CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of Study

Data Acquisitions system as the name implies, are products and/or process used to

collect information to document or analyze some phenomenon. In the simplest form, a

technician logging the temperature of an oven on a piece of paper is performing data

acquisition. As technology has progressed, this type of process has been simplified and

made more accurate, versatile and reliable through electronic equipment. Equipment

ranges from simples recorders to sophisticated computer system. Data acquisition

products serve as a focal point in a system, tying together a wide variety of products,

such as sensors that indicate temperature, flow, level, or pressure. Some common data

acquisition terms are shown below

 Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)

 An electronic that converts analog signals to an equivalent digital form. The

analog-to-digital converter is the heart of most data acquisition systems.

 Digital-to-Analog converter (D/A)

An electronic component found in many data acquisition devices that produces

an analog output signal.

 Digital input/output (DIO)

Refers to a type of data acquisition signal. Digital I/O are discrete signals which

are either one or two states. These states may be on/off, high/low, 1/0 etc.

digital I/O are also referred to as binary I/O.

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  Differential input

Refers to the way a signal is wired to data acquisition devices. Differential

inputs have a unique high and unique low connection for each channel. Data

acquisition devices have either singles-ended or differential inputs, many

devices support both configurations.

1.0.1 Fault tolerant control

Fault-tolerant control is used in systems that needed to be able to detect faults and

prevent simple faults related to control loops from developing into production

stoppages or failures at a plant level. This is obtained by combining fault detection with

supervisory control and re-configuration to accommodate faults. Much attention has

been focused on fault detection in its own right. This paper deals with a fault tolerant

control from a much wider point of view, covering the entire design process from the

engineering of the interface to structural implementation. Experience ranging from a

simple temperature control to a complex satellite control system demonstrates

significant improvements in plant availability using simple means.

1.0.2 Air Pollution

Air pollution has been aggravated by developments that typically occur as countries

become industrialized thus, growing cities increased traffic rapid economic energy

consumption become factors of the industrialization effort. The high influx of

population to urban areas, increase in consumption patterns and unplanned urban and

industrial development has contributed to the air pollution problem. Stratospheric ozone

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depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as

well as to the Earth’s ecosystems. The report, prepared by Global Scientific Inc., found

that suspended particulate matter (SPM) including dust, fumes, mist, and smoke in the

air in commercial, industrial and even residential arrears of the city exceed the National

Ambient Air Quality Standards throughout the year. In majority of the developed

world, legislator has already been introduced to the extent that local authorities are

required by law to conduct regular Local Air Quality reviews of the key urban

pollutants such as Benzene, SO2, NOx, CO or Ozone produced by industrial activity

and/or road transport. In order to achieve this, pollutant concentrations must be

monitored accurately and ideally so that sources may be identified quickly and the

atmospheric dynamics of the process are understood,

Furthermore, such data would lend itself to real-time environment decision making.

This report will also address the relevant background surrounding the causes and

effects of air pollution as well as bring to light recent research and initiatives employed

by cities both local and Global comparisons will be made between the previous

prototype and the changes that have been implemented in achieving the new design.

1.0.3 Impacts on the Economy

With the rising cost in Health care, the burden on the economy is another major impact

that air pollution has on the society. Billions of dollars are spent globally to address the

health concerns, and in one article it was seen that in California alone the ‘dirty air’

caused $193 million in hospital based health care within a 2-year period. The elevated

pollution levels meant that ‘exposure to excessive levels of toxic gases and particulate

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pollution caused nearly 30,000 emergency room visits and hospital admissions [7]. This

impact may not be as concerning as the health concerns however it proves that air

pollution does have a significant impact on the state’s economy.

Within Australia a study was conducted on health costs of air pollution with regards to

the Greater Sydney Metropolitan [8]. Total health costs were estimated to be between

$1 billion and $ 8.4billion per annum. Indicators that were assessed included ‘cost of

illness’ and ‘willingness to pay’ which was direct costs generated by illness ( i. e.

hospital emission, medicine costs etc.). In parallel comparison with willingness to pay

to avoid illness.

1.0.4 Impacts on the Environment

Global warming is an undeniable issue with the earth average temperature ‘increasing

by about 0.8ºC over the past 10 years, with about 0.6ºC of this warming occurring over

just the past three decades. [9]. This shows that the jump in human activity with regards

to production and manufacturing has led to excess amounts of waste and pollution

being released contributing to the greenhouse effect and in turn accelerating the global

warming process.

