Comptia A Certification All in One Exam Guide Exams 220 901 220 902 9Th Edition Edition Mike Meyers Full Chapter

CompTIA A+ Certification All-in-One
Exam Guide (Exams 220-901 & 220-902)

9th Edition Edition Mike Meyers
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Michael Meyers is the industry’s leading authority on CompTIA A+ and CompTIA
Network+ certifications. He is the president and founder of Total Seminars, LLC, a
major provider of computer and network repair seminars for thousands of organizations
throughout the world, and a member of CompTIA.
Mike has written numerous popular textbooks, including the best-selling Mike Mey-
ers’ CompTIA A+® Guide to Managing & Troubleshooting PCs and Mike Meyers’ CompTIA
Network+® Guide to Managing and Troubleshooting Networks.
About the Contributor

Scott Jernigan wields a mighty red pen as Editor in Chief for Total Seminars. With a
Master of Arts degree in Medieval History, Scott feels as much at home in the musty
archives of London as he does in the crisp IPS glow of Total Seminars’ Houston HQ.
After fleeing a purely academic life, he dove headfirst into IT, working as an instructor,
editor, and writer.
Scott has written, edited, and contributed to dozens of books on computer literacy,
hardware, operating systems, networking, and certification, including Computer
Literacy—Your Ticket to IC3 Certification, and co-authoring with Mike Meyers the All-in-
One CompTIA Strata® IT Fundamentals Exam Guide.
Scott has taught computer classes all over the United States, including stints at the
United Nations in New York and the FBI Academy in Quantico. Practicing what he
preaches, Scott is a CompTIA A+ and CompTIA Network+ certified technician, a Mi-
crosoft Certified Professional, a Microsoft Office User Specialist, and Certiport Internet
and Computing Core Certified.
About the Technical Editor

Chris Crayton (CompTIA A+, CompTIA Network+, MCSE) is an author, editor, tech-
nical consultant, and trainer. Chris has worked as a computer technology and network-
ing instructor, information security director, network administrator, network engineer,
and PC specialist. Chris has authored several print and online books on PC Repair,
CompTIA A+, CompTIA Security+, and Microsoft Windows. Chris has served as tech-
nical editor on numerous professional technical titles for leading publishing companies,
including the CompTIA A+ All-in-One Exam Guide, the CompTIA A+ Certification Study
Guide, and the Mike Meyers’ CompTIA A+ Certification Passport.
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ALL ■ IN ■ ONE
CompTIA
A+ ®
Certification
EXAM GUIDE
Ninth Edition
(Exam 220-901 & 220-902)
Mike Meyers
New York • Chicago • San Francisco

Athens • London • Madrid • Mexico City
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To my grandson, Stephen Meyers Kelly.

Can’t wait to dismantle our first system together!
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Becoming a CompTIA Certified

IT Professional Is Easy
It’s also the best way to reach greater professional opportunities and rewards.
Why Get CompTIA Certified?
Growing Demand
Labor estimates predict some technology fields will experience growth of more than 20%
by the year 2020. (Source: CompTIA 9th Annual Information Security Trends study:
500 U.S. IT and Business Executives Responsible for Security.) CompTIA certification
qualifies the skills required to join this workforce.
Higher Salaries
IT professionals with certifications on their resume command better jobs, earn higher
salaries, and have more doors open to new multi-industry opportunities.
Verified Strengths
91% of hiring managers indicate CompTIA certifications are valuable in validating IT exper-
tise, making certification the best way to demonstrate your competency and knowledge to
employers. (Source: CompTIA Employer Perceptions of IT Training and Certification.)
Universal Skills
CompTIA certifications are vendor neutral—which means that certified professionals can pro-
ficiently work with an extensive variety of hardware and software found in most organizations.
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Learn more about what Purchase a voucher at a Congratulations on your

the exam covers by Pearson VUE testing center CompTIA certification!
reviewing the following: or at CompTIAstore.com. • Make sure to add your
• Exam objectives for • Register for your exam at a certification to your resume.
key study points. Pearson VUE testing center.
• Check out the CompTIA
• Sample questions for a general • Visit pearsonvue.com/CompTIA to Certification Roadmap to plan
overview of what to expect find the closest testing center to you. your next career move.
on the exam and examples
of question format. • Schedule the exam online. You will
be required to enter your voucher
• Visit online forums, like LinkedIn, to number or provide payment
see what other IT professionals say information at registration.
about CompTIA exams.
• Take your certification exam.
Learn More: Certification.CompTIA.org/aplus
CompTIA Disclaimer
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LLC. All rights reserved. All certification programs and education related to such pro-
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LLC. Printed in the U.S. 02190-Nov2015
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CONTENTS AT A GLANCE
Chapter 1 The Path of the PC Tech .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2 Operational Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Chapter 3 The Visible Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Chapter 4 Microprocessors .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chapter 5 RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Chapter 6 BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Chapter 7 Motherboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Chapter 8 Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Chapter 9 Hard Drive Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Chapter 10 Implementing Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Chapter 11 Essential Peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Chapter 12 Building a PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Chapter 13 Windows Under the Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Chapter 14 Users, Groups, and Permissions .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Chapter 15 Maintaining and Optimizing Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Chapter 16 Working with the Command-Line Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Chapter 17 Troubleshooting Operating Systems .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Chapter 18 Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Chapter 19 Display Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Chapter 20 Essentials of Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Chapter 21 Local Area Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
Chapter 22 Wireless Networking .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
Chapter 23 The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Chapter 24 Portable Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
Chapter 25 Understanding Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
Chapter 26 Care and Feeding of Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
ix
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CompTIA A+ Certification All-in-One Exam Guide

