THE MEIJI RESTORATION 2

INSTABILITY AND CHINA 4

DOMESTIC INSTABILITY AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS 6

ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL ISSUES 7

THE SECOND SINO-JAPANESE WAR 1937 – 45 9

THE MANCHURIAN CRISIS 12

PEARL HARBOUR AND THE PACIFIC 14

The Meiji Restoration

➔ Emperor Meiji reigned 1867 – 1912

◆ Period of massive reform
● Move from feudal to modern, industrial society
◆ Widespread changes transformed Japanese economy + society
○
➔ Political Changes
◆
➔ Capital relocated to Tokyo
➔
➔ 1889 Constitution designed by Privy Council
◆ Selected by emperor
◆ Emperor confirmed as head of state + divine individual
● Authority came from emperor, not parliament
◆ Prime Minister + Cabinet appointed by Emperor, not parliament
● Military under Emperor, not parliament
○ Held 2 cabinet positions at all times
● Any minister disagreeing with proposed law caused govt collapse
○ Emperor then appointed new ministers
○
➔ 2 house Parliament (Diet) to make laws
◆ House of Representatives
● Elected by males 25+ yrs
◆ Emperor appointed House of Peers
◆ All laws needed approval from both Houses
● Then to Cabinet, then Privy Council + finally Emperor
●
➔ Economic Developments
●
➔ Based on learning from the West, Japanese established factories for textiles, steel paper
etc..
◆ Few natural resources caused heavy dependence on foreign trade for coal & iron
● Paid for in manufactured goods
➔ Adopted telegraph & later telephone
➔ Built railroads, shipyards, harbours
➔ Modern methods of irrigation, seeds, fertilizers reformed agricultural sector
➔
➔ Changes in Society
➔
➔ Established schools by 1000’s, raising Japanese literacy to 90%
◆ Highest in Asia, above most countries globally
◆ Numerous colleges & universities offered specialised training in science,
technology & business methods
◆ School curriculum emphasised science, maths & literacy
● Still emphasised obedience to & respect for elders, teachers, Emperor
➔ 1000’s newspapers & magazines created to meet demands of newly literate masses
➔
➔ Changes to fundamental aspects of Japanese society also
 ◆ Meat introduced as part of diet
◆ Western clothes & hairstyles appearing in cities
◆
➔ Military innovations
◆
➔ Officer class dominated by upper class samurai
◆ Conscription introduced for all males 20 yrs old – 3 yrs service
● Saw army as preferable to farming
● Gained access to career seen as high status
◆ Upheld samurai ideals of endurance, indifference to pain, loyalty & honour
◆ Reorganised military on German lines, Navy copied Britain
● As modern army & navy developed, many Japanese filled with national
pride
●
➔ Rise of nationalism and militarism
➔
➔ Primarily based around Emperor, schools, & military
◆ School curriculum promoted feelings of faith in & loyalty to nation
◆ Taught to love, revere + obey emperor (& thus gov’t)
◆ State Shintoism reminded people of long history, unique traditions & culture
● Created belief in Japan being most advanced Asian nation, with special
mission to lead rest of region from under Western domination
○ Only Asian nation not colonised by Europe
○ Divine Emperor leading ancient culture, little racial mixing
◆ Caused rise of racism towards non-Japanese Asians
◆
➔ Samurai influence on military, as well as training, further enhanced growth of modern
nationalism + militarism
◆ In order to carry out special mission, strong army/ navy required in case of
conflict with US/ UK/ France
● Expansionist policy required to enable Japan to push colonial powers out
of Asia
● Other nations would benefit from being under Japanese rule

INSTABILITY AND CHINA

1. The Warlord Era

➔ China in a state of civil war
◆ Divided into regions, each controlled by a diff. Warlord
◆ Chinese Communist Party in south, mainly cities