1.1Aims and Objectives

The aim of the study is to develop a fault-tolerant with a Global positions

system(GPS) locator for a monitoring control for CO pollutant concentration using a

CO sensor for detection of the pollutant , and a LCD for indication of the level of the

pollutant in the particular place of study. A micro controller will be programmed to a

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GPS locator which sends information to GSM modem/ SD card and stored information

in it.

Objectives are,

I. To deduce the appropriate sensors and component

II. To design the FTC-DAS (fault-tolerant control and data acquisition system)

III. To assess the current state of the air pollution

IV. To determine and procure appropriate sensors for the measurement of the

pollutant level

V. To deduce the appropriate sensor and components

VI. To implement the design above

VII. To test for reliability, accuracy and operation consistency

1.2 Statement of Problems

Air pollution has major effect on society as it impacts not only our health but also our

environment and economy. Action must be taken immediately to monitor and control

this situation before a critical point is reaches. In advances countries, government spend

billions of dollars per annum to cover costs associated with the effects of air pollution.

Therefore it is necessary to design a device that can monitor air pollution in real time

and provide its data to users on the go.

1.3 Significance of Study

The construction of good air quality systems has recently been a focus of attention with

increasing reports of health problems related to poor atmospheric conditions. Detecting

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pollutants in the air is determine polluted areas using an air quality monitoring system

is important as the initial process of common air-quality improvement techniques such

as source control, improved ventilation, air cleaning and gradually been phased out.

Conventional air monitoring approaches such as Gas Chromatography (GC) are limited

with respect to time, expense, and installation sites. Therefore, limited data is available

for the estimation of ambient air toxins. Further, air quality monitoring systems built

into compact, handheld devices have spatial and temporal limitations, since the

measurement are conducted manually. Recent advances in micro-electro-mechanical

system (MEMS) and wireless sensor network (WSN). Technology has allowed the

creation of air pollutant monitoring system and is deployment in real environments. The

integration of an air pollutant monitoring system with technology will reduce

installation costs and enable the quick and easy reconfiguration of the data acquisition

and control system. In addition, networked air pollutant monitoring system allows

continuous and low-cost observation of air pollutants. It also allows pollutant

concentration to be monitored accurately and ideally so that sources may be identified

quickly and the atmospheric dynamics of the process to be understood and is more

users friendly.

1.5 Project Report Stages

The first chapter of this report began with the background of study, Data Acquisition

System definition, Fault Tolerant Control, Air pollution. Furthermore, the effects on

health, economy and environment also discussed.

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Chapter two focus on the literature review of existing system for Fault Tolerance, type

of fault and failure on actuator, General structure of an active fault Tolerant Control

System (AFTCS), classification of FTC, Data Acquisition System, and History of

DAQ.

Chapter three further explains the Methodology and discusses i. e. review of the

components and the breaching down into modules of some of the major components

used and their functions.

Chapter four talked about the design and implementation of the device i. e the power

circuit, the input circuit, the controller, the storage unit, the overall system design and

indicators (LEDs and Alarm system)

Chapter five discuss the conclusions, summary, recommendations, further research and

appendix

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 FAULT-TOLERANCE

When a fault occurs in a system, the main problem to be addressed is to raise an alarm,

ideally diagnose what fault has occurred, and then decide how to deal with it. The

problem is detecting a fault, the source/location and then taking appropriate action is

the basis of fault tolerant control.in this chapter and I start with some definitions and

describe different types of fault and failures which occur in actuators and sensors. First

we identify the term Fault and failure which we be defined in this chapter;

Fault: an unpermitted deviation of at least one characteristic properties or parameter of

the system from the acceptable/usually/standard condition.

Failure: a permanent interruption of a system`s ability to perform a required function

under specified operating conditions.

Clearly, a failure is a condition which is much more severe than a fault. When a fault

occurs in a actuator for example, the actuator is still usable but may have a slower

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response or become less effective. But when a failure occurs, totally different actuator

is needed to be able to produce the desire effect.

In aircraft system there are some distinct types of actuator failure, the three most

common are shown in Fig 2.1

Fig 2.1 Type of fault and failures on actuator

A lock failure is a failure condition when an actuator becomes stuck and immovable.