x
Chapter 27 Printers and Multifunction Devices .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
Chapter 28 Securing Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Appendix A Mapping to the CompTIA A+ Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
Appendix B About the CD-ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
Chapter 1 The Path of the PC Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CompTIA A+ Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Who Is CompTIA? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Path to Other Certifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
CompTIA A+ Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Windows-Centric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Windows 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exam 220–901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Exam 220-902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Path to Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Finding a Testing Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Exam Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
How to Pass the CompTIA A+ Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Historical/Conceptual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 2 Operational Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Professional Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Appearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Traits of a Tech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Effective Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Assertive Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Respectful Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Eliciting Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Expectations and Follow-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Tools of the Trade and Personal Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Antistatic Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Personal Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Physical Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Troubleshooting Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
xi
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xii
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 3 The Visible Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Computing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
The Computing Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Why the Process Matters to Techs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Breaking It Down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Computing Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Computing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Common Operating System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
File Structures and Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Tech Launch Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Chapter 3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Chapter 4 Microprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
CPU Core Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
The Man in the Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Back to the External Data Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Memory and RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Address Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Modern CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Selecting and Installing CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Selecting a CPU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Installation Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Troubleshooting CPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Symptoms of Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Catastrophic Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Intel Core M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
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Contents
xiii
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Chapter 5 RAM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Understanding DRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Organizing DRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Practical DRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
DRAM Sticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Consumer RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Types of RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
SDRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
RDRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
DDR SDRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
DDR2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
DDR2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
DDR3L/DDR3U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
DDR4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
RAM Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Working with RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Do You Need More RAM? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Getting the Right RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Installing DIMMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Installing SO-DIMMs in Laptops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Troubleshooting RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Testing RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Chapter 6 BIOS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
We Need to Talk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Talking to the Keyboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
BIOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Modify CMOS: The Setup Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Typical CMOS Setup Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Option ROM and Device Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Option ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Device Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
BIOS, BIOS, Everywhere! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
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Power-On Self Test (POST) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Before and During the Video Test: The Beep Codes . . . . . . . 214
Text Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
POST Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
The Boot Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Care and Feeding of BIOS and CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Default/Optimized Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Clearing CMOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Losing CMOS Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Flashing the ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Chapter 7 Motherboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
How Motherboards Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Form Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Chipset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Motherboard Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Expansion Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Structure and Function of the Expansion Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
PCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
AGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
PCI-X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Mini-PCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
PCI Express . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Installing Expansion Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Troubleshooting Expansion Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Upgrading and Installing Motherboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Choosing the Motherboard and Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Installing the Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Troubleshooting Motherboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Chapter 8 Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Understanding Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
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Powering the PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Supplying AC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Supplying DC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Installing and Maintaining Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Installing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Troubleshooting Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
No Motherboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
When Power Supplies Die Slowly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Fuses and Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
It Glows! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Modular Power Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Temperature and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Chapter 9 Hard Drive Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
How Hard Drives Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Magnetic Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Solid-State Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Hybrid Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Parallel and Serial ATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
PATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
SATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Protecting Data with RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Implementing RAID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Hardware Versus Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Installing Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Choosing Your Drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Jumpers and Cabling on PATA Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Cabling SATA Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Connecting Solid-State Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
BIOS Support: Configuring CMOS and Installing Drivers . . . . . . . 335
Configuring Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Autodetection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Boot Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Enabling AHCI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
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Troubleshooting Hard Drive Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Chapter 10 Implementing Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Hard Drive Partitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Master Boot Record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Dynamic Disks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
GUID Partition Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Other Partition Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
When to Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Partition Naming Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Hard Drive Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
File Systems in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
FAT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
FAT32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
NTFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
FAT64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
File Systems in Mac OS X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
File Systems in Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
The Partitioning, Formatting, and Pooling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Bootable Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Partitioning and Formatting with the Installation Media . . . . 368
Disk Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Formatting a Partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Storage Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Maintaining and Troubleshooting Hard Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Troubleshooting Hard Drive Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Third-Party Partition Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Chapter 11 Essential Peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Supporting Common Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
USB Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
FireWire Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Thunderbolt Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
General Port Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
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Common Peripherals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Keyboards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Pointing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Biometric Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Smart Card Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Bar Code Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Touch Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Motion Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
KVM Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Gamepads and Joysticks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Digitizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
Multimedia Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Video Capture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
TV Tuners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Smart TV and Set-Top Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Storage Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Flash Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Optical Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Chapter 12 Building a PC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Specialized Custom PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Evaluating Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Workstation PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Specialized Consumer PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Installing and Upgrading Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Media Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Types of Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
The Installation and Upgrade Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Troubleshooting Installation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Post-Installation Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Patches, Service Packs, and Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Upgrading Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Restoring User Data Files (If Applicable) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Migrating and Retiring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
No Installation Is Perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Installing Windows 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
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Chapter 13 Windows Under the Hood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Accessing the Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Registry Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Talkin’ Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Manual Registry Edits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Command-Line Registry Editing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
The Boot Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Processes, Services, and Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Task Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Performance Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Tools for Programmers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Component Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
Data Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Chapter 14 Users, Groups, and Permissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
Authentication with Users and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
User Accounts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Configuring Users and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Local Users and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Authorization Through NTFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
NTFS Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Inheritance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
Permission Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
Techs and Permissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Permissions in Linux and Mac OS X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
Sharing Resources Securely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
Sharing a Folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
Add/Edit Users and/or Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
Administrative Shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Protecting Data with Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
Beyond Sharing Users and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Security Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
User Account Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
How UAC Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
How to Turn Off UAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
UAC in Modern Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
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Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
Chapter 15 Maintaining and Optimizing Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Maintaining Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Windows Patch Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Patch Management in Mac OS X and Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Managing Temporary Files in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
Registry Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Disk Maintenance Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Scheduling Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Controlling Autostarting Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
System Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Optimizing Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Installing and Removing Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Installing/Optimizing a Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
Performance Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Preparing for Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
Backing Up Personal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
System Restore in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Chapter 16 Working with the Command-Line Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Deciphering the Command-Line Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
Accessing the Command-Line Interface in Windows . . . . . . . 655
Accessing the Command-Line Interface
in Mac OS X and Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
The Command Prompt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Closing the Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Filenames and File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Drives and Folders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Mastering Fundamental Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Structure: Syntax and Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Viewing Directory Contents: dir and ls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
Changing Directory Focus: The cd Command . . . . . . . . . . . 666
Moving Between Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Making Directories: The md/mkdir Command . . . . . . . . . . . 668
Removing Directories: The rd Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
Running a Program in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Running a Program in Mac OS X and Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
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Working with Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Using Wildcards to Locate Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
Deleting Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
Copying and Moving Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Pruning and Grafting Folder Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
Assorted Windows Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
chkdsk (/f /r) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
hostname . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
gpupdate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
gpresult . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
sfc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
shutdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Using Special Keys in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Using Special Keys in Mac OS X and Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
The compact and cipher Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
PowerShell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
Assorted Mac OS X and Linux Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
ifconfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
iwconfig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
ps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
grep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
apt-get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
vi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
dd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
shutdown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
passwd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Chapter 17 Troubleshooting Operating Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Failure to Boot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Failure to Boot: Hardware or Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Failure to Boot: Windows XP (A CompTIA Retro Moment) . 706
Failure to Boot: Modern Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
Failure to Boot: Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Failure to Start Normally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Device Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Registry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
Advanced Startup Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
Troubleshooting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
More Control Panel Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
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Application Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Application Installation Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
Problems with Uninstalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
Missing File or Incorrect File Version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Crashing Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Volume Shadow Copy Service and System Protection . . . . . . 754
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
Review Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
Chapter 18 Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
What Is Virtualization? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
Meet the Hypervisor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
Emulation Versus Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
Client-Side Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Why Do We Virtualize? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Power Saving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
Hardware Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
System Management and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
Real-world Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
To the Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
The Service-Layer Cake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
Ownership and Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
Why We Cloud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Chapter 19 Display Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
Video Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
CRT Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
LCD Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
Projectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
Plasma Displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Common Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
Display Adapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
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901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Motherboard Slot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
Graphics Processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
Video Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
Integrated GPUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Connector Types and Associated Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
Installing and Configuring Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Working with Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
3-D Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
Troubleshooting Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Troubleshooting Video Cards/Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Troubleshooting Monitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
Changing Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
Chapter 20 Essentials of Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Roles Hosts Play in Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
Networking Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
Frames and NICs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
Ethernet with Twisted Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
Ethernet with Alternative Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
Implementing Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
The Typical LAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
Structured Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
Going Wide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Chapter 21 Local Area Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
901/902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
Network Addressing with IPv4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896
Network Addressing with IPv6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
Installing and Configuring a Wired Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Installing a NIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
Configuring a Network Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
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Sharing and Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
Network Shares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
Network Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
Troubleshooting Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Repairing Physical Cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
Fixing Common Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
Chapter 22 Wireless Networking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
Wireless Networking Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
Wireless Networking Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Wireless Network Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
Wireless Networking Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
Speed and Range Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
Wireless Networking Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
IEEE 802.11-Based Wireless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
Other Wireless Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Installing and Configuring Wireless Networking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Wi-Fi Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
Bluetooth Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
Cellular Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
Troubleshooting Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
Hardware Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
Software Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
Connectivity Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
Configuration Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
Chapter 23 The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
How the Internet Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Internet Tiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
TCP/IP—The Common Language of the Internet . . . . . . . . 986
Internet Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
Connection Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
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Connecting to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
Dial-Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
DSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Wi-Fi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
Cellular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
Connection to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
Internet Application Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
The World Wide Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1007
E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Telnet and SSH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022
SFTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Voice over IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
Remote Desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
Virtual Private Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
Support Applications (Internet Utilities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
Internet Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
No Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
Limited Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Local Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Slow Transfer Speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
Beyond A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
Online Gaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
Chat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
File Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
Chapter 24 Portable Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
Portable Computing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Input Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
Display Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
Extending Portable Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Single-Function Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
Networking Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
Portable-Specific Expansion Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1061
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Storage Card Slots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
General-Purpose Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
Managing and Maintaining Portable Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
Power Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
Protecting the Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
Upgrading and Repairing Laptop Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Disassembly Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
Standard Upgrades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Hardware Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086
Troubleshooting Portable Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Power and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1090
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1092
Chapter 24 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098
Chapter 25 Understanding Mobile Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
Types of Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
Smartphones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100
Tablets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
Phablets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
E-Readers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Wearable Technology Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
Mobile Hardware Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1107
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
Meet the Big Three Mobile OSs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
Apple iOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
Google Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
Microsoft Windows Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Mobile OS Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113
Configuring a Mobile Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1122
Enhancing Hardware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1122
Adding Apps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126
Network Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
E-mail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134
Mobile Device Communication and Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
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Chapter 26 Care and Feeding of Mobile Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
901/902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
Troubleshooting Mobile Device Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
Touchscreen Is Nonresponsive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148
App Not Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
Slow Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
E-mail Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
Battery Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151
Swollen Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152
Overheating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153
Frozen System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1153
Cannot Broadcast to an External Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
No Sound from Speakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
GPS and Location Services Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1154
System Lockout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156
Troubleshooting Steps and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
Securing Mobile Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
BYOD vs. Corporate-Owned Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
Profile Security Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
Preventing Physical Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
Combating Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1161
Dealing with Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1162
Recovering from Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1164
Securing Your Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
Mobile OS and Application Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169
Connectivity and Data Usage Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169
Unauthorized Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
Unauthorized Data Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
Unauthorized Account Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
Unauthorized Root Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
Unauthorized Location Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
Unauthorized Camera and Microphone Activation . . . . . . . . 1173
Troubleshooting Steps and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177
Chapter 27 Printers and Multifunction Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
901 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180
Printer and Multifunction Device Components and Technologies . . 1180
Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180
Scanners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
Copy and Fax Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
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The Laser Printing Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
Exposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
Developing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
Transferring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
Fusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
Installing a Multifunction Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
Setting Up Printers in Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
Configuring Print Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1212
Optimizing Print Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
Managing Shared/Public/Networked Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . 1214
Troubleshooting Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215
Troubleshooting General Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215
Troubleshooting Impact Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Troubleshooting Thermal Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Troubleshooting Inkjet Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1220
Troubleshooting Laser Printers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1223
Chapter Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1228
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1229
Chapter 28 Securing Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
902 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Analyzing Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1231
Unauthorized Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
Social Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
Data Destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1234
Administrative Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1234
System Crash/Hardware Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
Physical Theft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
Malware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
Environmental Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1236
Security Concepts and Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
Access Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
Data Classification and Compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251
Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1254
Malicious Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1254
Malware Signs and Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
Malware Prevention and Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263
Firewalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1272
xxvii
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xxviii
Internet Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280
Authentication and Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
Wireless Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285
Chapter 28 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1288
Appendix A Mapping to the CompTIA A+ Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
220-901 Exam Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
220-902 Exam Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1309
Appendix B About the CD-ROM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
Playing the Mike Meyers Introduction Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
System Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
Total Tester Exam Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1331
Pre-assessment Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
TotalSims for CompTIA A+ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
Mike’s Video Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
Mike’s Cool Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1332
PDF Copy of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
Total Seminars Technical Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
McGraw-Hill Education Content Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1333
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1335
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
00-FM.indd 28 19/11/15 7:22 PM

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I’d like to acknowledge the many people who contributed their talents to make this book
possible:
To my in-house Editor in Chief, Scott Jernigan: I couldn’t have done it without
you, amigo. Truthfully, has there ever been a better combo than a wizard and a paladin?
To Christopher Crayton, technical editor: Another great project with you, Chris.
Thanks for keeping my toes to the fire and for your relentless push to update, update,
update! This is a much better product than it could have been without your help.
To Bill McManus, copy editor: Another amazing and excellent effort, Bill. Thank
you!
To Michael Smyer, tech guru and photographer: Brilliant photos for this edition.
Your technical contributions are always such a bonus. Great stuff!
To Dave Rush, technologist: Love, love, love arguing technology with you, Dave.
And your research skills blow me away! Thanks for all the great work in this edition.
To Travis Everett, Internet guru and writer: Great contributions on this edition,
Travis, from writing and research to copyedit and page proofing. Looking forward to
many more.
To Ford Pierson, editor: Thanks for jumping in on the page proofs, Ford. And thanks
for keeping it simple and diaper free.
To Dudley Lehmer, my partner at Total Seminars: As always, thanks for keeping the
ship afloat while I got to play on this book!
To Amy Stonebraker, acquisitions coordinator at McGraw-Hill: Thanks for keep-
ing us on track on so many levels. Love your quiet, but forceful voice at our weekly meet-
ings. Looking forward to the next one!
To Jody McKenzie and Howie Severson, project editors: It was a joy to work with
you both again. I couldn’t have asked for a better team. In fact, I asked for the best team
and got exactly what I wanted!
To Richard Camp, proofreader: Awesome work!
xxix
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CertPrs8 / OCA Java SE 7 Programmer I Study Guide (Exam 1Z0-803) / Finegan & Liguori / 942-1 / Front Matter / Blind Folio Cer
ii
This page is intentionally left blank to match the printed book.
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All-In-One / CompTIA A+ Certification All-in-One Exam Guide / Meyers / 951-X / Chapter 1
The Path of the PC Tech