A. Manchuria
➔ Manchuria ruled by Zhang Zonulin
◆ Expanded across northern china, including taking control of Beijing
◆ Declared independence in 1922
◆ Allowed Japanese to continue to develop railways, mines etc
 ● Assassinated by Kwantung Army
○ Elite forces stationed in Liaodong Peninsula
○ No punishment for assassins
B. End of warlords
➔ 1926, nationalist Kuomintang (KMT) and CCP began to reunify China in Northern
Expedition
◆ Led by Chiang Kai Shek
◆ Conquered most warlords by 1928
◆ Broke alliance with CCP and attacked
◆ Assisted Zhang’s son to regain control of Manchuria
◆
➔ Reunification drive had significant impacts
◆ National infrastructure destroyed
● Railways, bridges
◆ Famine in NW China killed 3-6 million
◆ Attacking CCP alienated china from neighbouring USSR
● CCP survived, remained threat to KMT
●
2. Japanese Policy Towards China up to 1931
➔ Up to 1927, Japan used negotiation and diplomacy with China
◆ Changed during Northern Expedition
● Preferred weak, divided China could be dominated
● Concerned about the rapid success of KMT
○ Worried united china might challenge control of Manchuria
○ Sent troops into Shantung Peninsula
○

➔ - 1927 Adopted Positive Policy

◆ - Manchuria treated differently to China
◆ - No longer listened to international communities views on Manchuria
● - Europeans sought to keep Japan weak
● - Did not understand Japan's needs/ interests or mission in Asia
●
➔ - Govt reinforced Kwantung Army, aimed to replace leadership with men loyal to Govt
◆ - As punishment for involvement in Zhang Zoulins assassination
◆ - Hours before new general arrived, army acted without govt orders
● - Manchurian crisis began
DOMESTIC INSTABILITY AND FOREIGN AFFAIRS

➔ Economic crisis led to instability

◆ Govt. unable to create policies regarding the Great Depression
◆ Struggle over Manchuria

A. Domestic Instability
➔ Govt. System was extremely complex
◆ Military Authorities had direct access to Emperor
◆ Cabinet worked for the Emperor, couldn’t be removed by Diet
◆ All ministers had to agree to a particular policy or policy wouldn’t
be enacted
◆ Lower house of Diet, HOR responsible for taxation and budgets,
could block funding if it disagreed with policies
◆ House of Peers in Diet often worked against cabinet and HOR
since many were former cabinet members
◆ The Privy Council and its genro had direct access to the Emperor,
and had veto power over the government.

➔ Lots of political parties, ideology

◆ Even within army and navy
◆ Focused on social, economic and military policy
➔ Managed to survive 1920s

B. Communism
➔ Appealed to millions of unemployed urban workers
◆ Actual party number small
◆ Advocate throwing over the Emperor
➔ Peace and protection law (1925) Amended 1928
◆ Allowed for execution who opposed the government. System
➔ USSR bordered Manchuria, where Japan had interests

C. The Showa Restoration

➔ Emperor grandson (Hirohito)
➔ Conservative member of society wanted to give Showa Emperor full
power
◆ Have full power without parliament
➔ Was also popular with rural population due to economic hardships
◆ Believed the Emperor would remove the government. corruption
◆ Many joined military
● Became a powerful conservative, ultanat. force
 D. Military Forces
➔ Military internally divided
◆ Toseiha (Control Faction)
● Wanted to reform the government. not destroy
● Reforms would Ally the army with the zaibatsu, govt.
Officials, suppress political parties, have tight budgets.
Control of economy and prep nation for total war w/ China
●
➔ Radical fractions eg. Sakurakai and Kōdōdah wanted
◆ Complete destruction of all political parties
◆ Destruction of Zaibatsu
◆ Destruction of govt.
◆ War with USSR
◆ Destruction of communist and socialist groups
◆ Reactionary
➔ Tried several coups d’etat
◆ 1931: ‘March Incident’ by Sakurakai
◆ 1931: ‘October Incident’
◆ 1932 ‘League of Blood Incidence’
◆ 1936: ‘February Incident’
➔ Increasing instability led to the government. Turning to the Toseiha
◆ Out of fear
◆ Took control of the government.

