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Creative Commons “Attribution – Partage dans les mêmes conditions

4.0 International”. https://www.immae.eu/cours/

"# $

"%

=−

+ω =& ω= ' = (ω + ϕ "

"%

•
= = ω (ω + ϕ " = (ω + ϕ "

= ( − ( ω + ϕ "" ω

' ) =

< >=
• % *
δ =− + =− ( "+ , = +

, = (ω + ϕ " = ( ( ω + ϕ" + "

' ) = '< >=

-
< >=< >' .
= α+ ' / '
+
< >= < >
 • %
= + = =

& &

&

0" -
" .

• -

•
! 1 2 3 5 4=5 ) 4
5&4

• ) )

+ =&
5 4 = 5 &4 '
+ =&
! ) +
• !
= − & +
3 ) < &' 3 > &+

" ) 1)

• 3 )
• 3 )
& 3 ) $

• =− ( − & "' = ( − & "

• 3 1) 3 6 =& ( 3 "
" ) )

• 3 )
• ' = ± ( − &" ' ' = ( − &"
• %) 1
>& = − 3
= − 3
' 3 ) − ' ' −

3 ' ' = ( − − &" ' =− ( − − &"

3 ' ' =− ( − − &" ' = ( − − &"
• 7 ) 11

= & + −

" %)

+
) +
• 72 . 8 9' $
5 4' 5 4' 5 4
= α+ ( − − &" +
,
&=− α+
: . $
θ = +
;
− θ = ' − θ =
<
= α+ ( − − &"
;
• 72 . 8 9
<
= = α− ( − − &"
;
+
• = ' = − − &
 '
< <
= α =− +
; ;
! 1 ( "
% ) > ( "

"
", 1

3 . ρ( " 2. ( 'θ ' +++ "

ρ + ω ρ = λ ' ?ω +

"@ .

% ρ ' ρρ + ω ρρ = λρ
ρ + ω ρ = λρ + µ

ρ + ω ρ = αρ + β +

" %)

1 ' ) 3
3 3 +
- ' 'θ
( " = ( " = &+ , ( "=&' ( "
( " (= ( "" 1 A +
=− θ' =− θ +
72 . 8 '1 ' 9
! 2. 1 ' ' 3 '
( 1 " +
' + + ! ∆θ − − + ( − & " =
!
( + + ∆" − − + ( − & " =
!∆
% '( + + " + ( − & "− − =&
3 3 +
 : B

ω ω

3 2 / +(
"
• 3 3 +
• - 1
• 72 . 8 9
• ) 5 4' 5 4' 5 4+
• : . 2
= + = − ( ? ' > &"
&= + −
: . $ ∆=
σ∆
= ∆

7 &=− ( + "+ ( − "

( ' 3
$ ∆"
+ =
'
( + " =( − "

, − = ( = + ' = − "

! = " ' = " +

, = "( − "=−"

+" =&
ω&

: . ) 3 C

' D $ 3
. = (
3 "
1 )( D $ 1 "

;
 ! 2. 8 9 2. 1
! 3 '
+ 1 ' 3
(1 )"
+ =

2. $ 3 ' = &+
−
7 = ρ +#+ × − ( ρ +#+ × " = ρ +#+ +

, + ρ# + =
% ' + ρ +#+ + = &

7 + =& ( = ρ +#+ "+

- ω= ' ρ+

," 3 2. 3 . 3
3
" %) 3

$% > & +
3
%$ %$
− =&' =
πε & πε & ( − "
3
= − <<
−
− − −
= + = −

−
E
% ( − "− = ( − − "− = +

− F %$
, =
πε &

E
" -

& ' &+

! +
) ' ' +
%
%
=− + & − &&
%$ 3 &=− + &− & &
, = ( − "&
% 2 ( "+
G2 . 1 +
' 'γ =
+
'
% 11 ' +γ =&
'
− ' −'
, +γ =&
'

7 − = −γ &
'
% H . '
= −γ &
'
&
, +ω =&' ω= γ
'
- γ ) +

" )