CHAPTER
1
In this chapter, you will learn how to
• Explain the importance of CompTIA A+ certification
• Detail the CompTIA A+ certification objectives
• Describe how to become CompTIA A+ certified
The field of computing has changed dramatically over the decades since the introduc-
tion of the IBM Personal Computer (PC) in 1981, and so has the job of the people
who build, maintain, and troubleshoot computers. A PC tech for many years serviced
IBM-compatible desktop systems running a Microsoft operating system (OS), such as
DOS or, later, Windows. Figure 1-1 shows a typical system from the early days, running
Microsoft Windows 3.1. All a tech needed to service such a machine was a Phillips-head
screwdriver and knowledge of the hardware and OS.
Figure 1-1 An IBM-compatible PC, circa 1996
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2
The personal computing landscape today includes a zillion devices in all shapes, sizes,
and purposes. How many computing devices do you interact with every day? Seriously,
count them.
Here’s my typical contact in a day. My smartphone alarm clock awakens me in the
morning. I use either a Windows or Mac OS X desktop to check the morning news
and my e-mail by connecting to other computers over the Internet. Or, if the family
is on both systems, I’ll retreat to the study with a laptop running Ubuntu Linux to do
the same tasks. At the gym, my smartwatch keeps track of my exercises and my heart
rate. The computer in my car handles navigation and traffic reports for my daily com-
mute. At the office I’m literally surrounded by dozens of computing devices, because
everyone has a desktop or laptop computer, a tablet, a smartphone, plus any number of
wearable devices. See Figure 1-2.
Someone needs to set up, manage, maintain, and troubleshoot all of these devices.
Because you’re reading this book, I’m guessing that you are that someone. You’re going to
need a lot of knowledge about many systems to be a modern personal computer techni-
cian. A modern PC tech, therefore, works with many devices running many different
systems. Almost everything interconnects as well, and a PC tech makes that connection
happen.
Figure 1-2 We’re all PCs!
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Chapter 1: The Path of the PC Tech

3
NOTE This book uses the term “personal computer” and the initials “PC”
generically to refer to any kind of personal computing device. PCs here
mean things that techs interact with, can set up, and repair.
This book teaches you everything you need to know to become a great tech. It might
seem like a lot of information at first, but I’ll show you how each system functions and
interacts, so you learn the patterns they all follow. At some point in the process of reading
this book and working on computers, it will all click into place. You’ve got this!
Along the way, you’ll pick up credentials that prove your skill to employers and clients.
The rest of this chapter explains those credentials and the steps you need to take to
gain them.
CompTIA A+ Certification
Nearly every profession has some criteria that you must meet to show your competence
and ability to perform at a certain level. Although the way this works varies widely from
one profession to another, all of them will at some point make you take an exam or
series of exams. Passing these exams proves that you have the necessary skills to work at
a certain level in your profession, whether you’re an aspiring plumber, teacher, barber,
or lawyer.
If you successfully pass these exams, the organization that administers them grants you
certification. You receive some piece of paper or pin or membership card that you can
show to potential clients or employers. This certification gives those potential clients or
employers a level of confidence that you can do what you say you can do. Without this
certification, either you will not find suitable work in that profession or no one will trust
you to do the work.
Modern PC techs attain the CompTIA A+ certification, the essential credential that
shows competence in the modern field of information technology (IT), a fancy way of
saying computing technology plus all the other stuff needed to connect and support comput-
ers. CompTIA A+ is an industry-wide, vendor-neutral certification program developed
and sponsored by the Computing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA). You achieve
this certification by taking two computer-based exams consisting of multiple-choice
and performance-based questions. The tests cover what technicians should know after
12 months of hands-on work on personal computing devices, either from a job or as a
student in the lab. CompTIA A+ certification enjoys wide recognition throughout the
computer industry. To date, more than 1,000,000 technicians have become CompTIA
A+ certified, making it the most popular of all IT certifications.
Who Is CompTIA?
CompTIA is a nonprofit industry trade association based in Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois.
It consists of over 20,000 members in 102 countries. You’ll find CompTIA offices in
such diverse locales as Amsterdam, Dubai, Johannesburg, Tokyo, and São Paulo.
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4
CompTIA provides a forum for people in these industries to network (as in meeting
people), represents the interests of its members to the government, and provides certifi-
cations for many aspects of the computer industry. CompTIA sponsors CompTIA A+,
CompTIA Network+, CompTIA Security+, and other certifications. CompTIA works
hard to watch the IT industry and constantly looks to provide new certifications to meet
the ongoing demand from its membership. Check out the CompTIA Web site at www
.comptia.org for details on the other certifications you can obtain from CompTIA.
Virtually every company of consequence in the IT industry is a member of CompTIA.
Here are a few of the biggies:
AT&T AMD Best Buy Brother International

Canon Cisco Systems Epson Fujitsu
Gateway Hewlett-Packard IBM Intel
Kyocera McAfee Microsoft NCR
Novell Panasonic Sharp Electronics Siemens
Symantec Toshiba Total Seminars, LLC (that’s Plus many
my company) thousands more
CompTIA began offering CompTIA A+ certification back in 1993. When it debuted,

the IT industry largely ignored CompTIA A+ certification. Since that initial stutter,
however, the CompTIA A+ certification has grown to become the de facto requirement
for entrance into the PC industry. Many companies require CompTIA A+ certification
for all of their PC support technicians, and the CompTIA A+ certification is widely rec-
ognized both in the United States and internationally.
The Path to Other Certifications

Most IT companies—big and small—see CompTIA A+ certification as the entry point
to IT. From CompTIA A+, you have a number of certification options, depending on
whether you want to focus more on hardware and operating systems or move into net-
work administration (although these aren’t mutually exclusive goals). The following three
certifications are worth serious consideration:
• CompTIA Network+ certification

• Microsoft technical certifications
• Cisco certifications
NOTE CompTIA A+ is the entry point to IT, though definitely not the only
route for learning about computers and having certifications to prove that
knowledge. Several certifications cover computer literacy or digital literacy,
the phrase that means “what every person needs to know about computers to
survive in the 21st century.” The most popular computer literacy certification
is Certiport’s IC3 certification that tests on general computer knowledge;
office productivity applications, such as Microsoft Word and PowerPoint; and
Internet applications such as Web browsers and e-mail clients.
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5
CompTIA has a pre–CompTIA A+ certification called CompTIA IT
Fundamentals that’s geared a bit more to a user preparing to become a tech.
It’s designed to check basic knowledge levels for people getting into IT.
CompTIA Network+ Certification

Building, maintaining, and fixing networks—groups of computers that enable people to
share resources—represent a logical set of skills for computer technicians. Networks are
so integral to modern life that you have to learn a lot about them just to get CompTIA
A+ certified.
So, if you haven’t already achieved CompTIA Network+ certification, make it your
next certification goal after CompTIA A+ certification. Just as CompTIA A+ certifica-
tion shows that you have solid competency as a PC technician, CompTIA Network+
certification demonstrates your skills as a network technician, including your under-
standing of network hardware, installation, and troubleshooting. CompTIA’s Network+
certification is a natural step for continuing toward your Microsoft or Cisco certifications.
Microsoft Technical Certifications