ECONOMICS AND POLITICAL ISSUES

1. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND FOREIGN POLICIES
- Japanese economy 1890s-1920 gangbusters
- Processing of minerals up by 700%
- 1895-1915 saw industrial output grew by 250%
- Network of 5,400kms railways by 1900
- Reduce time and cost of transportation
- Exported manufactured good all over Pacific region

A. Zaibatsu
- Enormous companies owned by individual families founded in the late 1900s
- Called Zaibatsu
- Formed monopolies, where they controlled aspects of production across
entire economy
- Eg. Mitsui is involved with banking, mining, textiles, paper ect.
- Promoted development, as zaibatsu had capitol to invest, experts
to oversee + markets to sell to
- 1918, 8 largest controlled 20% of all mining manufacturing + trade
 - Absorbed businesses during difficult times
- Worked to control/influence Diet to enable favourable eco-policies
- Forged linked w/ Japanese military
-

B. Social and Economic Stresses

- Industrialisation saw rapid change in work habits
- Rural families sent children to cities to work in factories
- Sent home income to support families
- Stimulated local economies
-
- WW1 saw an economic boom in Japan
- Demand for goods rose as US + UK economies shifted to war production
- Cotton textile exports grew 185% 1914-1918
- Higher wages due to a shortage of workers
- More people relocating to cities for work
-
- 1920 saw a massive shrinkage of economy
- Demand for Japanese good declined as UK/US resumed full production
- Millions unemployed
- Lost power to purchase\
- Accompanied by declined in rural production due to lack of
demand
- Saw more job losses, poverty
- Some recovery in 1923, due to large building project in Tokyo after
earthquake
- Economy fluctuate, causing hardship for millions of people
2. The Great Depression
- Huge impact of Japan
- Trading partners such as US put up trade tariffs
- Japanese reliance on export hit hard
- GNP declined 20% from 1929-31
- 50% small business closed permanently
- Exports fell 40%
- Agricultural prices decline by 45%
- Unemployment saw decline in consumer goods and purchases
- Factories closed
- Zaibatsu benefitted via increasing their share in economy
-
- Political unrest surged in response to unemployment and hunger
- Strikes and riots
- Surge of support for communist parties
- High dissatisfaction from workers + rural poor who made up majority of
population
The Second Sino – Japanese War 1937 – 45

➔ Japanese expansion continued after Manchurian invasion

◆ 1937 saw outbreak of larger war

1. Japan expands into China 1935 – 36

➔ China Garrison Army operated outside Manchuria

◆ Expanded east to Chahar then south
◆ Forced China to cede Hebei (Peking/ Beijing)
● Created demilitarised zone through most of nthrn China
● Created puppet regime to govern region
○ East Hebei Autonomous Council
◆ Accepted by nationalist China
● Focus was on destroying CCP rather than resisting Japan

➔ New territories combined in 1936 into Mengiang (Mengkukuo)

◆ Descendant of Genghis Khan became head of govt
◆ Fighting between pro – Japanese + pro – China forces increasing
 Second United Front

➔ By end of 1936, Chiang Kai-shek’s policy of opposing CCP rather than Japan
increasingly unpopular
◆ Chiang arrested by supporters, forces to negotiate with CCP
● After 2 weeks resisting, created united anti – Japanese front
● CCP + KMT joined militaries to fight Japan

2. Second Sino – Japanese War

➔ July 1937 Japanese + Chinese forces fought at Marco Polo Bridge, near Beijing
◆ Japan demanded apology, United Front govt refused
◆ Fighting broke out around Beijing + Shanghai
● Escalated into full – blown war

➔ August 15, Japan launched attacks on Nanjing + Shanghai

◆ Japanese forces moved from north to south via Chinese railway system
● Shanghai Expeditionary Army + Central China Area Army

RESPONSES TO THE SECOND SINO-JAPANESE WAR

➔ Other countries no intention of investing in war over China
◆ Primary concern in region was economic
● Only concerned about Asain Colonies

League of Nations
◆ Consumed by European affairs in 30s
◆ Japan only Asian country able to pressure USSR in region
● Japan anti-communist as were all member of the LoN except
USSR
◆ China seen as not worth fighting for
➔
➔ China did appeal to LoN for assistance against Japan
◆ League referred issue to Pacific and China cease hostilities, seek peaceful
resolution
● Japan refused, LoN could do nothing