• 3 )
1 = " ( "+
3 2 3 +
3 3
− << ' = ( "+ D ( "( − "+ D D ( "( − " + +++
=&

7 D( " < & '

7 D( " > & ' +

<
 7 D( " = & 7 DD( " ≠ & ' 3 ( − "
' ' DD( " = &
DDD( " D( " ( 3
"
%
7 ( "=−

( "= ( &" + ( "×( − "+ ( "×( − " + +++

= ( " =& − D( "

( − "

•
ρ = (ρ "
= ( ρ " + D ( ρ "( ρ − ρ " + +++
=&

" %) 3

2. 8 9 2. 1+
+ ( − &" =

% = & + = & + = & +

& &

, − & ≈ ' 3 + = +
& F &

, + = &+
&

%" 1

F
% 1 ' / 1 = (" ' $ 1
' ? (" Ω+

"

! 1 3 ( / " =− + ( "+
("
7 +ω = ' ?ω =

• 7 3 .
= (ω +ψ "
• 7 .
(" ' #
( "= (Ω " + (Ω " + ( Ω "+ ( Ω " + +++
' 11 3 $ ) > '
+ω = (Ω "
)
. 1 = (Ω + ϕ " +
3 1 >
Ω )
J = (Ω + ϕ " ' 1 ) = ϕ

' + ↔ +

↔ Ω

ϕ
= ( (Ω + ϕ " ↔ ( Ω" = (
(Ω " ↔
− π
(Ω " ↔ =−
-
% ' ↔
/
) ( Ω ≠ω"
, ' 3 (−Ω + ω " = ' = '
ω −Ω
= =
ω −Ω

ω Ω
7 Ω<ω' ϕ = &+
7 Ω >ω' ϕ = −π 5 π 4

I
 ϕ
ω
Ω
−π

- . Ω =ω
π
(Ω + ϕ " ' = ' ϕ =−
ω
, = (Ω "
ω
• 7
= (ω +ψ " + (ω "
ω

•
# .
7 1 1 −" '
K +
! 1 3= +

"

" 2

• 2
! "1 ' 3
L 1 " ' 3 +
• 2
" = −" ' 5 " 4=5 45 4− ' 5 4 = 5 45 4− ' 5 4 = 5 4 ' 5 & 4 = 5 )4

, + 1
"
> +++ +
"
7 3 −" ' 3 3 M

&
"%

=− −"
ω&
, + + ω& = & ' ω& = ' %=
% "

" , 11
λ+
• 1 + !3 $
ω&
λ + λ + ω& = &
%

∆ D = ω& −
%
• -
∆D > & ⇔ % <
− ω&

λ 'λ ∈ −
' = %
( ∆D
+ − ∆D
"

• - N
∆D < & ⇔ % >

( ω " = ∆D ' ω = ω& − < ω&

%
ω&
−
1 = %
( (ω " + (ω ""
ω&
%

(" ω π ω&
δ= = & = ( "
( + " % % ω
• - ( "
3 %=
 $ 3
•
! &+

0" 1

/ $− '−" 1 > (Ω "+

"

ω&
+ + ω& = Ω
%
7 3 . +
3 ' .
7 .
1 = (Ω + ϕ "
ω& O
, (−Ω + Ω + ω& " = ' =
% ω&
ω& − Ω + Ω
%
•
O
=
ω&
(ω & −Ω ) +Ω
%

% → +∞
ω& Ω
! %< ' 3 ) +

• ,
ω&
= (ω& − Ω − Ω "
(+++" %
∈

Ωω& O % ω&
, ϕ= ' ( ϕ" = ( −Ω "<& −π < ϕ < &
Ω − ω& %
 ϕ
ω
Ω
−π

"

Ω
$
) + + = Ω
$
7 )$ + $ + = Ω

+" + = Ω

• $↔ 6↔ 6 ↔
• )↔ 6 ↔ " 6 ↔

$
• ε = ) ↔ = 6ε = ↔ = 6

! = ↔ " = " ⋅ = "

": /
"

! $1 ' σ (*" = =* ∧
σ (*"