This might cause mechanical jam, due to lack of lubrication. This type of failure occur

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in documented incidents such as flight 1080 (Lockeed L1011, San Diego, 1977) where

one of the horizontal stabilizers jammed in the full trailing edge-up position; and flight

96 (DC-10, Windsor, Ontario, 1972) where the rudder jammed with offset.

A float failure is a failure condition where the control surface moves freely without

providing any moment to the aircraft. An example of a float failure is the loss of

hydraulic fluid. This has occurred in the incidents such as flight 123 (B-747, Japan,

1985) and DHL A300B4 (A300, Baghdad, 2003) resulting from a total loss of

hydraulic.

One of the most catastrophic types of failures is runaway/hard over. In a runaway

situation the control surface will move at its maximum rate limit until it reaches its

maximum position limit or its blown limit. For example a rudder runaway can occur

when there is an electronic component failure which cause an uncommanded large

signal to be sent to the actuators causing the rudder to be deflected at its maximum rate

to its maximum deflection at low speed ( or blow down limit at high speed) this failure

occur in incidents such as flight 85 (B-747, Anchorage, Alaska, 2002) which suffer a

lower rudder runaway to full left deflection, causing the airplane to roll excessively)

and flight 427 ( B-737, Near Aliquippa, Pennsylvania, 1994) (which suffer from a

rudder runaway to its limit blow down limits).

Fault Tolerance is the property that enables a system to continue operating in the event

of the failure of (or one or more faults within) some of its components, if its operating

quality decreases at all. The decrease is proportional to the severity of the failure, as

compared to a naively design system in which even small failure can cause total

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breakdown. Fault tolerance is particular sought after high availability or life-critical

systems. A Fault-Tolerant design enables a system to continue its intended operation,

possibly at reduced level, rather than failing completely, when some part of the system

fails, the term is commonly used to describe computer system design to continue more

or less fully operational with, perhaps, a reduction in throughput or an increase in

response time in the event of some partial failure. That is, the system as a whole is not

stopped due to problems either in the hardware or the software. An example in another

field is a motor vehicle design so it will continue to derivable if one of the tires is

punctured, a structure is able to retain its integrity in the presence of damage due to

cause such as fatigue corrosion, manufacturing flaws or impact. Within the scope of an

individual Fault-tolerance can be achieve by anticipating exceptional conditions and

building the system to cope with them, and, in general, aiming for self-stabilization so

that the system converges towards an error-free state. However, if the consequences of

a system failure are catastrophic, or the cost of making it sufficiently reliable is very

high, a better solution may be use some form of duplication, in any case, if the

consequences of a system is so catastrophic, the system must be able to use reverse to

fall back to a safe mode. This is similar to roll-back recovery but can be a human action

if humans are present in the loop.

2.2 FAULT-TOLERANT CONTROL SYSTEM

A fault-tolerant control system is capable of controlling the system with satisfactory

performance even one or several faults, or more critically, one or several failures occur

in this system. In the literature, most of the motivation and research work in fault

tolerant control involves solving problems encountered in safely critical system such as

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aircraft. Application can also be found in other system, for example robots, space

science and underwater remotely operated vehicles. Research into fault tolerant control

is largely motivated by the control problems encountered in air craft system design. The

goal is to provide a “self-repairing” capability to enable the pilot to land the aircraft

safely in events of serious fault.

Zhang and Jiang define Faults tolerant control system (FTCS) as a control system that

possesses the ability to accommodate system component failure automatically. They are

capable of maintaining overall system stability and acceptable performance in the event

of such failure. FTCS were also known as self-reconfigure, restructurable, or self-

designing control system. FTCS is a complex combination of three major research

fields; FDI, robust control, and reconfigurable control (see Fig 2.1). A typical active

Fault Tolerant Control System (AFTCS) architecture is shown in Fig 2.2 for most FTC

schemes, when fault/failure occurs either in an actuator or sensor, the FDI scheme will

detect and locate the source of the fault. This information is then passed to a

mechanism to

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 Fig

2.1 scattered areas of Fault Tolerant Control Research

Fig 2.2 General structure of active Fault Tolerant control system (AFTCS)

Initiate reconfiguration. The reconfigurable controller will try to adapt to the fault,

therefore providing stability and some level of performance. Both the FDI and the

reconfigurable controller need to be robust against uncertainties and disturbances.

Robust control I closely related to passive fault tolerant control systems. The controller

is designed to be robust against disturbances and uncertainty during the design stage.

