ETHICS (MIDTERM)
conduct in his first major work-
WEEK 7: ETHICAL THEORIES -
UTILITARIANISM
ETHICAL THEORIES
1. UTILITARIANISM
2. NATURAL LAW
3. DEONTOLOGY
4. VIRTUE ETHIC
UTILITARIANISM
• an ethical theory that argues for the
goodness of pleasure and the
determination of right behavior based
on the usefulness Or consequences. of
an action.
- Is cheating considered morally
acceptable from a utilitarian
perspective?
- Is the action of Robin Hood morally
justified according to utilitarianism?
- Was John Q's action morally justified
according to utilitarianism?
I'm a Utilitarian, so I don't see the rule
against lying as absolute; it's always
subject to some overriding utility which
may prevent its exercise.
(Peter Singer)
The 2 Foremost Utilitarian
Thinkers
1. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
“FOUNDER OF UTILITARIANISM”
• Noted British philosopher & social
reformer Jeremy Bentham was born on
Feb 15, 1748
• Most famous for proposing the
doctrine of Utilitarianism
• Clarified it as the guiding principle of
The doctrine is based on the idea that
pleasure & pain are the motivation for
all human action
• Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and Legislation
(1789)
• Spent a large part of his life
advocating legal reforms
• Also influenced political reform in
England through the Reform Bill of 1832
& the introduction of the
HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM
Jeremy Bentham
• The principle of utility is about our
subjection to these sovereign masters:
pleasure and pain. Bentham equates
happiness with pleasure.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
• Bentham's godson
• Believed that happiness, not pleasure,
should be the standard of utility.
UTILITARIANISM
JOHN STUART MILL
Pleasure is not the same as happiness.
There are two main differences between • Human pleasures are qualitatively
pleasure and happiness different from animal pleasures.
•Contrary to Bentham,Mill argues that
quality is more preferable than quantity.
•An excessive quantity of what is
otherwise pleasurable might result in
pain.
• He asks whether a human person
would prefer to accept the highly
pleasurable life of an animal while at the
same time being denied of everything
QUALITATIVE UTILITARIANISM
that makes him a person.
• John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)
Mill rejected Bentham's use of the
It is better to be a human being than a
Hedonic Calculus. In his view some I
pig satisfied; better to be Socrates
pleasures are of a higher quality than
dissatisfied than a fool
others.
• higher pleasures - intellectual
Therefore, it is necessary for us to
But pleasures of the body are lower
consider everyone’s happiness,
pleasures - appetite.
including our own, as the standard by
which to evaluate what is moral.
EUDAIMONISTIC UTILITARIANISM
• Utilitarianism is interested with
John Stuart Mill's Adjustments to
everyone’s happiness, in fact,
Utilitarianism
the greatest happiness of the greatest
• Mill argues that we must consider the
number.
quality of the happiness, not merely the
quantity.
• If we are the only ones satisfied by our
• For example, some might find
actions, it does not constitute a moral
happiness with a pitcher of beer and a
good.
pizza. Others may find happiness
in this sense,
watching a fine Shakespearean play.
Utilitarianism is not dismissive of
The quality of happiness is greater with
sacrifices that procure more happiness
the latter.
for others.
• For Mill, utilitarianism cannot promote
the kind of pleasures appropriate to
In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth,
pigs or to any other animals.
we read the complete spirit of the ethics
• For Mill, crude bestial pleasures, which
of utility. To do as one would be done by,
are appropriate for animals, are
and to love one's neighbour as oneself,
degrading to us because we are by
constitute the ideal perfection of
nature not easily satisfied by pleasures
utilitarian morality.
only for pigs.
(John Stuart Mill)