π
π & &
 "%

=−
=−
, / '
+=− +
= (ω + ϕ " = (ω "
, '
+= + (ω + ϕ + " += + (ω + ϕ "

) +

0"

& σ
= θ+ = =

"%
"

= = + + = ' + '+

"

= ( δ =− ⋅ =− ( ""

, = + + = ' + '+

"%

= + = ' + '+ + ' + '+

% ' = ' '+ = +

, = = + +
 : = +

", 1
3 2. 2 2. 3 1
ρ = −ω ρ + " ( ρ ' ρ ' ρ ' ρ "
ρ = −ω ρ + " ( ρ ' ρ ' ρ ' ρ "

0" %)
"

( "

"

θ
θ

"

∝ θ −θ

;
"% 3

3$ 3 ' +

"%

1 2
=− ( − '& " + , ( & + − − &" = − + ,( − "
=&

,
=− + +

, ,
% = =− − ,( − "' = − +

"%

:
= + + ,( − "

= ( + ," + ( + ," −,

"

• ,1
3 3 ' > ω
'
= (ω + ϕ " ' = (ω + ϕ "
ϕ ϕ ω
= ' = ( =- ( ""

•
+, −,
ω − =
−, +,
= ω −

+, ,
&' 1 ω − =±

E
 N ω = ' ω= =ω

+ , + ,
P ω = ' ω= =ω
) +
• )
= ' = = (ω + ϕ " +
=− ' =− = (ω + ϕ "
• ,

( " =
( ", ' 3 + +
( " ' 1 '& = '& '& = '&

( " =−
( " Q R )

S 1 ( Q , R"

= = ∆ =∆ +∆ +
∆ ∆ +∆ ∆ ∆
, = = = + = +

= + ' ∆ =∆ =∆ +, = + +
( " ' & = − '& ' '& = − '&

"7

•
= (ω + ϕ " + (ω + ϕ "
% = (ω + ϕ " − (ω + ϕ " '
D $ ) 1 +
ω ω
=- ( + "
ω ω
=- ( − "
• % ' 3 > ' = +
• @ $ ' ( ' 'ϕ 'ϕ "

<
," T

( " ' 2. 11
+
λ+
( "7 ' '
λ+
- =- ( - "
2. '+++ ' . +
' 1 +
2U λ' ' λ( " '+++λ( " '
λ( " = ( "
+ (( " ( ( " ' (( " ∈ "
7 ∀ ' ( " =&' λ( " = ( ( " = ω ( " ' 1
> )
<&'
( "
( " (( "
7
7 ( "
> &' +
( " λ(
=- (
" ( "
( " - - "' ? - +

( "7
7 ∀ ' ( "
≤&' 3 2. ' +
7 ' ( " > &' +

%" 0
3 )
, ,
ω = = ω& ' ω = + = ω& +

,
7 , << ' ω ≈ ω& ( + "+

' & =& '& =

' & =& ' & =&

= (ω + ϕ " + (ω + ϕ " '

% = (ω + ϕ " − (ω + ϕ "
, .
ω +ω ω −ω
= ( (ω " − (ω "" =

ω +ω ω −ω
% = ( (ω " + (ω "" =

,
ω + ω ≈ ω& ' ω − ω ≈ ω &

, = (ω& ) ω&
,
= (ω& ) ω&
,

F
 ,
ω& >> ω& ' 1 > ω&
,
3 $ ω&

,
ω = ω&
( $ > "

"

72 . $ ρ( " ' 3 11 +

"

": /

• 3 +
• 7 ' ρ >& +
7 1 ' ρ <& +
' 1. +

"

! / & '
3 11 + ' / '
3 11 +
! 11 ' ρ& ρ&
+

I
0"
"

+ω = &+ , + ω = ' + = '

ω
$ 3 3 +
Oω

"

%
! ∆θ = − θ
, ! ∆θ − θ=

! ∆θ + ( − θ" =
θ

θ θ θ
, θ + = ' + =
!∆ ω
ω

θ θ
( "7 = ' =±
ω
θ Oω

( 3 "
( "7 <
θ θ
< −
ω
, θ 3 ' θ
( "7 >
θ 3 +
θ Oω

θ
−π π

&
"
" 1 1

• %
+" + =&
ω&
+ + ω& = & ' ω& = ' %=
% "