USSR
➔ Largely happy with Japanese invasion of China
◆ Took pressure off Chinese Communist Party
◆ The USSR supplied a unified government. With weapons, tanks,aircraft,
ammunition etc.
◆ Japanese focus on China took their attention away from Soviet border
◆
➔ Took Advanced of Japan’s involvement in China
 ◆ Provoked Border conflict at Lake Khasan (1939) while Japan was
attacking Chinese Chinese city of Wuhan
● Japan forced to concede territory so invasion could continue
● Delay enabled USSR to resupply Chinese forces ahead of Wuhan
○ Able to evacuate Wuhan ahead of Japanese advance

➔ Moved again to benefit in 1939

◆ Fought Japan in Mongolia (puppet state managed by USSR)
● 20,000 Japanese soldiers killed
○ Japan forced to concede Chinese territory to USSR
- Continued to supply Chinses forces until Nazi invasion 1941 when shipments ended

USA
➔ Primary Goal was to preserve trade with China
➔ Displeased with Japan, not prepared to sacrificed US trade in region
➔ Concerned Japan might move against Philippines if provoked
◆ US Colony
◆ Banned sale of military supplies to BOTH Japan and China
● Hurt China, Japan its own weapons
● Continued to supply Japan w/ oils and metals
○ Both essential for Japanese war effort
○ US main oil importer to Japan
○
➔ Relatively uninvolved till Japan move against territories outside China 1940

Germany
➔ Supported anti-communist Nationalist govt.
◆ Provided military advisors and supplies
● 80% of all weapons used by Chinese military by 1936
●
➔ 1936, signed Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan
◆ Oppose communism, pressure USSR
◆ Germany friendly Japan and China til 1938
● Japan insisted support for China to end
●
➔ Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939 contradicted shared anti-communist stance
◆ Japan wanted Soviets distracted by hostile European powers
◆ Hitler needed Soviet non - aggression pact to pursue European aims
◆
➔ 1940 signed Tripartite pact with Italy and Germany
◆ Used German invasion of France to move into the French colony of
Indonesia 1940
 ◆
➔ 1941 Japan and USSR signed neutrality agreement promising no involvement in
other wars
◆ Japan moved into Indonesia

➔ China
➔ Moved capital to Chongqing in Far East
◆ Make Japan commit more forces to war, stretch supply lines
◆ Exhaust Japan, so they would withdraw
◆ Guerrilla tactics rather than open battles
● Assassination, sabotage
➔ Sheck continued to consolidate power
◆ Executed potential rivals
◆ Gave himself more govt. Positions and titles
◆ Little effort to assist million sof civilians due to war
◆ International aid disputed to supported, not those in need
◆ To stop Japanese advance, ordered dikes on Yellow river destroyed
● 1 million drowned in flooding
● Nationalist troops looted and killed as they withdrew
◆ CCP portrayed KMT as corrupt, uncaring

THE MANCHURIAN CRISIS

1. Events Leading to the Manchurian Crisis
➔ Sep 18th a bomb exploded on the South Manchurian Railway outside Mukden
◆ Minor incident, however, Japan blamed China
◆ Kwantung Army used it as an excuse to occupy Manchuria
● Soon after all areas of the South Manchurian railway were under
Japanese control
● Occupied over the course of a couple of months
➔ By Feb 1932 all but Jehol was occupied
◆ China had more soldiers, Japan had more advanced tech so there were
only minor fights
➔ KMT order its troops to fight the invasion
➔ Japan made an illusion that they had helped Manchuria achieve independence from
China
◆ Presented to the world as a new state, Manchukuo
◆ Rest of the world saw through the sham

2. Responses to the Manchurian Crisis

➔ Several responses by the international community
◆ Most reacted negatively
◆ However not much could be done
● Great Depression
 ● Fear of the Soviets and Communism

League of Nations Response

➔ China appealed to the league of nations
◆ Respond with great caution, first military conflict between two existing members
➔ Formed the Lytton Committee to investigate Dec 19 31
◆ Decide what to do once Lytton report was submitted
➔ Submitted October 1932
◆ Claimed that pre. Invasion the Chinese government was corrupt and inefficient in
Manchuria
◆ Claimed that Japan made financial investments
◆ Explained the details of the investigation and establishment of the state
● Determined that it was not to protect Manchuria from China
● Wanted Japan to put its forces back to the South Manchurian Railway