Black Widow exemplifies the concept of
the greatest good for the greatest
number.
If actions are based only on the
greatest happiness of the greatest
number,
Is it justifiable to let go of some rights
for the sake of the benefit of the
majority?
When legal rights are not morally
justified
in accordance to the greatest happiness
principle,
then these rights need neither be
observed, nor be respected.
WHEN A LAW IS UNJUST, IT IS ONLY
RIGHT TO DISOBEY. (Ghandi)
Mill seems to be suggesting that it is
morally permissible to not follow, even
violate, an unjust law.
The implication is that those protest
over political policies of a morally
Russian citizens protested despite it
being against the law.
Filipinos protested despite it being
illegal during the Marcos regime.
" One who breaks an uniust law must do
so openly, lovingly, and with a
willingness to accept the penalty."
- Martin Luther King Jr.
(Letter from a Birmingham Jail)
Mill thinks that it is
commendable to endure legal
punishments for acts of civil
disobedience for the sake of
However, Mill seems to provide some
extenuating circumstances in which
some moral rights can be overridden
THE CASE OF WIRETAPPING
It seems that one’s right to privacy can
be sacrificed for the sake of the
common good
This means that moral rights are only
justifiable by considerations of greater
Overall happiness
Wiretapping
is a particular form of Electronic
Surveillance that monitors telephonic
and telegraphic communication.
“I can't in good conscience allow the
U.S. government to destroy privacy,
internet freedom and basic liberties for
people around the world with this
massive surveillance machine they're
secretly building.”
- Edward Snowden, whistleblower
Edward Snowden exposed a mass
surveillance program in the United
States.
If given the opportunity, would you
eliminate Hitler to prevent mass killings?
In this sense, the principle of utility can HUMAN ACTS AND ACTS OFMAN
theoretically obligate us to steal, kill,
3 ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS
and the like.
1. Means or Action
We say "theoretically because this
merely constitutes a thought experiment 2. End/Intention or Motive
and need not be actualized.
3. Circumstances

•Thus, to save a life, it may not be only

allowable, but a duty to steal or take by
force, the necessary food or medicine,
or to kidnap, and compel to officiate,
the only qualified medical practitioner.

In short, Mill’s moral rights and

considerations of justice are not
absolute, but are only justified by their
consequences to promote the greatest
3. CIRCUMSTANCE(SITUATIONS)
good of the greatest number
• Circumstance can be considered in
various moral questions, thus, we might
ask, 'who', when', 'how much or 'in what
WEEK 8: ETHICAL THEORIES - manner'.
NATURAL LAW
by ST. THOMAS AQUINA • The circumstance of the act, e.g., time,
place, and condition of the person.
CATHOLIC MORALITY
Example: BAD ACTION+ GOOD
CATHOLIC MORALITY INTENTION= BAD
UThe END
(INTENTION/MOTIVE) 1. WHAT (ACTION/ MEANS)
DOES NOT 2. WHY (MOTIVE/INTENTION/ END)
Justify the
MEANS (ACTION) Circumstances:
3. WHO - NAME/ AGE/M or F
UTILITARIAN MORALITY 4. WHERE- PLACE/LOCATION
The END 5. WHEN- TIME/DAY
(INTENTION/MOTIVE) 6. HOW(in what manner)
JUSTIFIES the
MEANS (ACTION) 'Principle of Double-Effect'.