7 % >>
−ω &

= &
%
(ω+ + ϕ " ( ω = ω& − ≈ ω& "
%
• %
ω& ω&
+ ω& =− ' + ω& =−
% %
• : / ( "
Oω

% ' 3 %+
* +
7 −" +" ' +

" 1

• , 11
/ =− + ' &= − ' =

@ =&' = ' < "& ' D $

"&
< & =
! >&
=−" +, + =−" ' + ω& = − "
" "
, + =− ' + =− +
ω& ω&

, + + = ' +( + " = +
ω& ω&
=&' =− +
 7 <&' = " ' = +( − " =
ω&
• %) /
Oω

! ' 1 3 $ 3 =
( = & "' < & ' +

,"
"%

• !3 3 )
• , ) 1

' +

" %)

"& > "

: . 2
=− +
&= −

7 =&
− =&' =
, =&' = +
"&
< "& ' < & =

ω
Oω
7 > &' >
=−"
, + =−"
"
7 + =− ' + =− +
ω ω

, +( + " =
ω
7 < &' < +
% =+"

,3 ? +( − " =
ω
>
!
' >

ω
Oω

%) / K '
/ =+" 6 / 1 +

-
%)

ω
Oω

%)

ω
Oω

' +
' ' ' 3 )
+
 !
@ 1

3 ) =& < &+

! >& 3 3 +!
1 " ≠ "& +
π
' Ω= +
Ω ω' " ' "& ' '
"& − "
Ω =ω += +
+ (+ − +" ω
π

" . A

• % 3
+" + =&
ω&
, + γ + ω& = & ' γ=
%
7 γ > &'
7 γ <&' +
. A

γ = γ& −

3 +γ& − + ω& = &

! 3 ' ( 3 3
"+
• %
ω&
+ − + ω& = &
%
7 % 11
 7 % ' )

%) 3 )

• 0

+ "& − + =&

, + "& − + =&

.
= &' = &+

, ' "& − =&

7 "& = "&
1

%" . )
"! /

! 1 /
.
' ρ& '
ρ& +

"

C /
1 +

;
 "-

• .
73 ) / $ '
= 2 $ 3 ) ρ (
Q1 R $ 3 "
• %)
! +
!

"! '

•
7 ρ& ' ρ& ρ ( "' ρ ( " ' λρ & ' λρ &
λρ ( "' λρ ( " +
! / 3 3 +
•
: / / 2 +
! ( "

"

3 =− + = − ω& + ' 1
= β+ + '
ω&
β+ << ω& ' β <<

! . 2 3
= − ω& + β +
7 + ω& − β + =&

" 2

• 3
• 3 +
• 7 β <&

ω < ω& 3 1 +
• 7 β >&

ω > ω& +

E
"%

7 ' 1 = (ω& "

1 = (ω " + ( "
&

( ω ≈ ω& ' << "

∆ω = ω − ω &
∆ω β
<< ' << ' << ' =
ω& ω&
1 = (ω " + ( "
&

& + ω& & + + ω& = β( & + "

7 & (ω& − ω " + ω& & + + ω& = β( & + & + & + "
− ω& ∆ω ω β

+ω = ω& ∆ω+ ω +β ( ( ω "+ (ω ""

β β
= ( ω & ∆ω + " ω + ( ω"
! ω $ '
+
β − β
, ω& ∆ω + =&' ∆ω =
F ω&
β
% +ω = ( ω"
) ' Ω= ω
β
− Iω +ω =

−β −β
, = ' = ( ω"
ω ω
3 2 . 1 1 =
β
' = (ω " − ( ω"
ω

"

•
− β
• ∆ω = ' 3 +
F ω&

<
 "

! ∆θ = − θ = −ω& (θ − E θ "
ω& ∆ω −
@' β = ' =θ ' = β
E ω& F ω&
∆ω −
, = θ
ω& E
π ω ∆ ∆ω
= ' =− ' =− = θ
ω ω & ω& E

' = & + θ
E
θ +
∆
7 < &− ' 1 θ < &' = °

;" ).