Microsoft operating systems control a huge portion of all installed networks, and those net-
works need qualified support people to make them run. Pursuing Microsoft’s series of certi-
fications for networking professionals is a natural next step after completing the CompTIA
certifications. They offer a whole slew of tracks and exams, ranging from specializations
in Windows 8 to numerous Microsoft Certified Solutions Expert (MCSE) certifications and
beyond. You can find more details on the Microsoft Learning Web site at
www.microsoft.com/learning/en-us/default.aspx
Cisco Certification
Cisco routers pretty much run the Internet and most intranets in the world. A router
is a networking device that controls and directs the flow of information over networks,
such as e-mail messages, Web browsing, and so on. Cisco provides multiple levels of IT
certification for folks who want to show their skills at handling Cisco products, such as
the Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA), plus numerous specialty certifications. See
the Cisco IT Certification Web site here for more details:
www.cisco.com/web/learning/certifications/index.html
CompTIA A+ Objectives
CompTIA splits A+ certification into two exams: CompTIA A+ 220-901 and CompTIA
A+ 220-902. It’s common to refer to these two exams as the “2015” exams to differenti-
ate them from older CompTIA exams.
Although you may take either of the two exams first, I recommend taking 220-901 fol-
lowed by 220-902. The 220-901 exam concentrates on understanding terminology and
technology, how to do fundamental tasks such as upgrading RAM, and basic network
and mobile device support. The 220-902 exam builds on the first exam, concentrating
on operating system support, advanced configuration, and troubleshooting scenarios.
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6
Both of the exams are extremely practical, with little or no interest in theory, aside
from troubleshooting. All questions are multiple-choice, simulation, or “click on the
right part of the picture” questions. The following is an example of the type of questions
you will see on the exams:
Your laser printer is printing blank pages. Which item should you check first?
A. Printer drivers
B. Toner cartridge
C. Printer settings
D. Paper feed
The correct answer is B, the toner cartridge. You can make an argument for any of the
others, but common sense (and skill as a PC technician) tells you to check the simplest
possibility first.
The 2015 exams use a regular test format in which you answer a set number of ques-
tions and are scored based on how many correct answers you give. CompTIA makes
changes and tweaks over time, so always check the CompTIA Web site before final prep-
arations for the exams. These exams have no more than 90–100 questions each.
Be aware that CompTIA may add new questions to the exams at any time to keep
the content fresh. The subject matter covered by the exams won’t change, but new ques-
tions may be added periodically at random intervals. This policy puts strong emphasis
on understanding concepts and having solid PC-tech knowledge rather than on trying
to memorize specific questions and answers that may have been on the tests in the past.
No book or Web resource will have all the “right answers” because those answers change
constantly. Luckily for you, however, this book not only teaches you what steps to follow
in a particular case, but also explains how to be a knowledgeable tech who understands
why you’re doing those steps. That way, when you encounter a new problem (or test
question), you can work out the answer. This will help you pass the exams and function
as a master tech.
To keep up to date, we monitor the CompTIA A+ exams for new content and update
the special Tech Files section of the Total Seminars Web site (www.totalsem.com) with
new articles covering subjects we believe may appear on future versions of the exams.
Windows-Centric
The CompTIA A+ exams cover five different operating systems and many versions within
each OS. When you review the objectives a little later in this section, though, you’ll see
that the majority of content focuses on the Microsoft Windows operating systems you
would expect to find on a PC at a workstation or in a home. The exams cover a specific
and limited scope of questions on Linux, Mac OS X, iOS, and Android.
Objectives in the exams cover the following operating systems:
• Windows Vista Home Basic, Windows Vista Home Premium, Windows Vista
Business, Windows Vista Ultimate, Windows Vista Enterprise
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7
• Windows 7 Starter, Windows 7 Home Premium, Windows 7 Professional,
Windows 7 Ultimate, Windows 7 Enterprise
• Windows 8, Windows 8 Pro, Windows 8 Enterprise
• Windows 8.1, Windows 8.1 Pro, Windows 8.1 Enterprise
• Linux
• Mac OS X
• iOS
• Android
Windows 10
CompTIA has the darnedest luck when it comes to the timing of new CompTIA A+
exams compared to releases of new Windows versions. In 2006, CompTIA released
an update to the CompTIA A+ exams about four months before Microsoft released
Windows Vista. In 2009, CompTIA missed Windows 7 by about one month (though
CompTIA released a Windows 7 update to the exams in late 2009). The 2012 objectives
similarly missed the rollout of Windows 8.
It seems that CompTIA will once again run into what I’m going to call the “CompTIA
Windows Curse.” Microsoft released Windows 10 after CompTIA announced the objec-
tives for the 220-901 and 220-902 exams, but before the exams went live in December
2015. Assuming CompTIA stays true to form, there’s a very good chance that you’ll see
a Windows 10 update on the exams within a year or two of the Windows 10 rollout. Be
sure to check the CompTIA Web site or contact me directly at michaelm@totalsem.com
to see if any Windows 10 updates have taken place.
Try This!
Recommending an OS
Imagine this scenario. One of your first clients wants to upgrade her computing
gear and doesn’t know which way to go. It’s up to you to make a recommenda-
tion. This is a great way to assess your knowledge at the start of your journey into
CompTIA A+ certification, so Try This!
Open a Web browser on a computer or smartphone and browse to my favorite
tech store, Newegg (www.newegg.com). Scan through their computer systems.
What operating systems seem to be most common? What can you get from read-
ing reviews of, say, Chrome OS vs. Windows 10? Do they sell any Apple products?
Don’t get too wrapped up in this exercise. It’s just a way to ease you into the
standard research we techs do all the time to stay current. We’ll revisit this exercise
in later chapters so you can gauge your comfort and knowledge level over time.
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8
Table 1-1 Domain Percentage
Exam 220-901 1.0 Hardware 34%
Domains and
2.0 Networking 21%
Percentages
3.0 Mobile Devices 17%
4.0 Hardware and Network Troubleshooting 28%
Exam 220–901
The questions on the CompTIA A+ 220-901 exam fit into one of four domains. The
number of questions for each domain is based on the percentages shown in Table 1-1.
The 220-901 exam tests your knowledge of computer components, expecting you to
be able to identify just about every common device on PCs, including variations within
device types. Here’s a list:
• Hard drives • Video and multimedia cards

• Optical drives • Network and modem cards
• Solid state drives (SSDs) • Cables and connectors
• Motherboards • Heat sinks, fans, and liquid cooling systems
• Power supplies • Laptops and mobile devices
• CPUs • Printers and multifunction devices
• RAM • Scanners
• Monitors • Network switches, cabling, and wireless
• Input devices, such as keyboards, adapters
mice, and touchscreens • Biometric devices
The 220-901 exam tests your ability to install, configure, and maintain all the hard-
ware technology involved in a personal computer. You need to be able to install and
set up a hard drive, for example, and configure devices in Windows Vista, Windows 7,
Windows 8, and Windows 8.1. You have to understand device drivers.
The 220-901 exam tests you on mobile devices. While the smartphone and tablet
market covers an impossibly wide array of hardware and software, the 220-901 exam
focuses on Apple iOS and Google Android devices. You’ll need to know how to interact
with the hardware and software.
The 220-901 exam tests extensively on networking. You need to know how to set up
a typical local area network (LAN), for example, understanding cabling standards, net-
work protocols, and Windows configuration.
The 220-901 exam requires you to know a lot about hardware and network trouble-
shooting. You’ll get questions, for example, on how to fix a network failure.
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9
Table 1-2 Domain Percentage
Exam 220-902 1.0 Windows Operating Systems 29%
Domains and
2.0 Other Operating Systems & Technologies 12%
Percentages
3.0 Security 22%
4.0 Software Troubleshooting 24%
5.0 Operational Procedures 13%
Exam 220-902
The CompTIA A+ 220-902 exam covers five domains. Table 1-2 lists the domains and
the percentage of questions dedicated to each domain.
The 220-902 exam covers the configuration, repair, and troubleshooting of the Win-
dows operating system. You have to know your way around Windows and understand
the tasks involved in updating, upgrading, and installing Windows Vista, Windows 7,
Windows 8, and Windows 8.1. You need to know the standard diagnostic tools available
in Windows so that you can fix problems and work with higher-level techs. Make sure
you know Windows; 29% of the 220-902 questions are going to challenge you on this.
You need to know your way around the Linux and Mac OS X interfaces. Plus, the
220-902 exam tests you on accessing and properly using various tech tools for run-
ning maintenance, backup, and so forth. The exam goes into lots of detail on iOS and
Android configuration, such as setting up e-mail and securing the devices. But it’s not
just mobile devices . . .
In general, security is a big topic on the 220-902 exam. You need to know quite a
bit about computer security, from physical security (door locks to retinal scanners), to
knowledge of security threats (malware and viruses), to the ways in which to secure an
individual computer. This also includes coverage of how to recycle and dispose of com-
puter gear properly.
You’ll also be tested on methods for securing networks. You’ll need to know how to
access a small office/home office (SOHO) router or wireless access point and configure
that device to protect your network.
Additionally, this exam puts a lot for emphasis on operational procedures, such as safety
and environmental issues, communication, and professionalism. You need to understand
how to avoid hazardous situations. The exam tests your ability to communicate effectively
with customers and coworkers. You need to understand professional behavior and demon-
strate that you have tact, discretion, and respect for others and their property.
The Path to Certification

You become CompTIA A+ certified, in the simplest sense, by taking and passing two
computer-based exams. There are no prerequisites for taking the CompTIA A+ certifi-
cation exams (although there’s an assumption of computer literacy, whether or not you
have one of the computer literacy certifications). There is no required training course and
01-ch01.indd 9 19/11/15 7:25 PM


10
no training materials to buy. You do have to pay a testing fee for each of the two exams.
You pay your testing fees, go to a local testing center, and take the tests. You immediately
know whether you have passed or failed. By passing both exams, you become CompTIA
A+ certified.
To stay certified, every three years you’ll need to either retake the exam or perform
sufficient continuing education as specified by CompTIA.
Retaking the exams isn’t that hard to understand, but the continuing education require-
ment is a bit more complex. Instead of trying to explain it all, please review CompTIA’s
documentation here:
https://certification.comptia.org/stayCertified.aspx
Most importantly, if you pursue the continuing education path, you’ll need to earn 20
continuing education units (CEUs) each three-year period to renew your CompTIA A+
certification. How do you earn these CEUs? You can participate in industry events and
seminars, complete a presentation, participate in IT training, teach a course, or earn
another higher-level certification. The number of CEUs that you earn by completing
each of these requirements varies, and each requires that you submit documentation to
CompTIA for review.
Finding a Testing Center

Pearson VUE administers the CompTIA A+ testing at over 5000 testing centers in
165 countries. You may take the exams at any testing center. You can select the closest
training center and schedule your exams right from the comfort of your favorite Web
browser by going to the Pearson VUE Web site:
www.vue.com
Alternatively, in the United States and Canada, call Pearson VUE at 877-551-PLUS
(7587) to schedule the exams and to locate the nearest testing center. International cus-
tomers can find a list of Pearson VUE international contact numbers for various regions
of the world on their Web site here:
www.pearsonvue.com/comptia/contact/
You must pay for the exam when you call to schedule. Be prepared to sit on hold for a
while. Have your Social Security number (or international equivalent) and a credit card
ready when you call. Pearson VUE will be glad to invoice you, but you won’t be able to
take the exam until they receive full payment.
Pearson VUE will accommodate any special needs, although this may limit your selec-
tion of testing locations.
Exam Costs
The cost of the exam depends on whether you work for a CompTIA member or not. At
this writing, the cost for non-CompTIA members is $194 (U.S.) for each exam. Inter-
national prices vary, but you can check the CompTIA Web site for international pricing.
01-ch01.indd 10 19/11/15 7:25 PM


11
Of course, the prices are subject to change without notice, so always check the CompTIA
Web site for current pricing.
Very few people pay full price for the exam. Virtually every organization that provides
CompTIA A+ training and testing also offers discount vouchers. You buy a discount
voucher and then use the voucher number instead of a credit card when you schedule the
exam. Vouchers are sold per exam, so you’ll need two vouchers to take the two CompTIA
A+ exams. Total Seminars is one place to get discount vouchers. You can call Total Semi-
nars at 800-446-6004 or 281-922-4166, or get vouchers via the Web site: www.totalsem.
com. No one should ever pay full price for CompTIA A+ exams.
How to Pass the CompTIA A+ Exams