Review: Case:Pregnant Woman who has a

cancer in the uterus
What is the difference between:
Action: Removal of the uterus
• GOOD effect: Woman will survive
Cervix
• BAD effect: Fetus will die
Principle of Double-Effect
This principle is used in order to judge
the moral acceptability of the human
act that has two effects, one is good
and the other is evil.
FOUR CONDITIONS:
● The action is good in itself or at
least indifferent.
● The good effect must come first
before the evil effect or a least
simultaneously.
● The good effect must be
intended.
● There must be a proportionately
grave reason for the evil effect to
happen.
Ectopic Pregnancy:
In cases where a pregnancy occurs
outside the uterus, and it poses a grave
threat to the mother's life, the principle
of double effect may be invoked to
justify the removal of the affected
fallopian tube, even though it indirectly
results in the loss of the pregnancy.
War and Self-Defense:
The Vatican has applied the principle of
double effect to questions of war and
self-defense. If a nation must defend
itself, the Church may justify actions
that result in unintended civilian
casualties, as long as the primary intent
is self-defense.
Just War Theory:
In the context of just war theory, the
Catholic Church applies the principle of
double effect. This means that during a
just war, certain actions may have
unintended harmful consequences (such
as civilian casualties), but they can be
morally acceptable if the primary intent
is to achieve a just and necessary goal,
like ending aggression.
Palliative Care:
In end-of-life care, when patients are in
extreme pain, doctors may administer
strong pain relief, even if it could hasten
death as a side effect. The principle of
double effect allows for this, provided
the primary intention is_pain relief, not
causing death.
Termination of Aggressive Medical
Treatment:
When a patient is terminally ill and
keeping them on aggressive life support
measures only prolongs suffering
without providing any significant
benefit, the Catholic Church may
support the decision to withdraw such
treatment under the principle of double
effect
Before looking at Natural Law in more
detail consider these statements and
discuss them.
- Is it natural to be homosexual?
- Is it natural to have an abortion?
- Is it natural to commit suicide?
- Is it natural to use artificial
contraception?
Natural Law Theory: "At its most basic,
natural law theory. tells us that actions
are right just because they are natural,
and wrong just because they are
unnatural. And people are good to the
extent that they fulfill their true nature,
bad insofar as thy flout it." ~ Russ Shafer
Landau, The Fundamentals of Ethics, 72.
• 'Natural' because the goals and the
major values human beings seek are
innate, that is, they are from the nature
and are not selected freely by individual
persons or communities.
• Since human nature does not change,
the basic goals are constant and basic
morality does not change.
• It is considered 'law' because by
reasoning about the innate goals and
values we can determine actions, which
is oftentimes expressed in norms or laws
that enables the person to achieve their
goals.
It was Aristotle who first developed this
approach to ethics but in seeking to
combine Aristotle's thought with the
Catholic Church's teachings, Thomas
Aquinas built on his thought and
developed a system of ethics known as
Natural Law.
The Catholic Church to this day bases
much of its teachings, beliefs and
practices on Aquinas natural law theory.
Aquinas believed natural law was the
moral code which human beings were
naturally inclined towards. God reveals
specific commands but these do not go
against natural law but rather further
and develop it.
This reflected Aquinas' approach to
theology generally by which natural
theology (which was based on human
reason) did not go against revealed
theology (which was based on
revelation by God).
Aquinas said that the moral life is the
life which is lived according to reason.
Based on Aquinas understanding acts
such as homosexuality, use of
contraception and masturbation are all
immoral actions.
The ideal purpose of sex is for
reproduction within the confines of
marriage. Any sexual act contrary to
this is considered
'unnatural and therefore immoral.
The Catholic Church has established its
doctrines on the basis of Aquinas'
natural law and that is why the Catholic
Church today maintains a strict
adherence to the belief that
Homosexulaity. contraception, abortion,
masturbation or any other sexual act
not aimed at procreation is unnatural,
sinful and therefore immoral.
• Aquinas then goes on to say that there
is our human nature, common with other
animals, a desire that has to do with
sexual intercourse and the care of one's
offspring.
• As a matter of fact, animals
periodically engage in sexual
intercourse at a specific time of "heat",
and this could result an offspring. In
human beings, too, that natural
inclination to engage in the sexual act
and to reproduce exists.
The Catholic Church's stance on
contraception is a prominent example of
how natural law principles are applied
and debated.
