcally, aes srapse bem e neurons chemically. These chemical messengers, called nevrotranmiters ave packed oe and delivered to the other neuron cells passing the aytuaped.:Onie ch rs, are packet ra acetylcholine. Others are serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, my ee neuesBody in Motion gr How do different animals move? Animals have different ways of moving: Movement is mostly used for survival. into progression from one place ning, jumping, flying, soaring, and like the kiting of some spiders, sailing g~ Locomotion is said to be any variety of movement that results to another. Some movements are self-propelled, such as runnin ing, while others depend on their environment for mobility, of the jellyfish, and rolling of some beetles. Figure 8-20. Animals differ on their movements: jllyfshes sail, some species of marsupials glide, and bees fy ‘There are a variety of reasons why animals move. Movement is mostly for food hunting, mating, survival from predators, and finding a better habitat. Hydra is a sessile animal (attached to a substrate), but it moves when it hunts for food. Hydra bends over its body and attaches itself to the substrate with its mouth and tentacles and then releases its foot. The body then bends over again and sets the foot down on its new attachment. This process is called looping. Planarians move by beating the cilia (hairlike structure) on their ventral dermis, which allow them to glide along a film of mucus that they secrete. Some flatworms also move by undulating their entire bodies through the contractions of the muscles in their body membrane. This is sometimes referred to as pedal waves. epidermis circular oo myscle layer feoudinn longitudinal muscle layer Figure 8-21. The ventral cilia of planarra is used dorsoventval muscles, es re Sher ciding mewomnst. ventral cil d Pedal wave motion in flatworms Peat moveren oe Ciliary gliding in planaria ‘communication of muscles cand attach to the substrate creating a loop. Chapter 8 How Animals Survive * 151 MIMIMost aquatic animals swim. Usually, an aquatic animal’ body is less dense than water, enabling it to stay afloat. The air resistance encountered in water is greater than that in the air. Therefore, the morphology of aquatic animals is very important for efficient movement in water. Most fish such as sharks move side to side, while marine mammals such as dolphins move up and down, Other animals such as squid and octopus use jet propulsion to move. Terrestrial animals that swim rely predominantly on their limbs. Benthic animals living on sea floors, like the sea urchin, sea stars, clams, and crabs have different ways of locomotion. Sea Andreas Vesalius urchins use their spines to move, while sea stars have tube (1514-1564) feet that enable them to move and catch their prey. Clams, Andreas Vesolius investigated. the mussels, and other bivalves can swim by flapping their two human body by means of dissection. He | Shells, although they mostly use their muscular structure to wrote all his observations in dissection | move on the substrate. Crabs typically move sideways using cadaver of human body. He worked on | their feet, but some species can move forward and backward, with great arists to ensure that all the illustrations he used in his book were Gravity is the main obstacle to flying. Since no animal both accurate and attractive. His work has a body that has a lower density than that of air, flying wos very influential for the early modern imals have adapted morphologies that can lift their body doctors because it gave more detailed | animals have adapted morphologie ae knowledge on the human anatomy. Upto to ascend and remain airborne. Wing structure is important this time, his work s sill recognized inthe | in achieving the flying motion. It must create a pressure field of medicine. gradient that results in an upward force on the animal's body. Animals adapted to flight, like birds, flying mammals, and other insects, need to have a lighter bodies to fly. Terrestrial animals like most mammals, reptiles, and birds use feet used for their movements. Forms of locomotion on land include running, walking, jumping, dragging, and crawling, Skeletal and muscular frameworks as well as energy are used to achieve such movements. Differences in the number of legs create differences in the movement of terrestrial animals, Humans and animals that walk using two legs and feet exhibit bipedalism, four-legged animals, such as dogs, cats, dees, and elephants exhibit quadrupedalism. Insects and arachnids use all their legs in movements, hence they exhibit hexapedal movement and octopedal movement, respectively. Centipedes and millipedes have many legs used for locomotion. Animals may adapt other modes of movements and locomotion, depending on their environmental situation and other factors. beet = Let's Calculate! |. Messages in the nervous system travel at an average speed of 120 meters per second, How many seconds would a sensory neuron message take to reach the brain if it travels 800 meters? 2. Ifthe heart of an average person pumps about 9000 liters of blood daily, how much blood does the pump in an hour? How about in a year?