CompTIA designed the A+ exams to test the knowledge of a technician with only
12 months of experience, so keep it simple! The exams aren’t interested in your ability
to overclock DDR4 CAS latency in CMOS or whether you can explain the differences
between the Intel X99 and the AMD 990FX chipsets. Think in terms of practical knowl-
edge and standards. Read this book, do whatever works for you to memorize the key
concepts and procedures, take the practice exams on the media accompanying this book,
review any topics you miss, and you should pass with no problem.
NOTE Those of you who just want more knowledge in managing and
troubleshooting PCs can follow the same strategy as certification-seekers.
Think in practical terms and work with the PC as you go through each
chapter.
Some of you may be in or just out of school, so studying for exams is nothing novel.
But if you haven’t had to study for and take an exam in a while, or if you think maybe you
could use some tips, you may find the next section valuable. It lays out a proven strategy
for preparing to take and pass the CompTIA A+ exams. Try it. It works.
Obligate Yourself
The very first step you should take is to schedule yourself for the exams. Have you ever
heard the old adage, “Heat and pressure make diamonds?” Well, if you don’t give your-
self a little “heat,” you’ll end up procrastinating and delay taking the exams, possibly
forever. Do yourself a favor. Using the following information, determine how much time
you’ll need to study for the exams, and then call Pearson VUE or visit their Web site and
schedule the exams accordingly. Knowing the exams are coming up makes it much easier
to put down the game controller and crack open the book. You can schedule an exam
as little as a few weeks in advance, but if you schedule an exam and can’t take it at the
scheduled time, you must reschedule at least a day in advance or you’ll lose your money.
Set Aside the Right Amount of Study Time

After helping thousands of techs get their CompTIA A+ certification, we at Total Semi-
nars have developed a pretty good feel for the amount of study time needed to pass the
CompTIA A+ certification exams. The following table provides an estimate to help you
plan how much study time you must commit to the CompTIA A+ certification exams.
01-ch01.indd 11 19/11/15 7:25 PM


12
Keep in mind that these are averages. If you’re not a great student or if you’re a little on
the nervous side, add 10%; if you’re a fast learner or have a good bit of computer experi-
ence, you may want to reduce the figures.
To use Table 1-3, just circle the values that are most accurate for you and add them up
to get your estimated total hours of study time.
Amount of Experience
Tech Task None Once or Twice Every Now and Then Quite a Bit
Installing an adapter card 6 4 2 1
Installing and configuring hard 12 10 8 2
drives and SSDs
Connecting a computer to the 8 6 4 2
Internet
Installing printers and 16 8 4 2
multifunction devices
Installing RAM 8 6 4 2
Installing CPUs 8 7 5 3
Repairing printers 6 5 4 3
Repairing boot problems 8 7 7 5
Repairing portable computers 8 6 4 2
Configuring mobile devices 4 3 2 1
Building complete systems 12 10 8 6
Using the command line 8 8 6 4
Installing and optimizing 10 8 6 4
Windows
Using Windows Vista 6 6 4 2
Using Windows 7 8 6 4 2
Using Windows 8/8.1 8 6 4 2
Using Linux 8 6 6 3
Using Mac OS X 8 4 4 2
Configuring NTFS, Users, and 6 4 3 2
Groups
Configuring a wireless network 6 5 3 2
Configuring a software firewall 6 4 2 1
Configuring sound 2 2 1 0
Removing malware 4 3 2 0
Using OS diagnostic tools 8 8 6 4
Using a multimeter 4 3 2 1
Table 1-3 Analyzing Skill Levels
01-ch01.indd 12 19/11/15 7:25 PM


13
Months of Direct, Professional Experience Hours to Add to Your Study Time
0 50
Up to 6 30
6 to 12 10
Over 12 0
Table 1-4 Adding Up Your Study Time
To that value, add hours based on the number of months of direct, professional expe-
rience you have had supporting PCs, as shown in Table 1-4.
A total neophyte often needs roughly 240 hours of study time. An experienced tech
shouldn’t need more than 60 hours.
Total hours for you to study: _____________.
A Strategy for Study

Now that you have a feel for how long it’s going to take to prepare for the exams, you’re
ready to develop a study strategy. I suggest a strategy that has worked for others who’ve
come before you, whether they were experienced techs or total newbies.
This book accommodates the different study agendas of these two groups of students.
The first group is experienced techs who already have strong PC experience but need to
be sure they’re ready to be tested on the specific subjects covered by the CompTIA A+
exams. The second group is those with little or no background in the computer field.
These techs can benefit from a more detailed understanding of the history and concepts
that underlie modern PC technology, to help them remember the specific subject matter
information they must know for the exams. I’ll use the shorthand terms Old Techs and
New Techs for these two groups. If you’re not sure which group you fall into, pick a few
chapters and go through some end-of-chapter questions. If you score less than 70%, go
the New Tech route.
I have broken most of the chapters into four distinct parts:
• Historical/Conceptual Topics that are not on the CompTIA A+ exams but

will help you understand more clearly what is on the CompTIA A+ exams
• 901 Topics that clearly fit under the CompTIA A+ 220-901 exam domains
• 902 Topics that clearly fit under the CompTIA A+ 220-902 exam domains
• Beyond A+ More advanced issues that probably will not be on the CompTIA
A+ exams—yet
01-ch01.indd 13 19/11/15 7:25 PM


14
The beginning of each of these parts is clearly marked with a large banner that looks
like this:
Historical/Conceptual
Those of you who fall into the Old Tech group may want to skip everything except
the 901 and 902 parts in each chapter. After reading the sections in those parts, jump
immediately to the questions at the end of the chapter. The end-of-chapter questions
concentrate on information in the 901 and 902 sections. If you run into problems,
review the Historical/Conceptual sections in that chapter. Note that you may need to
skip back to previous chapters to get the Historical/Conceptual information you need
for later chapters.
After going through every chapter as described, Old Techs can move directly to test-
ing their knowledge by using the free practice exams on the media that accompanies
the book. Once you start scoring above 90%, you’re ready to take the exams. If you’re a
New Tech—or if you’re an Old Tech who wants the full learning experience this book
can offer—start by reading the book, the whole book, as though you were reading a novel,
from page one to the end without skipping around. Because so many computer terms
and concepts build on each other, skipping around greatly increases the odds that you
will become confused and end up closing the book and firing up your favorite game.
Not that I have anything against games, but unfortunately that skill is not useful for the
CompTIA A+ exams!
Your goal on this first read is to understand concepts, the whys behind the hows. Hav-
ing a PC nearby as you read is helpful so you can stop and inspect the PC to see a piece of
hardware or how a particular concept manifests in the real world. As you read about hard
drives, for example, inspect the cables. Do they look like the ones in the book? Is there a
variation? Why? It is imperative that you understand why you are doing something, not
just how to do it on one particular system under one specific set of conditions. Neither
the exams nor real life as a PC tech will work that way.
If you’re reading this book as part of a managing and troubleshooting PCs class
rather than a certification-prep course, I highly recommend going the New Tech route,
even if you have a decent amount of experience. The book contains a lot of details that
can trip you up if you focus only on the test-specific sections of the chapters. Plus,
your program might stress historical and conceptual knowledge as well as practical,
hands-on skills.
The CompTIA A+ certification exams assume that you have basic user skills. The
exams really try to trick you with questions on processes that you may do every day
and not think much about. Here’s a classic: “To move a file from the C:\DATA folder
to the D:\ drive using File Explorer, what key must you hold down while dragging the
file?” If you can answer that without going to your keyboard and trying a few likely
keys, you’re better than most techs! In the real world, you can try a few wrong answers
before you hit on the right one, but for the exams, you have to know it. Whether Old
01-ch01.indd 14 19/11/15 7:25 PM


15
Tech or New Tech, make sure you are proficient at user-level Windows skills, including
the following:
• Recognizing all the components of the standard Windows desktop (Start menu,
notification area, etc.)
• Manipulating windows—resizing, moving, and so on
• Creating, deleting, renaming, moving, and copying files and folders within
Windows
• Understanding file extensions and their relationship with program associations
• Using common keyboard shortcuts/hotkeys
• Installing, running, and closing a Windows application
When you do your initial read-through, you may be tempted to skip the Historical/
Conceptual sections—don’t! Understanding the history and technological developments
behind today’s personal computing devices helps you understand why they work—or
don’t work—the way they do. Basically, I’m passing on to you the kind of knowledge you
might get by apprenticing yourself to an older, experienced PC tech.
After you’ve completed the first read-through, go through the book again, this time in
textbook mode. If you’re an Old Tech, start your studying here. Try to cover one chapter
at a sitting. Concentrate on the 901 and 902 sections. Get a highlighter and mark the
phrases and sentences that bring out major points. Be sure you understand how the pic-
tures and illustrations relate to the concepts being discussed.
Once you feel you have a good grasp of the material in the book, you can check your
knowledge by using the practice exams included on the media accompanying this book.
You can take these in Practice mode or Final mode. In Practice mode, you can use the
Assistance window to get a helpful hint for the current questions, use the Reference fea-
ture to find the chapter that covers the question, check your answer for the question, and
see an explanation of the correct answer. In Final mode, you answer all the questions and
receive an exam score at the end, just like the real thing. You can also adjust the number
of questions on a Practice or Final mode exam with the Customize option.
Both modes show you an overall grade, expressed as a percentage, as well as a break-
down of how well you did on each exam domain. The Review Questions feature lets you
see which questions you missed and what the correct answers are. Use these results to
guide further studying. Continue reviewing the topics you miss and taking additional
exams until you are consistently scoring in the 90% range. When you get there, you are
ready to pass the CompTIA A+ certification exams.
Study Tactics
Perhaps it’s been a while since you had to study for a test. Or perhaps it hasn’t, but you’ve
done your best since then to block the whole experience from your mind. Either way,
savvy test-takers know that certain techniques make studying for tests more efficient
and effective.
01-ch01.indd 15 19/11/15 7:25 PM

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The B. Virgin and Isaias, from Cemetery of St. Priscilla.
Our Blessed Lady appears principally in the scene of the