Catholic teaching, influenced by natural
law, upholds the sanctity of life,
procreation, and the marital act.
They say that when people want to have
children, they shouldn't use certain tools,
like condoms or pills, to prevent babies
from being born. They believe this goes
against the natural order of things.
They want people to use natural
methods, like tracking a woman's
fertility, to plan when to have children.
Catholic Natural Law Principles at
Play:
Sanctity of Life: Catholic natural law
places a strong emphasis on the
intrinsic value and dignity of every
human life. All life is considered a gift
from God, and human beings are
stewards of this gift.
Intrinsic Value of Life:
• Aquinas, like the Catholic Church,
• emphasized the intrinsic value of
human life.
His philosophy asserted that human life
is sacred and must be protected, which
aligns with the Church's stance on
contraception.
Procreation and the Marital Act:
Natural law within the Catholic context
promotes the idea that the primary
purpose of sexual intercourse is
procreation and strengthening the
marital bond.
Abortion is deemed immoral as it goes
against the natural order of things.
Same Sex Marriage is deemed immoral
as it goes against the natural order of
things.
Heteronormative Understanding:
Natural law theorists typically adhere to
a heteronormative understanding of
human relationships. They argue that,
from a natural law perspective, the
primary purpose of sexual relationships
is procreation and the preservation of
the species. Same-sex relationships,
they contend, deviate from this natural
purpose.
Reproductive Function:
Natural law theorists argue that
marriage, as they understand it, is
closely tied to the reproductive function.
Since same-sex couples cannot
naturally procreate, they see their
unions as not fulfilling the core purpose
of marriage within a natural law
framework
• Natural law theory, through its
recognition of the inviolable value of
human life whomever it belongs to,
immediately offers an ethic of
interpersonal relationships.
• Coupled with this, the value that
Aquinas gives to the production and
care for offspring (the second natural
inclination), _as well as to the
promotion of the truth and the peaceful
and orderly social life (the third natural
inclination).- _provide guidance on how
one ought to relate with her close
relations.
What is Law according to St. Thomas
Aquinas?
It is an ordinance of reason, for the
common good, made by him who has a
care for the community and it is
promulgated
• 1. Eternal Law
• 2. Human Law
• 3. Divine Law
• Eternal law refers to what how God
wills for creation, how each participant
intended to return to Him.
Given our limitations, we cannot grasp
the fullness of the eternal law.
Nevertheless, it is not completely
opaque to us.
Divine Law
• Human law refers to all instances
wherein human beings construct and
enforce laws in there communities.
Given the larger picture of Aquinas's
view, one would have a basis for
assessing the validity or invalidity of a
human law: whether or not it conforms
to the natural law.
• Insofar as a human law goes against
what nature inclines us toward, it is not
properly speaking a law -- in the ideal
sense of directing us to the common
good -- but instead is unjust and can be
called a matter of violence.
Four Types of Law (Aquinas)
Eternal Law: The Designer's plan
Divine Law: A manual sent to us
Natural Law: What we observe
Human Law: What we write down
Eternal Law (Top Tier): Eternal law is at
the highest level and represents the
divine and unchanging order
established by God. It is the ultimate
source of all laws and principles in the
universe.
Divine Law (Below Eternal Law):
Divine law is derived from eternal law
and represents specific commands and
guidance given by God to human
beings. It includes religious scriptures,
commandments, and teachings that
shape religious morality.
Natural Law (Below Divine Law):
Natural law is the moral and ethical
principles derived from the rational
understanding of eternal and divine law.
It is accessible to human reason and
conscience and serves as a guide for
human behavior in harmony with the
divine order.
Human or Positive Law (Lowest Tier):
Human or positive law represents laws
created by human societies,
governments, and legal systems. These
laws are based on natural law principles
but can vary from one society to
another. They are man-made and
intended to regulate specific societal
issues.
WEEK 9: ETHICAL THEORIES -
DEONTOLOGY
DEONTOLOGY
• comes from the Greek word "deon",
• The moral theory that evaluates
actions that are done because of duty is
called deontology.
• Hence, deontology refers to the study
of obligation.
Deontological Ethics
For example:
1. You are duty-bound to keep your
promise to be faithful to your spouse,
even if a more attractive person comes
along.
2. You are duty-bound to always telling
the truth, even if it cost you a job.
Duty is not based on what is pleasant or
beneficial, but rather upon the
obligation itself.
Two concepts of duty
DUTY= following orders (Adolf
Eichmann)
on other occasions he felt sympathy for
the Jews he was sending to the gas
chambers, but because he believed one