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This enables the controller to counteract the effect of fault without requiring

reconfiguration or FDI.

2.3 Classification of FTC

A fault-tolerant control system may be regrouped into two ‘families’ passive tolerant

controllers and active fault-tolerant controllers.

2.3.1 Passive Fault-Tolerant Controllers

In a passive fault-tolerant controller deviation of the plant parameters from their true

value or deviation of the actuators from their expected position may be efficiently

compensated by a fixed robust feedback controller, however, if these deviation

becomes excessively large and exceed the robustness properties, some actions need to

be taken, also, if deviation occur at the sensor side, inevitable deviation from the

reference command signals will happen. Therefore, active fault-tolerant control

architecture is needed in order to achieve fault-tolerance capability.

2.3.2 Active Fault-Tolerant Controllers

An active fault-tolerant controller usually contains a separate module. A fault detection

and isolation (FDI) system that monitors the health of the aircraft. The FDI system

informs a supervision module of the seriousness of fault/failure or damage. Based

therein, the supervision module may decide to reconfigure the flight controller, the

guidance system and the navigation system. There are two families of FDI system,

namely FDI and active FDI system passive FDI system ‘wait’ until something starts

clearly go wrong in the system where as active FDI system will artificially excite the

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aircraft, either by flying health check maneuver or by injecting test signals in the

actuator commands and then assessing the individual health status of actuators and

sensors. In this project, an active fault-tolerant control system has been develop, which

contains an active nonlinear FDI system and robust nonlinear controllers in all of the

control loops of the autopilot. Furthermore, a supervision module has been designed

which is capable of reconfiguring the control allocation process.

Fig 2.3 Classification of FTC

In passive fault control system, the controller is designed to be robust against faults and

uncertainty. Therefore when a fault occurs the controller should be able to maintain

stability of the system with an acceptable degradation in performance. PFTCS does not

require FDI and does not require controller reconfiguration or adaptation. AFTCS on

the other hand responds to system components failure in an active way by

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reconfiguration so that stability and acceptable performance of the entire system can be

maintained. Therefore, most AFTCS require FDI to provide the fault or failure

information before reconfiguration can be undertaken.

2.4 Redundancy

Redundancy can be categorized into two types, direct and analytical. In direct

redundancy, actual physical hardware redundancy is available. In terms of sensors, two

or three sensor that measures the same quantity is called double and triple redundancy.

In normal operation, only one sensor is sufficient, however, two or three sensors are

required to ensure reliable measurement in the case of faults. A voting system is typical

way to decide which channels are working correctly and which are faulty. This

hardware redundancy concept can also be extended to the actuators. In terms of analytic

redundancy, instead of having multiple sensors that measure the same signal, an

observer that provides an estimate of the signals of interest provide analytical

redundancy. There are no actual additional hardware implemented, instead some of

algorithm or mathematical model or observer runs in the control computer. This is

desirable in many systems especially in aircraft and Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs),

since analytical redundancy eliminates the requirements for extra hardware therefore

reducing weight and cost. In large passenger transport aircraft, sensors are typically

tripled redundant. The aerospace industry attempts to reduce the “carbon foot-print” left

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by aircraft, many manufacturers have tried to reduce the consumption of fuel by

designing high efficiency engines, and also by reducing weight by eliminating

hardware redundancies, replacing them with analytical ones ( observers to estimating

the aircraft states). This is also beneficial in the development of cheap, robust and

maintenance-free UAVs. Due to the low production cost, there is no requirement for

repair, and instead, the whole unit is replaced. In aircraft, a control surface, for example

the rudder, can have three different hydraulic actuators running from three separate

lines to three independent hydraulic pumps. This means most control surfaces will have

triple redundancy. In terms of control surface itself, there exist secondary controls that

can be used in an emergency in an unconventional way to achieve the same effect as

the primary control surface. In large passenger transport aircraft for example, the

spoilers which are typically deployed to reduce speed. To create roll normally is

achieved by using ailerons; also engines can also use differently to create yaw, which is

typically achieved by using the rudder; and finally the horizontal stabilizer. Which is

normally used to set angle of attack, can replace elevators for pitch modulation.

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Table 2.1 current FTC methods comparison

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2.5 Data Acquisition System

A data acquisition system, this can be accurately described by explaining what a Data

Acquisition system “does” not what it is. A data Acquisition system catches or captures

data about an actual system and stores that information in a format that can be easily

retrievable for purposes of engineering or scientific review analysis. Another

requirement of Data Acquisition System should be that it captures information

programmatically or automatically in other words, without any hands-on human

intervention or guidance.