Adoration of the Magi. Two, three, or four of these men (according to
the arrangement of the group and the space at the artist’s disposal)
stand in their Oriental dress, presenting their gifts to Christ who sits
on Mary’s knee. Once or twice also the Holy Child appears in His
Mother’s arms, or before her breast, without reference apparently to
any particular event in their lives, but either absolutely alone, or
standing opposite to Isaias, as though presenting in themselves the
fulfilment of his prophecies. One of these paintings in the Catacomb
on the Via Nomentana belongs to the fourth century; but for another
of far higher artistic merit, to be seen in the Catacomb of St. Priscilla,
the most competent judges do not hesitate to claim almost apostolic
antiquity; and the claim is supported by many and weighty
arguments. We cannot, however, discuss them here, for we have
already exceeded the limits we had proposed to ourselves.
The B. Virgin and Magi.
The B. Virgin, from the Cemetery on Via Nomentana.
In conclusion, we will give a slight sketch of the successive phases

in the development of Christian art within the limits of the first three
centuries; for, thanks to De Rossi’s almost microscopic examination
of every accessible corner of subterranean Rome, even this is now
possible. As each of these phases was derived from its predecessor
by a natural sequence of ideas, it is not pretended that they are
separated from one another by strict chronological boundaries which
are never transgressed; yet the characteristics of the several periods
are, in the main, sufficiently distinct to allow of their being followed as
safe guides in determining, at least approximately, the age of any
particular class, or even individual specimen of ornamentation.
We have already seen that primitive Christian art sprung out of an
alliance of ancient forms with new ideas; in its outward physiognomy
it proceeded directly, in point of style and method of execution, from
the school of Pagan decorative art, but it was animated by a new life;
and therefore it began at once to create a pictorial cycle for itself,
taken partly from historical and partly from allegorical materials. At
first the allegorical element greatly predominated. The fish and the
anchor, the lamb and the dove, the shepherd and the fisherman,
may be named as the most prominent examples; and all these
during the first, or, as it has been styled, the hieroglyphic or
ideographic period of Christian art, were characterised by the utmost
simplicity. The principal figure usually stood alone; the fisherman is
catching a fish, or the shepherd is carrying a sheep upon his
shoulders, and nothing more.
In the second period—i.e., from the middle of the second to the
middle of the third century—the Good Shepherd occurs less
frequently, and is represented less simply; he carries a goat, or he
plays his pipe; he stands amid trees in a garden, or in the midst of
his flock, and the several members of his flock stand in different
attitudes towards him, marking a difference of internal disposition.
Other figures also undergo similar changes; different emblems or
different typical histories are blended together, and the result is more
artistic; a more brilliant translation, so to speak, is thus given of the
same thoughts and ideas with which we have been familiar in a more
elementary form from the beginning. This change, or rather this
growth, was in truth only the natural result of time and of the pious
meditation of successive generations of Christians exercised upon
the history of their faith and upon the outward representations of its
mysteries, in which their forefathers had always delighted. The bud
had expanded, and the full-blown flower displayed new beauties—
beauties which had been there indeed before, but unseen. Thus we
meet again with the apostolic fisherman, but the river in which he
fishes is now a mystical river, formed by the waters which have
flowed from the rock struck by Moses. More Bible histories are made
use of; or, if not now introduced for the first time, are used more
frequently—the history of Daniel and of Jonas, the sacrifice of
Abraham, the resurrection of Lazarus, the healing of the paralytic at
Bethsaida, and others. And as all these histories have been
illustrated in the writings of cotemporary Fathers, the monuments
which represent them are of the highest value as an historical
expression of what Christians in those days believed and taught.
Both the writings and the paintings are evidently the faithful echo of
the same doctrinal teaching and tradition.
Glass from the Catacombs, now in Vatican Library.

Then follows a third period in the history of Christian art, which, if
the first two have been justly compared to its spring and summer,
may itself be certainly called its autumn. It extends from the middle
of the third century to the age of Constantine; and during this period
there is a certain falling off of leaves, accompanied by a further
development of the flower, without, however, any addition to its
beauty. The symbolical element is sensibly diminished; what we
have ventured to call Christian hieroglyphics are almost or quite
abandoned; the parables also are less used, and even the historical
types are represented in a more hard and literal form. If Moses is still
seen striking the mystical rock, the literal or historical Moses is at his
side, taking off his shoes before drawing near to the burning bush; or
the Jews are there, in their low round caps, drinking of the waters; or
if it is desired to keep the mystical sense of the history before the
people, it is deemed necessary to inscribe the name of Petrus over
the head of Moses, as we see in two or three specimens of the
gilded glasses found in the Catacombs, and belonging probably to
the fourth century. Christ no longer appears as the Good Shepherd,
but sits or stands in the midst of His Apostles, or, still more
frequently, miraculously multiplies the loaves and fishes. The fish is
no longer the mystical monogram, “containing a multitude of
mysteries,” but appears only as a necessary feature in the
representation of this same miracle. Lazarus appears swathed like a
mummy, in accordance, as we know, with the fact; but earlier artists
had idealised him, and made him rise from the tomb young, free, and
active. The three children refusing to adore the image set up by
Nabuchodonosor are brought forward, and placed in juxtaposition
with the three wise men adoring the Infant Jesus, suggesting a
comparison, or rather a contrast, very suitable to the altered
circumstances of the times.
This last remark, however, must not be allowed to mislead us. We
must not imagine that the chronological sketch which has been here
attempted of the development of Christian art has been in any way
suggested by a consideration of what was likely to have been its
course in consequence of the history of the Christian society. The
sketch is really the result of a very careful induction from the
laborious researches which De Rossi has made into the chronology
of the several parts of the Catacombs; and if there proves to be a
correspondence between the successive variations of character in
the works of art that are found there, and the natural progress of the
Christian mind or the outward condition of the Christian Church,
these are purely “undesigned coincidences,” which may justly be
urged in confirmation of our conclusion, though they formed no part
of the premisses. We may venture also to add, that the conclusions
were as contrary to the preconceived opinion of their discoverer as
of the Christian world in general. Nothing but the overwhelming
evidence of facts has forced their acceptance; but from these there
is no escape. When it was found that the oldest areæ in the
cemeteries are precisely those that are richest in paintings, and
those in the best style, whereas in the more modern areæ the
paintings are less in number, poorer in conception, and inferior in
point of execution, it was impossible not to suspect the justice of the
popular belief, that the infant Church, engaged in deadly conflict with
idolatry, had rejected all use of the fine arts, and that it was only in a
later and less prudent age that they had crept, as it were,
unobservedly into her service; and as fresh and fresh evidence of
the same kind has been multiplied in the course of the excavations,
a complete revolution has at length been effected in public opinion
on this matter. Even Protestant writers no longer deny that, from the
very first, Christians ornamented their subterranean cemeteries with
painting; only they insist that this was done, “not because it was
congenial to the mind of Christianity so to illustrate the faith, but
because it was the heathen custom so to honour the dead.” If by this
it is only meant that Christians, though renewed interiorly by the
grace of baptism, yet continued, in everything where conscience was
not directly engaged, to live conformably to the usages of their
former life, and that to ornament the tombs of the dead had been
one of those usages—it is, of course, quite true. Nevertheless it is
plain from the history that has here been given, that the earliest
essays of Christian art were much more concerned with illustrating
the mysteries of the faith than with doing honour to the dead.
Our space will not allow, neither is it necessary, that we should
enter at any length into the history of Christian sculpture, since the
same general laws of growth presided over this as over painting. It
must be remembered, however, that sculpture was used much more
sparingly, and did not attain its full Christian development nearly so
soon as the sister art. There was no room for it in the Catacombs
except on the faces and sides of the sarcophagi, which were
sometimes used there for the burial of the dead; neither was it
possible to execute it with the same freedom as painting. The
painter, buried in the bowels of the earth, prosecuted his labours in
secret, and, therefore, in comparative security, without fear of any
intrusion from the profane; but the work of the sculptor was
necessarily more public; it could not even be conveyed from the city
to the cemetery without the help of many hands, and it must always
have run the risk of attracting a dangerous degree of general
attention. We are not surprised, therefore, at hearing that some of
those sarcophagi which are found in the most ancient parts of the
Catacombs seem rather to have been purchased from Pagan
workshops than executed by Christians; those, for instance, on
which are figured scenes of pastoral life, of farming, of the vintage,
or of the chase, genii, dolphins, or other subjects equally harmless.
Sometimes it might almost seem as though the subjects had been
suggested by a Christian, but their Christian character blurred in the
execution by some Pagan hand, which added a doubtful or
unmeaning accessory,—e.g., a dog at the side of the shepherd. On
some others there are real Pagan subjects, but these were either
carefully defaced by the chisel, or covered up with plaster, or hidden
from sight by being turned towards the wall.
Sarcophagus still to be seen in the Cemetery of San Callisto.

Very ancient Sarcophagus, found in Crypt of St. Lucina.
When, however, in progress of time, all fear of danger was past,

the same series of sacred subjects as are seen in the fresco-
paintings of the second and third centuries is reproduced in the
marble monuments of the fourth and fifth; only they appear, of
course, in their later, and not in their earlier form; often even in a still
more developed and literally historical form than in any of the
subterranean paintings. Thus Adam and Eve no longer stand alone,
one on either side of the fatal tree, but the Three Persons of the Holy
Trinity are introduced in the work of creation and the promise of
redemption. Adam receives a wheat sheaf, in token that as a
punishment for his sin he shall till the ground, and to Eve a lamb is
presented, the spinning of whose wool is to be part of her labour.
Daniel does not stand alone in the lions’ den, but Habacuc is there
also, bearing in his hand bread, and sometimes fish, for the
prophet’s sustenance. To the resurrection of Lazarus the figure of
one of his sisters is added, kneeling at our Lord’s feet, as though
petitioning for the miracle. Our Lord stands between St. Peter and
St. Paul, and He gives to one of them a volume, roll, or tablet,
representing the new law of the Gospel. On the gilded glasses which
belong to the same period the legend is added, Lex Domini, or
Dominus legem dat. The Apostles are distinguished, the one as the
Apostle of the Jews, the other of the Gentiles; and even two small
temples or churches are added, out of which sheep are coming forth;
and over one is written Jerusalem, and over the other Bethlehem.
This is a scene with which we are familiar in the grand old mosaics
of the Roman Basilicas, a further development of Christian art, to
which, as far as the choice of subjects is concerned and the mode of
executing them, the sculpture may be considered a sort of
intermediate step after the decline of painting.
Glass in the Vatican Library.
Representing Christ between SS. Peter and Paul; also Christ as the Lamb, and the
faithful as Lambs—Jews and Gentiles coming from Jerusalem and Bethlehem
(Becle) to Mount Sion, whence flow the four Evangelical Streams, united in the
Mystical Jordan.
We may still further add, that the cycle of scriptural subjects was
somewhat enlarged by the sculptors; at least, we do not know of any
paintings in the Catacombs which represent our Lord giving sight to
the blind, or raising the dead child to life, or healing the woman who
touched the hem of His garment; or His nativity, His triumphant entry
into Jerusalem, or certain scenes of His Passion; yet all these, and
some others besides, may be seen carved on the old Christian
monuments collected in the Lateran Museum at Rome and
elsewhere. The sarcophagus which has the representation of the
Nativity, and with the traditional ox and ass by the manger, has its
own date upon it, a.d. 343; but, as we are not here writing a
complete history of Christian art, it must suffice to have given this
general idea of its earliest efforts both in painting and sculpture.
CHAPTER VI.
THEIR INSCRIPTIONS.
What student of antiquity, or what merely intelligent observer of