should do one's duty unaffected by
sympathy.
he steadfastly stuck to his duty. instead
of
being tempted to bend the rules and
help the Jews.
Duty = imposing obligation on one's own
will and feelings (Kant)
Which is the correct concept of duty?
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES:
WHAT IF DUTIES CONFLICT?
• Kantian ethics gives us no guidance as
to what to do when duties conflict - this
seems not to have occurred to him!
• E.g. Promise-keeping is a duty, but
what if I have promised to two different
people to be in two places at the same
time?
• What if I have promised to lie to
someone?
• What if I three people are drowning
and I only have time to save one of
them?
• Moral dilemmas are real - there are
times when we violate a duty no matter
what we do.
• The main proponent of deontology iS
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).
He intends to develop what he calls the
"supreme principle of morality."
It is supposedly supreme because by
basing it on the faculty of reason, it
becomes binding for all creatures that
have that faculty.
human beings, have the faculty called
rational will, which is the capacity to act
according to principles that we
determine for ourselves.
WHAT IS THE MEANING OF THE TERM.
“Rationality”
It consists of the mental faculty to
construct ideas and thoughts that are
beyond our immediate surroundings.
This is the capacity for mental
abstraction, which arises from
RATIONALITY the operations of the
faculty of reason.
Thus, we have the ability to stop and
think about what we are doing.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ANIMALS AND HUMANS?
animals are sentient organisms.
• Sentience, meaning an organism has
the ability to perceive and navigate its
external environment.
what are other words for sentience?
awareness, sensation, sentiency,
sensibility, consciousness, sense,
perception, alertness, life, viability
• we are also sentient.
• Thus, both animals and persons
interact in and with the world, reacting
to external stimuli and internal impulses
to survive and thrive.
• On the other hand, people are also
rational.
“A human being always acts and feels
and performs in accordance with what
he imagines to be true about himself
and his environment.”
-Maxwell Maltz-
DO ANIMALS ACT? No, because they do
not have rationality.
DO ANIMALS PERFORM ACTIONS? No.
• As far as we know, animals only act
according to impulses, based on their
natural instincts.
• Thus, animals "act" with immediacy.
with nothing that intervenes between
the impulse and the action.
• They do not and cannot deliberate on
their actions. In fact, we may say. that
animals do not"act" They. only "react" to
their external surroundings and internal
impulses.
A car driver killing a cyclist. Is this an
action or a reaction?
According to Kant, Man has sensible
impulses, and it is twofold sensible
impulses are usually bodily_ and
emotional.
• Bodily instincts and desires, such as
the urge to eat, drink, sleep, or have
sexual intercourse, comprise the set of
the human compulsions for survival and
the propagation of the species.
• Emotions and sentiments also make up
what Kant considers sensible impulses.
• Practical examples are the jealousy
from seeing your girlfriend or boyfriend
make eves at someone. and the rage
from basketball game.
A person taking the lives of two
innocent individuals that went viral.
I'm with stupid.
In contrast, we humans have reason,
which intervenes between impulse and
act.
We have the ability to stop and think
about what we are doing to evaluate
our actions according to principle.
• It implies that we are indeed basically
animals, but we cannot be reduced to
mere animality.
• When we claim, " The human person is
not only an animal, but is also rational,"
we admit to two possible causes of our
actions: sensible impulses and the
faculty of reason. Human freedom
resides in that distinction.
Kant claims that the property of the
rational will is autonomy. which is the
opposite of heteronomy.
These three Greek word are instructive
autos, heteros, and nomos, which mean
"self," "other,' and "law," respectively.
Hence, when we combine autos and
nomos, we get autonomy; heteros and
nomos to heteronomy.
Crudely stated, autonomy means
self-law and heteronomy means other
law.
Two types of IMPERATIVES for Kant
0. HYPOTHETICAL
1. CATEGORICAL
2. PRACTICAL
Categorical Vs Hypothetical
• The Categorical imperative is to act
for the sake of duty only.
•Whereas the hypothetical imperative is
acting in order to receive some kind of
reward.
• Kant argues that the categorical
imperative is the only good way to act.
• For example one should help an old
lady across the road simply because it is
a good thing to do, not because it will
make you feel good.
•Even if a good act makes you feel
good, this is not a reward it is a bonus
according to Kant.
A categorical imperative would be one
which represented an action as
objectively necessary in itself, without
reference to any other purpose.
(Immanuel Kant)
Categorical Imperative
"Act only according to such a maxim, by
which you can at once will that it
becomes a universal law."