In other words Data Acquisition ids the process of sampling signals that measures real

world physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric

values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data Acquisition system (abbreviated

with the acronym DAS or DAQ) typically convert analog waveforms into digital values

for processing. The components of Data Acquisition System include:

 Sensors that convert physical parameters to electrical signals.

 Signal conditioning circuitry to convert sensor signals into a form that can be

converted to digital values.

 Analog- to-digital converters, which convert conditioned sensor signals to

digital values.

Data Acquisition applications are controlled by software programs developed using

various general purpose programming languages such as Lab VIEW, BASIC, C,

FORTRAN, java, Lisp, Pascal. Stand-alone DAS are often called data loggers. There

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are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools to acquire data

from different hardware equipment. These tools come from the scientific community

where experiment requires fast, flexible and adaptable software. Those packages are

usually custom fit but more general DAS package like Maximum Integrated Data

Acquisition System can be easily tailored and is used in several physics experiments

worldwide.

There are seven elements or functions in a Data Acquisition System. The seven

elements/functions are (in no particular order) data collection, measurement, timing and

triggering, a real-time clock, system control, at communication and data archiving. All

seven elements must be in place for a structure to be considered a DAS. If only a

number of these elements are part of the system, the module could be defined as a

component of Data Acquisition System. If a system has all seven elements along with

the additional features, it is probably a larger system with a data acquisition system

being part of larger structure. The actual components or elements of data Acquisition

System to perform the seven essential functions are critical to the efficiency of the

system. There must be a series of sensors as inputs to a Data Acquisition Board; in

addition, there must be a trigger to synchronize the sensor input ( the data stream), as

well as a control for the Data Acquisition Board and the processor of the system and

system clock, a data communication bus (I/O) is also required. The Data is being stored

real=time, the analysis and review of the information is performed after data is

gathered. By definition, information cannot be analyzed in real-time; otherwise data

events will be missed or overlooked. The Data Acquisition System must collect, sort,

catalog and stored data to be reviewed and analyze in a meticulous manner.

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2.6 History

In 1963, IBM produced computers which specialized in Data Acquisition. These

include the IBM 7700 Data Acquisition System and its successor, the IBM 1800 Data

Acquisition and Control System. These expensive specialized systems were surpassed

in 1974 by general purpose S-100 computers and Data Acquisitions cards produced by

Tecmar/Scientific Solution Inc. in 1981 IBM introduced the IBM Personal Computer

and Scientific Solutions introduced the first PC data acquisition products.

2.7 Methodology of DAS

Data Acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon or physical property to be

measured. Examples of this include temperature, light intensity, gas pressure, fluid flow

and force. Regardless of the type of physical property to be measured must first be

transformed into a unified form that can be sampled by a Data Acquisition System. The

task of performing such transformation falls on devices called sensors.

A sensor, which is a type of transducer, is a device that converts a physical property

into a corresponding electrical signal (e.g. voltage or current) or, in many cases, into a

corresponding electrical characteristic (e.g. resistance or capacitance) that can easily be

converted to electrical signal. The ability of a Data Acquisition System to measure

different properties depends on having sensors that suited to detect the various

21
properties to be measured. These are specific sensor for many different applications.

DAQ system also employs various signal conditioning techniques to adequately modify

various different electrical signals into a voltage that can be digitizing using an Analog-

to-digital converter (ADC).

Signals may be digital (also called logic signals sometimes) or analog depending on the

transducer used. Signal conditioning may be necessary if the signal from the transducer

is not suitable for the DAQ hardware being used. The signal may be need to be

amplified, filtered or demodulated. Various other examples of signal conditioning

might be bridge completion, providing current or voltage excitation to the sensor,

isolation, and linearization. For transmission purposes, single ended analog signals,

which are more susceptible to noise, can be converted to different signals. Once

digitize, the signal can be encoded to reduce and correct transmission errors.

DAQ hardware is what usually interfaces between the signal and a PC. It could be in

the form of modules that can be connected to the computer’s port (parallel, serial, USB,

etc.) or cards connected to slots (S-100 bus, Apple Bus, ISA, MCA, PCI, PCI-E, etc.).