men and manners, is content to leave an old church or churchyard
without first casting his eye over its monumental inscriptions? In like
manner, we think our readers would justly complain if we bade them
take leave of the Catacombs without saying a word about their
epitaphs. And if the study of any considerable number of epitaphs
anywhere is pretty sure to be rewarded by the discovery of
something more or less interesting, how much more have we not a
right to expect from the monuments of Roman Christianity during a
period of three or four hundred years!
And truly, if all these monuments had been preserved and
gathered together into one place, or, better still, had all been left in
their original places, they would have formed an invaluable and
inexhaustible library for the Christian archæologist. This, however,
has not been their lot. Hundreds and thousands of them have been
destroyed by those who have broken into the Catacombs from time
to time during the last thousand years, and drawn from them
materials for building. Others, again, and amongst them some of the
most valuable, have been given to learned antiquarians or devout
ecclesiastics, who coveted them for their own private possession,
and carried them off to their own distant homes, without reflecting
upon the grievous injury which they were thus inflicting upon those
that should come after them. A much larger number have been most
injudiciously placed, even by persons who knew their value, and
were anxious for their preservation, in the pavements of Roman
churches, where they have been either gradually effaced by the
constant tread of worshippers, or thoughtlessly removed and lost
sight of on occasion of some subsequent restoration of this portion of
the church. A few have been more securely placed in the museums
of the Capitol and of the Roman College, in the porticoes of some of
the Roman churches, or in the cloisters of convents. Lastly, twelve or
thirteen hundred were brought together, some eighty or ninety years
ago, in the Library and Lapidarian Gallery at the Vatican—a number
sufficiently great to enable us to appreciate their value, and to
increase our regret that so many more should have been dispersed
and lost.
It is to the sovereign Pontiffs that we are principally indebted for
whatever fragments have been preserved from the general wreck.
As early as the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V.
seems to have entertained the idea of collecting all the lapidarian
monuments of early Christianity which had at that time been
discovered; and both Eugenius IV., his immediate predecessor, and
Calixtus III. who succeeded him, forbade, under heavy penalties, the
alienation or destruction of anything belonging to this class of
monuments. When Leo X., too, appointed Raphael to superintend
the works at the rebuilding of St. Peter’s, he gave him a special
charge that the res lapidaria should not be injured. In later times,
these injunctions became more earnest and more frequent, in
proportion to the increasing number and importance of the
inscriptions that were brought to light. Still nothing practical appears
to have been devised until the reign of Benedict XIV., who appointed
the learned Francesco Bianchini to collect all the inscribed stones
that could be found; and it was he who recommended the long
narrow gallery leading to the Vatican Library and Museum as a
convenient place for their preservation. Even then political and other
difficulties interfered to prevent the execution of the design, so that it
was not until the close of the last century that it was really carried out
by Gaetano Marini, under the orders of Pope Pius VI. It is to be
regretted that he took so little pains to make the most of such
materials as he had. He merely inserted the monuments in the wall,
without giving any indication of the places where they had been
found, or making any attempts to classify them, beyond separating
the few which contain the names of the consuls from those which are
without this chronological note. A small selection has since been
made, in our own day, by De Rossi, in obedience to the orders of
Pope Pius IX., and placed in a gallery of the Lateran Palace,
adjoining the Christian Museum. The arrangement of these
specimens (few as they are, comparatively speaking) makes it a
valuable guide to those who would study this part of our subject to
any profit.
The collections at the Vatican and the Lateran together do not
exceed two thousand. Hundreds of others, recovered by more recent
excavations, have not yet found a suitable home; many have been
left in their original sites. Still it will always remain true that the
number actually in existence is quite insignificant when compared
with those which have been destroyed or lost. A large proportion,
however, even of these have not altogether perished; they were
copied, not always with accuracy, yet with praiseworthy diligence, by
various scholars, even from the eighth and ninth centuries; and since
the invention of printing, similar collections have been, of course,
more frequent. We need not enter into any detailed account of these;
we will say but a brief word even about De Rossi’s collection, for as
yet he has only published the first volume, which contains all the
Christian inscriptions of Rome during the first six centuries, whose
date is indisputably fixed by the names of the consuls having been
appended to them.
Of these, only one belongs to the first century, two to the second,
the third supplies twenty, and the fourth and fifth about five hundred
each. Of this last century, of course, only those which belong to the
first ten years can be claimed for the Catacombs, because, as we
have already seen, they ceased after that period to be the common
cemetery of the faithful. It appears, then, that all the dated
inscriptions of gravestones found in the Catacombs up to the year
1864 do not amount to six hundred: whence some writers have
argued that in the earliest ages Christians were not in the habit of
inscribing epitaphs on their graves. This conclusion, however, is
obviously illogical; for we have no right to assume that the proportion
between dated and undated inscriptions remained uniform during the
first four centuries. If there are only six hundred epitaphs bearing the
names of consuls, there are more than twice as many thousands
without those names; and we must seek, by independent processes
of inquiry, to establish other chronological criteria, which, if not
equally exact, may yet be shown to be generally trustworthy. And
this is what De Rossi has done, with a zeal tempered by caution
which is beyond all praise. It would be impossible to exaggerate,
first, the slow and patient industry with which he has accumulated
observations; then the care and assiduity with which he compares
the innumerable examples he has collected with one another, so as
to ascertain their marks of resemblance and difference; and finally,
the moderation with which he has drawn his conclusions. These vary
in value, from mere conjecture to the highest degree of probability, or
even of moral certainty. In a popular work like this, there is no room
for discussion; we must confine ourselves to a statement of some of
the best ascertained and most important facts, resting upon certain
chronological canons, which a daily increasing experience warrants
us in saying are now demonstrated with palpable and almost
mathematical exactness.
First, then, De Rossi observes it as a notable fact, attested by the
contents of all the Catacombs, that the most ancient inscriptions on
Christian tombs differ from those of the Pagans “more by what they
do not say, than by what they do say.” The language of Christian
epigraphy was not created in a day any more than Christian art was.
There were urgent reasons for changing or omitting what the Pagans
had been wont to use; but the Church did not at once provide
anything else in its stead. Hence the very earliest Christian
tombstones only recorded the bare name or names of the deceased,
to which, in a very few instances, chiefly of ladies, one or two words,
or the initials of words, were added, to denote the rank or title which
belonged to them—e.g., C.F., clarissima femina, or lady of senatorial
rank. Generally speaking, however, there is an entire absence from
these epitaphs of all those titles of rank and dignity with which Pagan
monuments are so commonly overloaded. And the same must be
said of those titles also which belong to the other extremity of the
social scale, such as servus and libertus. One cannot study a dozen
monuments of Pagan Rome without coming across some trace of
this great social division of the ancient world into freemen and
slaves. Yet in a number of Christian inscriptions in Rome, exceeding
twelve or thirteen thousand, and all belonging to centuries during
which slavery still flourished, scarcely ten have been found—and
even two or three of these are doubtful—containing any allusion
whatever to this fundamental division of ancient Roman society. It is
not to be supposed that there was any legislation upon the subject;
not even, perhaps, a hint from the clergy; it was simply the
spontaneous effect of the religious doctrines of the new society,
reflected in their epigraphy as in a faithful mirror. The children of the
Primitive Church did not record on their monuments titles of earthly
dignity, because they knew that with the God whom they served
there was no respect of persons; neither did they care to mention the
fact of their bondage, or of their deliverance from bondage, to some
earthly master, because they thought only of that higher and more
perfect liberty “wherewith Christ had set them free;” remembering
that “he that was called, being a bondman, was yet a freeman of the
Lord; and likewise he that was called, being free, was still the
bondman of Christ.”
We repeat, then, that the most ancient inscriptions on Christian
gravestones in Rome consisted merely of the name of the deceased;
ordinarily his cognomen only, though in some of the very earliest
date the name of the gens was also added; not, we may be sure,
from a motive of vanity, but merely for the purpose of identification.
Large groups of inscriptions of this kind may still be seen in some of
the oldest portions of subterranean Rome; traced in vermilion on the
tiles, as in the Catacomb of Sta. Priscilla, or engraved in letters of
most beautiful classical form, as in the Cœmeterium Ostrianum and
the Cemetery of Pretextatus. The names are often of classical origin;
nearly a hundred instances of Claudii, Flavii, Ulpii, Aurelii, and others
of the same date, carrying us back to the period between Nero and
the first of the Antonines. Very often there is added after the names,
as on Pagan tombstones, such words as filio dulcissimo, conjugi
dulcissimo, or, incomparabili, dulcissimis parentibus, and nothing
else. In fact, these epitaphs vary so little from the old classical type,
that had they not been seen by Marini and other competent
witnesses—some of them even by De Rossi himself—in their original
position, and some of them been marked with the Christian symbol
of the anchor, we might have hesitated whether they ought not rather
to be classed among Pagan monuments; as it is, we are sure that
they belonged to the earliest Christian period; that they are the
gravestones of men who died in the Apostolic, or immediately post-
Apostolic age.
It was not to be expected, however, that Christian epitaphs should
always remain so brief and bare a record. In the light of Christian
doctrine, death had altogether changed its character; it was no
longer an everlasting sleep, though here and there a Christian
epitaph may still be found to call it so; it was no longer a final and
perpetual separation from those who were left behind; it was
recognised as the necessary gate of admission to a new and nobler
life; and it was only likely, therefore, that some tokens of this change
of feeling and belief should, sooner or later, find expression in the
places where the dead were laid. Amid the almost innumerable
monumental inscriptions of Pagan Rome that have been preserved
to us, we seek in vain for any token of belief in a future life. Generally
speaking, there is a total silence on the subject; but if the silence is
broken, it is by faint traces of poetical imagery, not by the distinct
utterances of a firm hope, much less of a clear and certain belief.
The Christian epitaphs first broke this silence by the frequent use of
a symbol, the anchor indicating hope, carved or rudely scratched
beside the name upon the gravestone. Presently they added words
also; words which were the natural outpourings of hearts which were
full of Christian faith and love. On a few gravestones in those parts of
the Catacomb of Sta. Priscilla already spoken of, we read the
Apostolic salutation, Pax tecum, or Pax tibi; on one in the
Cœmeterium Ostrianum, Vivas in Deo, and these are the first germs,
out of which Christian epigraphy grew.
The epitaphs on the gravestones of the latter half of the second
and of the third centuries are only a development of the fundamental
ideas contained in these ejaculations. They still keep silence as to
the worldly rank, or the Christian virtues of the deceased; they do not
even, for the most part, tell us anything as to his age, or his
relationship to the survivor who sets up the stone; most commonly,
not even the day of his death or burial. But they announce with
confident assurance that his soul has been admitted to that happy lot
reserved for the just who have left this world in peace, that he is
united with the saints, that he is in God, and in the enjoyment of
good things; or they breathe a humble and loving prayer that he may
soon be admitted to a participation in these blessings. They ask for
the departed soul peace, and light, and refreshment, and rest in God
and in Christ. Sometimes, also, they invoke the help of his prayers
(since he, they know, still lives in God) for the surviving relatives
whose time of trial is not yet ended. In a word, they proceed upon
the assumption that there is an incessant interchange of kindly
offices between this world and the next, between the living and the
dead; they represent all the faithful as living members of one Body,
the Body of Christ; as forming one great family, knit together in the
closest bonds of love; and this love finding its chief work and
happiness in prayer, prayer of the survivors for those who have gone
before, prayer of the blessed for those who are left behind. We
subjoin a few examples of the class of epitaphs of which we speak;
and to secure accuracy, we will only give those that we have
ourselves copied from the originals, and which every visitor to Rome
may, therefore, still see if he pleases. The figures which we have
appended to some of these inscriptions denote the column and the
number under which they will be found in the gallery at the Lateran;
the letters k.m. refer to the Kircherian Museum at the Roman
College; and the last four may be seen where they were found, in the
Catacomb of SS. Nereus and Achilles.
1. Pax tecum, Urania, xviii. 17.