• Kant states that we must formulate an
action as a maxim, which he defines as
a "subjective principle of action".
• In this context, a maxim consist of a
"rule" that we live by in our day-to-day
lives, but it does not have the status of a
law or a moral command that binds us
to act in a certain way. Rather, maxims
depict the patterns of our behavior.
Thus, maxims are akin to the "standard
operating procedures" (SOPs) in our
lives. We act according to a variety of
maxims, even if we are not aware of
them.
Actually, we become aware of our
maxims when we talk about ourselves,
when we reveal our habits and the
reasons behind them.
"I will buy food when I'm near shops in
order to satisfy my hunger.
"I will hunt or gather food when l'm in
the wild in order to satisfy my hunger."
In both cases your purpose is to satisfy
hunger, but your means to do so is
different. Your means change
depending on the situation. Kant calls
these commands maxims. They usually
come in this form:
"I will do something under
such-and-such circumstances for some
purpose.'
Example of a maxim:
"I will cheat on my ethics exam so that I
may able to graduate this vear"
• It means that the maxim must be
"universalizable" which is what it
means to will that it become a universal
law.
• This means nothing other than
imagining a world in which maxim, or
personal rule, that I live be were
adopted be everyone as their own
maxim.
What does it mean to universalize the
maxim about:
"Cheating on my ethics exam so that I
may able to graduate this year"
If we will universalize the maxim on
cheating, It will lead only to
“SELF-CONTRADICTION and
LOGICAL IMPOSSIBILITY”
If licensed engineers, cheated only on
their board exam, it would lead
destruction in the society
What does it mean to universalize the
maxim about borrowing money without
intending to return it?
It will lead to collapse of the banks, then
on the economic destruction in the
society
• Now, imagine applying this procedure
to other scenarios in which a person
encounters moral problems, such as
Lying, cheating in an exam, murder, and
adultery, among others.
• You may also test positive actions,
such as paying for something that you
are buying, returning something you
borrowed, or submitting a school project
on time.
Practical Imperative
"Act so that you treat humanity,
whether in your own person or in that of
another, always as an end and never as
a means only."
-Immanuel Kant
MAN IS NOT A MEANS TO AN END But
rather, MAN IS AN END TO
Child Labor is against the practical
imperative of Kant
DEONTOLOGY
• Is based on the "light" of one's own
reason when maturity and rational
capacity take hold of a person's
decision-making.
• Reason is depicted as having its own
light in contrast to our long experience
of "paternalism" in human history, in
which we find dictatorship and authority
figure that claim to be benevolent, but
have proven to be oppressive and
exploitative of those who do not have
political power.
With deontology, particularly the
method of universalizability, we can
validate and adopt those rules and laws
that are right and reject those that are
irrational, thus impermissible because
they are self-contradictory.
• This is then the practical value of
deontology in our moral reflection: we
are encouraged to have courage to
think on our own, to use our rational
will against external authorities as well
as internal base impulses that tend to
undetermined our autonomy and self-
determination.
WEEK 9: ETHICAL THEORIES - VIRTUE
ETHICS
VIRTUE ETHICS (ARISTOTLE)
Are we required to become a good
person?
YES or NO?
Answer:We are NOT required to become
a good person (having a god character),
but we are only required to do what is
good.
Can a criminal person do what is good?
LISTEN TO THE
YES or NO?
Answer:Even a criminal person can do
what is good(A father who is a thief, but
giving food to his own family, but
definitely he is not a good person,)
DOING WHAT IS GOOD (utilitarianism
and Deontology) VERSUS BECOMING A
GOOD PERSON (Virtue Ethics)
VIRTUE ETHICS
• was derived from or is closely
associated to Aristotle's Nichomachean
Ethics.
• what an individual can do to produce
the sort of character that instinctively
does the right thing.
• Thus, virtue ethics holds that it is not
only important to do the right thing but
equally one must have the right
disposition, motivation, and traits for
being good and doing right.
Virtue Ethics is a TELEOLOGICAL
theory Teleology
Telos
Telos in English means: END.
"End" in Philosophy does not mean "to
stop or finish"
The term "end" in philosophy means:
“aim” /purpose / goal
• Every pursuit of a person of a hopes to
achieve a good.
One eats for the purpose of the good,
that It gives sustenance to the body.
• A person pursues a chosen career,
aiming for a good, that is, to provide a
better future for her family.
End means “What is the PURPOSE Of
Man?”
We have different end/goals/aims in
life
the different goods that one pursues
form a HIERARCHY OF TELOS
DIFFERENT TIMES IN YOUR LIFE
(PLURAL FORM of TELOS -
HIERARCHY)
• Aristotle discusses the general criteria
ir order for one to recognize the highest
good of man.
• First, the highest good of a person