In the motherboard. It usually the space on the back of a PCI card is too small for all

the connections needed, so an external breakout box and the PC can be expensive due

to many wires, and the required shielding.

DAQ cards often contain multiple components (multiplexer, ADC, DAC, TTL-IO, high

speed timers, RAM). These are accessible via a bus by a microcontroller, which can run

small programs. A microcontroller is more flexible than hard wire logic, yet cheaper

than a CPU so that it is permissible to block it with simple polling loops, starting the

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ADC to finish, move value to RAM, switch multiplexer, get TTL input, let DAC

proceed with voltage ramp. Many times reconfigurable logic is used to achieve high

speed for specific tasks and digital signal processors are used after the data has been

acquired to obtain some results. The fixed connection with the PC allows for

comfortable compilation and debugging. Using an external housing a modular design

with slots in a bus can grow with the needs of the user.

Not all DAQ hardware has to run permanently connected to a PC, for example

intelligent stand-alone loggers and oscilloscope, which can be operated from a PC, yet

they can completely independent of the PC.

DAQ software is needed in order for DAQ hardware to work with a PC. The device

performs low-level register writes and needs on the hardware, while exposing a

standard API for developing user applications. A standard API such as COMEDI

allows the same user application that runs on windows will also run Linux BSD.

2.8 Review of Literature

Barrenextxea G. M. et al in 2008, designed out of the Box Environment Monitoring

device called sensor scope. Sensor scope is a larger-scale wireless environment

monitoring system. Sensor scope was developed to provide in-situ spatial and temporal

observations across the landscape. Sensor scope makes use of solar energy with

extensive radio duty cycling to prevent power outages.

CamMobSens, in 2010, is collaboration between Cambridge University, Imperial

College London, Leads University, Newcastle University and Southampton University.

This system monitors vehicle occupancy, position, movement, temperature, humidity,

23
noise, CO and NO2. It has a low power Zigbee transceiver and a data logger on board. It

collects data through a gateway to a central server.

Honicky R in 2008, designed a device called N-smarts: N-smarts network suite mobile

atmospheric real-time sensors. N-SMARTS is GPS-enable phone based or Car mounted

citywide environmental data acquisition system. Its sensor module consists of carbon

dioxide, carbon monoxide, three-axis accelerometer, and temperature sensors.

Murty R.N. M. in 2008, deigned a gas monitoring device called City sense. City sense

is a Urban-scale Wireless sensor Network and Test bed in also a larger-scale wireless

environmental monitoring system. City sense supports the development and evaluation

of wireless system that span an entire city by employing over Wi-Fi enabled Linux-

based PCs embedded throughout buildings and streetlights. City sense uses a wired

power supply.

Sukwon C. et al in 2009, designed and implemented a Micro Node for Air Pollutant

Monitoring called APOLLO (Air Pollutant Monitoring System) sensor node, APOLLO

was constructed with off the shelf MEMS based or infrared based micro gas sensor.

APOLLO provides air quality information by collecting independent sensing

information from a various air components and forwarding the collected data to the host

system.

Koushanfar F.M in 2006, designed a laser spectroscopic trace-gas sensor networks,

sensor integration and applications LaserSPECKs was developed based on a laser

spectroscopic trace-gas sensor platform. By integrating quantum cascade laser

24
technology, both the size and cost are reduced, while providing a wide range of

detectable gases. However, the power consumption is not negligible.

Volgyesi, P. M in 2008, designed an Air Quality Control with Sensor Map. Sensor Map

is a mobile air quality monitoring network comprised of sensors that can detect O 2, NO2,

and CO/VOC. The scheme focused on data collection and presentation, but did not

consider issues like the characteristics of the gas sensors and energy management.

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY, SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

3.0 Methodology

This chapter contains the method and procedure employed in the design and

construction of a project in accordance to the stated objectives. This methods and

procedure include:

I. A Prototype Research Design Methodology.

II. Top-Down Research Design Methodology.

III. Model-Based Research Design methodology.

IV. Object Oriented Analysis and Design methodology

3.0.1 Choice of Methodology

From the above listed research design methodology, the choice of research

methodology used in carrying out this project design are

 Prototype Research methodology

 Top-Down Research methodology

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3.0.1.2 A Prototype Research Design Methodology

A prototype represents the shell of an actual production application. Prototype is built

early in the development lifecycle and they are used to provide valuable insight into

look-and-feel, and the general workflow of an application. (Sometimes people call the

first production implementation a prototype, but that is not correct. If you have multiple

implementations, the first one is mostly called a pilot.) in a traditional waterfall project,

we move from analysis and design, to coding and testing. The first time the clients have

a chance to look at an application is typically during the integration and system testing.