Chinese Response
➔ Chiang Kai-shek forced to resign, Dec 1931
◆ By different political groups, and KMT leadership
○ Done mainly to form a government. Full of various groups to
respond to crisis
◆ Chiang still remained head of military
◆ Replaced by Wang Jingwei
● Chiang renamed premier in 1935
➔ Lack of resistance by Chiang’s armies helped Japan achieve a rapid victory with minimal
losses
◆ Chiang wished to maintain Manchuria
● Resources and Industry
● Didn’t realise Japan's military was stronger
➔ Japan took Jehol March 1933
◆ Lead to the Tanggu truce
● Acknowledging that Jehol and Manchuria were part of Japan
● No military action by China to take it back
➔ Chiang saw Communism as a bigger threat than Japan

America's Response
➔ US not a part of the League of Nations
◆ Public not wanting to get involved in foreign affairs similar to the lead up of WW1
◆ Large anti-war movement
➔ Enforced the Open Door policy
◆ Crisis lead to fear that Open Door policy might be disrupted
➔ Mainly concerned with the economics rather than military
➔ Protested by forming the Stimson Doctorate
 ◆ Not recognising border changes resulting from war
◆ No effect on the crisis
➔ No restrictions on trade with Japan or Manchuria

USSRs Response
➔ Soviets in 1931 were not in the position to oppose any of Japan actions in Manchuria
◆ Too busy trying to stomp out its own people’s revolt to care
➔ Owned and operated the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER)
◆ Japan informed the USSR they had no plans to interfere with the CER
◆ 1935 USSR sold the railway to Japan
● Preventive measure against potential Japanese aggression or nationalism

3. Japan's Government After the Crisis

- Unaware of the Kwangtung’s plan to invade Manchuria
- Knew they had planned some form of insubordination
- Replace commander just hours before the crisis
- Main focus was still on the armies disobedience
- Both agreed that Japan needed to dominate Manchuria
- Japan didn’t want to provoke the Great powers
- Order the perpetrators of the Mukden Incident be arrested
- The army refused
- Govt. collapsed over inability to control military
- The next PM attempted to assert dominance over the military
- Began negotiations with Chiang to resolve crisis
- He was assassinated and replaced with a navy admiral
- The direct effect of the incident and invasion meant the govt. and military
policy were now aligned.

PEARL HARBOUR AND THE PACIFIC

➔ Japan launched a series of attacks against multiple targets in early Dec 1941
◆ Most important Pearl Harbour, main US Naval base in pacific

1. The attack on Pearl Harbor

➔ Large Japanese fleet undetected by US while crossing Pacific
◆ Dec 7th, 6 aircraft carriers launched aerial and submarine attack
● Sank 4 battleships damaged 4
● Sank/Severely damaged 3 destroyers, 3 cruisers and other naval
vessels
● Destroyed 188 aircraft
● Killed 2400, injured 1200
●
 ➔ Japanese losses minimal
◆ 20 destroyed
◆ 5 small submarines sunk
◆ 65 killed
◆
➔ Despite apparent success, main objective missed
◆ All 3 aircraft carriers on training drill
◆ Oil/Torpedo storage survived attack
◆
➔ US declares war on Japan Dec 8

2. Attacks on other US territories

➔ Simultaneously to Pearl Harbour
◆ Japan attacked Philippines by air Dec 8
● Invaded islands with large armed forces
◆ Attacked Guam Dec 8 by air, land invading force
● Guam major junction pt for undersea cables between Pacific and US
◆ US airbase on Wake island attacked by air Dec 8
● Island then invaded and captured

3. Attacks on British territories

➔ Japan also attacked British territories in Asia
◆ Invaded Malaysia Dec 8 by land, sea and air
● By Feb 1942 Malaysia and Singapore captured
◆ Hong Kong attacked Dec 8 conquered in 3 weeks
◆ Japan invaded Thailand from Indochina Dec 8
● Thailand immediately surrendered
● Used to stage attack on British Burma
○ Major oil producing territory