must be final. As a final end, it is no
longer utilized for the sake of arriving at
a much higher end.
• Second, the ultimate telos of a person
must be self-sufficient. Satisfaction in
life is arrived at once this highest good
is attained.
WHAT IS THE ULTIMATE END OF MAN
“HAPPINESS”
The ultimate end of human acts is
“eudaimonia” (greek word of
happiness), happiness in the sense of
living well, which all men desire; all acts
are but different means chosen to arrive
at it.
3 ways in which we can achieve
Happiness according to ARISTOTLE.
● Pleasure
● Fame
● Contemplation a.k.a Rationality
or reasoning
The true measure of well-being for
Aristotle is not by means of richness or
fame but by the condition of having
attained a happy life
• How does a person arrive at the
highest good?
• If one performs one's function well
then one is capable of arriving at
happiness.
• For Aristotle, what defines human
beings is one's function or activity of
reason. This function makes her
different from the rest of beings
Using reason and contemplation, we can
achieve happiness through:
ápetn or “Arete”
Virtue | Excellence | Goodness
VIRTUE
The excellent way of doing things.
It is something that one strives for in in
time.
One does not become an excellent
person overnight:
This means that being virtuous cannot
be accomplished by a single act.
"It takes 10000 hours of deliberate
practice to become an expert"
-Malcolm Gladwell-
First Definition of Virtue:
Virtue as Excellence
Excellence Is the ACTIVITY
of the human SOUL
The Human Soul has 2 Faculties:
namely
● IRRATIONAL
● RATIONAL
The Irrational Faculty has 2 Aspects:
● VEGETATIVE
● APPETITIVE
VEGETATIVE ASPECT
• functions as giving nutrition and
providing the activity of physical growth
in a person
• It follows the natural processes
involved in the physical activities and
growth of a person.
APPETITIVE ASPECT
• Having the quality of desiring
gratification; as, appetitive power or
faculty.
• aspect works as a desiring faculty of
man.
• the act of desiring in itself is an
impulse that naturally runs counter to
reason and most of the time refuses to
go along with reason.
The Rational Faculty has 2 Aspects:
● INTELLECTUAL
● MORAL
INTELLECTUAL
The knowing function of man
MORAL
The doing function of man
The Intellectual Aspect has 2
Elements:
● PHILOSOPHIC
● PRACTICAL WISDOM
PHILOSOPHIC
wisdom deals with attaining knowledge
about the fundamental principles and
truths that govern the universe (e.g.,
general theory on the origins of things).
It helps one understand in general the
meaning of life.
PRACTICAL WISDOM
It is an excellence in knowing the right
conduct in carrying out a particular act.
In itself, having practical wisdom or the
excellence in knowing what to act upon
does not make someone already morally
virtuous.
Knowing the good is different from
determining and acting in what is
good
ARISTOTLE versus SOCRATES
• For Socrates: Moral goodness is
already within the realm of intellectual
excellence.
• Knowing the good implies the ability to
perform morally virtuous acts.
• For Aristotle: Having intellectual
excellence does not necessarily mean
that one already has the capacity of
doing the good.
• Knowing the good that needs to be
done is different from doing the good
that one needs to accomplish.
The Moral Aspect has 2 Elements:
● Intellectual
● Moral Virtues
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES
• Intellectual virtues are virtues of the
mind.
• Such as the ability to understand,
reason and make sound judgement
• Intellectual virtues may be taught, like
logic and mathematics by teachers.
MORAL VIRTUES
• Not innate, rather they are acquired
through repetition and practise, like
learning a music instrument.
• It is through the practice and the
doing that one becomes a type of
person.
• Over a period of time virtues become
second nature.
Second Definition of Virtue:
Virtue - Greek word “Mesotes”
Mesotes - means “Middle”
In the Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle
repeatedly states that virtue is a mean.
MIDDLE O MESOTES
What is a Mean?
• Not too excessive and not too lacking,
it is being moderate
● EXCESSIVE
● IM HUNGRY, LOL
● GLUTTONY
● FASTING
● NO FOOD, ONLY WATER FOR 7
DAYS
MODERATION
Feelings and emotions have no middle
point.
FEELINGS AND EMOTIONS
“NEUTRAL”
Anger has no mean, there is no such as
moderate anger
• not all feelings, passions, and
actions have a middle point.
• However, when what is involved is seen
as a bad feeling, passion, or action, the
middle is nonexistent because there is
no good (mesotes) in something that is
already considered a bad act.
• When one murders someone, there is
nothing excessive or deficient on the
act: murder is still murder. Further, there
is no intermediary for Aristotle in the act
because there is not proper way that
such act can be committed
Ex. Of virtue —> middle points —>
modesty —> shyness
Virtue - middle point ● PRACTICAL WISDOM - knowing
Middle point - modesty what is good
Modesty - Shyness
“HIERARCHY”
Lacking of modesty - shamelessness ● Lower goal
Excessive of courage - recklessness ● Higher goal —> final
Lacking of courage - cowardice —> self sufficient