+ ω& = γ +

1 ' 1 = ) +
@' γ >&
! N $ ' $
, ' ∆ω = &
' >&
& (" ω& P ω& +

0" %)

! $ θ = &' $ & −∆ +
L θ ) ' V $ & +
θ( " +
. 3 32 +

F
(@ 2 D "

" 2 2

! 1 2 3 ?
/
$ ' ?
+
! 2. 3 +

"%

• , $ D
θ θD
=
& & −∆
∆
, θD =θ −
&

= . ( ?. = D "

, = .+ .≈∆ ' = ∆
!

! 1 ' 1
+, D $ +
θ
% θD =
&

• , D $ 3
,3 . . 3 '

& θD + & ( − θD " = & θ DD

θD D

( ? =& 3"

I
 ' θ DD = θ D + θ D
&
ω&

7 θ D D = θ D + ω& θ D
θ θ ( −∆ "
&
&

% θ D D = ω& θ
• , /$
D* +
, 3 . . ' σ∆ +
% &θ D D = ( & −∆ " θ +

• , $ + = D $ /
∆ ∆ ∆
θ + = − + θ = + θ
& & &

"%

• :
θ θ +
θ

) $
3 ' 3
π
≈ ' τ >>
=
ω&
&

θ = θ ( " (ω& + ϕ "

τ

• , θ ("
∆ π
∆θ = θ + −θ = θ '∆ =
& ω&
∆θ θ ∆ ω&
, ≈ = θ
∆ & π
Oτ π
7 θ =θ ' τ= × & = &
>>
&
ω& ∆ ∆
• ,
1 ) 3 +
L θ (θ W ° "' .
+
1 3 /
$
1 $∆ +

&
" A >

3 3 ξ+ (ξ − "ξ + ξ = &
%
% >> +

" 3 &

' ξ& = τ+

" 3

• ξ 1 ξ = ξ& + ξ ' ξ << ξ &

3 ξ& + ξ + (ξ & − "ξ & + ξ & + ξ = &

%
7 ξ + (ξ & − "ξ & + ξ = &
%
( 3 & ' << "
%
' 3 3 ξ +ξ = ( τ− " τ
%
• 3
π π
ξ ξ τ= ξ τ
& &
(! 3 3
1"
D $ ξ ≈ ξ&
π π
τ τ τ= τ τ' =
& &

• - 3 3
ξ 3
ξ +ξ = ( τ"
%
! 3 . = Q R ξ&
C . 3 ξ =− ( τ"
%
' ξ= τ− ( τ"
%

"

!3 11
( 2 "
," %) 3 !
"

•
$
' =
$
% )$ + =&

ω&
$ = $& ' ? ω& =
)
• %
$ $&
= + ) = + ) =

"

( Q R"
•
$
3 )$ + $ + =&
)
!3 ∆= − <& (
"
−
, $ = $& )
(ω& + ϕ "
π )
= 'τ= ( ' τ >> "
ω&

− Oτ
$&

$ =% ( " (ω& + ϕ "

 • @
=$=% ( " (ω& + ϕ " − % ( "ω& (ω& + ϕ "
≈ −% ( "ω& (ω& + ϕ "
• %
$ % (" $& −
= + ) = = O

τ
, 3 τ D=

" )

+∆

• 2 2
! ) 3
L ' 1 '
' . +
@' 1 ) '
( $ $"
3 3 $
1 +
• 0 3

$ % (" ε &&
= ' = =

+∆ ∆
% = % × − × = %
ε && ε && ε &&
0

(!3 )1 3 "
,
! = = ω&% ( "+π
3
∆
∆ = − =% × − ω& +π
ε &&
0 !
• %

∆ ∆
≈

ω& ∆ % ("
= % (" − ω& +π ' =
π ε &&
ω& ∆
, = × − ω& +π
π ε &&
ω ∆
7 = & − π ω&
π
ω& ∆
% = & ) − π ω& ×
π
∆
7 >π ω& '
7 '