If the business requirements are well understood up-front, this approach can still make

a lot sense. However, on a typical project, the client does not always know exactly what

they want ahead of time. In this case, it can be very valuable to gather an initial set of

requirements and build a prototype that the client can see. The client is then in a much

better, and earlier, position to tell you what they like and don’t like. Based on the

feedback, you could begin a production application, or you could enhance the prototype

a second (and third) to home the requirements in even finer detail.

3.0.2 Top-Down Research Design Methodology

Top-down research design methodology (also known as a step wise design and in some

cases it is used as synonyms of the composition) is essentially the breaking down of a

system to gain insight into its compositional subsystem. In a top-down, an overview of

the system is formulated, specifying but not detailing any first level subsystems. Each

subsystem is then refined in yet greater details, sometimes, in any additional subsystem

level, until the entire specification is reduced to base elements. A top-down model is

27
often specifying with the assistance of ‘black boxes’, this makes it easier to manipulate.

However, black boxes may fail to elucidate elementary mechanics or be detail enough

to realistically validate the model. Top-down research starts with a big picture. It breaks

down from there into smaller segment.

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Fig 3.0 Block Diagram of the Design

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 Fig 3.0.1 Flow Chart of the Design

3.1 Tools and Components Used

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 Different tools, components and language were used in developing of this design. Since

this design involves components that are driven by the software running on the PC, a

suitable language platform was chosen (Micro C and Micro basic). In achieving the

above listed objectives, the following enumerated tools and components were used:

I. Secure digital card (SD card)

II. Capacitor

III. Connecting wire

IV. The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

V. Sensors

VI. MICS-4514

VII. GPS (global position system)

VIII. Resistors

IX. Transistors

X. Voltage regulator

XI. Temperature sensor

XII. Microcontroller

3.2 Components Descriptions

31
3.2.1Secure digital Card (SD card)

Secure digital (SD) card is a nonvolatile memory card used extensively in portable

devices, such as mobile phones, digital cameras, GPS navigation devices, handles

consoles, and tablet computers. The card can protect their contents from erasure

modification, prevent access by non-authorized users, and protect copyrighted content

using digital rights management (DRM).

Fig 3.2.1 SD Card

3.2.2 Capacitors

Capacitors are passive two terminal components used to store energy in an electric

field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely. But all contain at least two

electrical conductors separated by an dielectric (insulator). Capacitors are usually

polarized with a + or – sign printed on it. For the purpose of this project, a 3300μF 25V

and 100μF 50V capacitors were used with the sole aim in blocking direct current while

allowing alternating current in the design o power supply circuit as shown below

32
 Fig 3.2.3 Capacitor

3.2.4 Connecting wire

Connecting wire are used to connect different electrical components together in order to

allow flow of electric current from one component to another as shown below:

3.2.5 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of

colour or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel

consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent

electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to

each other. Without the liquid crystal between them, light passing through one would

be blocked by other. The liquid crystal twist the polarization of light entering one filter

to allow it pass through the other. A program must interact with the outside world using

input and output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the

33
most common devices attached to a controller is an LCD display. Some of the most

common LCDs connected to the controller are 16X1, 16X2, and 20X2 displays. This

means 16 characters per line by 1 by 16 character per line by 2 lines and 20 characters

per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Man controller devices use smart LCD to display output visual information. The LCD

displays designed around LCD NT-1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is

even possible to produce a readout using 5X7 dot plus cursor of the display. They have

a standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the

display requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0).

For a 4-bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines (RS RW D7 D6

D5 D4). When the LCD display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not

interfere with the operation of the microcontroller.

Features:

I. Interface with either 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor.

II. Display data RAM

III. 80x8 bits (80 characters)

IV. Display data RAM and character generator RAM may be accessed by the

microprocessor.

V. Built-in oscillator.

VI. Built-in reset circuit is triggered at power ON.

VII. Clear display, Cursor Home, display ON/OFF, cursor ON/OFF, blink character,

cursor shift, display shift.

34
3.2.6 Gas sensor

A gas sensor is an electronic device which detects the presence of various gases within

an area often as part of a system. It interacts with gas to measure its concentration.