Cowardice is submissive surrender to IMPERATIVE - means “command”

circumstances
SUMMARY :)
THE END OF MAN IS DEAD - FALSE
THE GREEK WORD OF END - TELOS
IS A HAPPY PERSON - PHILOSOPHER
THE END OF MAN IS - HAPPINESS
TO ACHIEVE HAPPINESS THROUGH -
RATIONALITY REASONG
ARETE - means “VIRTUE”
VIRTUE - good habits
VIRTUE - is excellent way of doing
thing
● CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE -
you obey, because its your
obligation.
● HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVE -
there is something exchange /
there is a condition.
AUTONOMY - means “freedom”
Opposite of autonomy is
HETERONOMY - means “other law”
ACTIONS requires “rationality”
- ex road rage (action)

MALCOLM GLADWELL
VIRTUE - excellence
EXCELLENCE - activity of human soul

TWO FACULTIES OF MAN

● IRRATIONAL - without use of
reasoning
● RATIONAL - with the use of
reasoning

TWO ASPECTS OF IRRATIONAL

● VEGETATIVE
● APPETITIVE

TWO ASPECTS OF RATIONAL

● INTELLECTUAL - knowing the
function of man.
● MORAL - doing the function of
man.

TWO ELEMENTS OF INTTELLECTUAL

● PHILOSOPHIC WISDOM -
knowing what is true