2. Spes, Pax tibi. xviii. 20.
3. ΥΓΙΕΙΑ ΖΗΣΕΣ ΜΕΤΑ ΙΣΤΕΡΚΟΡΙΟΥ
ΤΟΥ ΛΕΓΟΜΕΝΟΥ ΥΓΕΙΝΟΥ ΕΝ ΤΕΩ. xix. 23.
4. ΦΙΓΟΥΜΕΝΗ ΕΝ ΕΙΡΗΝΗ ΣΟΥ ΤΟ ΠΝΕΥΜΑ. ix. 28.
5. Lais cum pace. Ispiritus in bonu quescat. ix. 15.
6. Susanna vivas in Deo. xx. 30.
7. Semper in D. vivas, Dulcis anima. ix. 5.
8. Regina, vivas in Domino Zesu. ix. 17.
9. Bolosa, Deus tibi refrigeret quæ vixit annos xxxi. ix. 12.
10. Amerimnus Rufinæ ... Spiritum tuum Deus refrigeret. ix.
13.
11. Refrigera Deus anima Ho.... ix. 14.
12. Kalemere Deus refrigeret spiritum tuum
Una cum sororis tuæ Hilare. k. m.
13. Lucifere ... meruit titulum
Inscribi ut quisqui de fratribus legerit roget Deu
Ut sancto et innocenti spirito ad Deum suscipiatur. ix.
10.
14. Anatolius filio benemerenti fecit
Qui vixit annis vii mensis vii diebus xx
Ispiritus tuus bene requiescat
In Deo. Petas pro sorore tua. viii. 19.
15. Aurelivs agapetvs et aurelia
Felicissima alvmne felicitati
Dignissimæ qve vicsit anis xxx et vi
Et pete pro celsinianv cojvgem. viii. 21.
16. Pete pro parentes tvos
Matronata matrona
Qve vixit an. i. di. Liii. viii. 18.
17. ΔΙΟΝΥϹΙΟϹ ΝΗΠΙΟϹ ΑΚΑΚΟϹ ΕΝΘΑΔΕ
ΚΕΙΤΕ ΜΕΤΑ ΤΩΝ ΑΓΙΩΝ ΜΝΗϹΚΕϹΘΕ
ΔΕ ΚΑΙ ΗΜΩΝ ΕΝ ΤΑΙϹ ΑΓΙΑΙϹ ΥΜΩΝ
ΠΡΕΥΧΑΙϹ ΚΑΙ ΤΟΥ ΓΛΥΨΑΤΟϹ ΚΑΙ ΓΡΑΨΑΝΤΟϹ. k. m.
18. Gentianvs fidelis in pace qvi vix
It annis xxi menns viii dies
Xvi et in orationis tvis
Roges pro nobis qvia scimvs te in ☧. (Vatican Gallery.)
19. ΔΗΜΗΤΡΙϹ ΕΤ ΛΕΟΝΤΙΑ
ϹΕΙΡΙΚΕ ΦΕΙΛΙΕ ΒΕΝΕΜΕΡΕΝ
ΤΙ ΜΝΗϹΘΗϹ ΙΗϹΟΥϹ
Ο ΚΥΡΙΟϹ ΤΕΚΝΟΝ Ε....
20. Victoria refriger
Isspiritus tus in bono.
21. ... vibas in pace et pete pro nobis.
22. ΖΗϹΑΙϹ ΕΝ ̅Κ̅Ω ΚΑΙ ΕΡΩΤΑ ΥΠΕΡ ΗΜΩΝ.
1. Peace with thee, Urania.

2. Peace to thee, Spes.
3. Hygeia, mayest thou live in God with Stercorius, who is (also)
called Hyginus.
4. Beloved one, may thy spirit be in peace.
5. Peace with thee, Lais. May thy spirit rest in good [i.e., God].
6. Susanna, mayest thou live in God.
7. Sweet soul, mayest thou always live in God.
8. Regina, mayest thou live in the Lord Jesus.
9. Bolosa, may God refresh thee; who lived thirty-one years.
10. Amerimnus ... to Rufina, may the Lord refresh thy spirit.
11. Refresh, O God, the soul of ...
12. Kalemere, may God refresh thy spirit, together with that of thy
sister Hilare.
13. Lucifera ... deserved that an epitaph should be inscribed to
her, that whoever of the brethren shall read it, may pray
God that her holy and innocent spirit may be received to
God.
14. Anatolius set this up to his well-deserving son, who lived
seven years, seven months, and twenty days. May thy
spirit rest well in God. Pray for thy sister.
15. Aurelius Agapetus and Aurelia Felicissima to their most
excellent foster-child Felicitas, who lived thirty-six years;
and pray for your husband Celsinianus.
16. Pray for your parents, Matronata Matrona, who lived one year
and fifty-three days.
17. Dionysius, an innocent child, lies here with the saints: and
remember us, too, in your holy prayers, both me who
engraved and me who wrote [this inscription].
18. Gentianus, one of the faithful, in peace, who lived twenty-one
years, eight months, and sixteen days: and in your
prayers make petition for us, because we know that thou
art in Christ.
19. Demetrius and Leontia to their well-deserving daughter
Syrica. Remember, O Lord Jesus, our child.
20. Victoria, may thy spirit be refreshed in good [i.e., in God].
21. Mayest thou live in peace and pray for us.
22. Mayest thou live in the Lord and pray for us.
It would be easy to fill several pages with inscriptions of this kind;

but enough has been produced to impress upon the reader a fair
idea of their general character. They abound on the monuments of
the second and third centuries; but after that date they fade out of
use, and are succeeded by a new style of epigraphy, colder and
more historical. Mention is now made of the exact age of the
deceased, and of the length of his married life, not as to years only,
but as to months, and sometimes even as to days and hours; of the
day of his death also, more commonly of his burial, and, in a few
instances, of both. To record the day of the burial (depositio) was
creeping into use before the end of the third century; from the middle
of the fourth, it became little short of universal; and in this century
and the next, mention of the year also was frequently added. During
this period, the phrase in pace became general, as a formula to be
used by itself absolutely without any verb at all. In old Christian
inscriptions in Africa, this phrase frequently occurs with the verb vixit;
in which case the word pax is undoubtedly used in the same sense
in which Tertullian, St. Cyprian, and other ecclesiastical writers
employ it, as denoting peace with God to be obtained through
communion with the Church; and in a community distracted by
schisms and heresies, as the African Church was, such a record on
the tomb of a Christian is intelligible and important. Not so in Rome;
here the purport of the thousands of greetings of peace has
reference to the peace of a joyful resurrection and a happy eternity,
whether spoken of with confidence as already possessed, or only
prayed for with glad expectation. The act of death had been
expressed in earlier epitaphs under Christian phrases:—Translatus
de sæculo; exivit de sæculo; arcessitus a Domino, or ab angelis;
natus in æternum; or, much more commonly, Deo reddidit spiritum;
and this last phrase had come into such established use by the
middle of the third century, that the single letter R was a recognised
abbreviation of it. But, in the second half of that century, and still
more frequently afterwards decessit was used in its stead; and in the
fifth century we find this again superseded by Hic jacet, pausat,
quiescit, or requiescit.
Complimentary phrases as to the goodness, wisdom, innocence,
and holiness of the deceased came into fashion about the age of
Constantine, and in later times were repeated with such uniformity
as to be quite wearisome; we see that they were simply formal and

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

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Chapter 1 The Path of the PC Tech .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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The Path of the PC Tech

Figure 1-1 An IBM-compatible PC, circa 1996

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CompTIA A+ Certification All-in-One Exam Guide

Figure 1-2 We’re all PCs!

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