There are many different types of gas sensors available commercially from metal oxide

semiconductor to pellistor. The wide range of available sensors includes:

I. Infrared Gas sensor

II. Pellistor-Catalytic Gas Sensor

III. Electromagnetic Gas Sensor

IV. Thermal Conductive Gas Sensor

V. Metal Oxide Semiconductor

3.2.7 MICS-4514

The chosen sensors was the MICS-4514, these sensors are solid-state devices composed

of sintered meta oxides which detect gas through an increase in electrical conductivity

when reducing gases are absorbed on the sensor’s surface. The sensors are both in the

same SMD package, and have a small size. The MICS-4514 includes two sensor chios

with independent heaters and independent sensitive layers. One sensor chip detects

oxidizing gases and the other gases detect reducing gases. In order to be able to make

exact measurement with MICS-4514 is necessary to take into account the effects that

temperature has on the characteristic curve of the sensor resistance versus gas

concentration. The sensor is usually places inside a housing to protect the sensing

element from water and dust projections. Ambient air containing ozone reaches the

35
sensing element by gas diffusion. A change of electric resistance of the sensing layer

can be converted into a voltage change. This voltage change then used to calculate an

equivalent concentration of oxen by using a microcontroller or simply to display or

sound alarm by comparing the voltage from the sensor with a pre-set threshold voltage.

3.2.8 GPS (Global Positioning System)

Is use to determine and track its precise location, the recorded data can be stored within

the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location data base, or internet-

connected computer, using a cellular ( GPRS or SMS ) radio, or satellite modern

embedded in the unit. This allows the asset’s location to be displayed against a map

backdrop either in real time or when analyzing the track later, using a GPS tracking

software. Data tracking software is available for smart phones with a GPS capability.

3.2.8 Resistors

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. The current through resistors is in direct proportion to

the voltage across the resistor’s terminals. They have no polarity as any of the sides can

be used interchangeably. For this project, 1k Ω and 10 Ω, 50 Ω are used to provide

resistance to flow of current and preventing a short circuit in the design

3.2.9 Transistor

A transistor is an electrical component composed of semiconductor material with at

least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied

36
to one pair of the transistor’s terminals changes the current flowing through another

pair of terminals. It is thus a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch

electronic signals and electrical power. For this purpose, five Ca45 NPN Transistors are

used.

3.2.10 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is commonly used in electronic circuits requiring a regulated power

supply due to their ease-of-use and low cost. Voltage regulator is designed to

automatically maintain a constant voltage level, regulating one or more AC or DC

voltages. In the design of the power supply of the model, TIP 122 voltage regulator is

used to stabilize the output voltage used by microcontroller thus a +5v regulated power

supply. The LM317 is a popular adjustable linear voltage regulator.

The LM317 has three pins, input, output, and adjustable. The device is conceptually an

op-amp (with a relatively high output current capacity). The inverting the input of the

amp is the adjustment pin, while the non-inverting input is set by an internal band gap

voltage reference which produce a stable reference voltage of 1.25V.

3.2.11 Microcontroller

A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated μC, uC) is a small computer on a single

integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output

peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often

included on chip, as well a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are

designed for embedded applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal

computers or other general purpose application.

37
Microcontroller are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as

automobile engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls,

office machines, appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By

reducing the size and cost compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor,

memory, and input/output devices. Microcontroller makes it economically to digitally

control even more devices and processes. Mixed signal microcontroller are common,

integrating analogue components needed to control non-digital electronic systems.

Fig 3.2.11 Microcontroller

3.2.12 Temperature Sensor

In this project a temperature sensor used in measuring temperature of the locality is

LM35. LM35 is a precision IC temperature sensor with is output proportional to the

temperature (in ºC). The sensor circuitry is sealed and therefore it is not subjected to

oxidization and other processes. With LM35, temperature can be measured more

accurately than with a thermistor. It also possess low self-heating and does not cause

38
 more than 0.1ºC temperature rise in still air. The operating temperature range is from -

55ºC to 150ºC. The out voltage varies by 10mV in response to every ºC rise/fall in

ambient temperature i.e. its scale factor 0.01V/ ºC. Along with this a variable resistor

output can also be set for voltage output.

Features of the LM35 are as follow

I. Calibrated directly in ºCelsius (Centigrade)

II. Linear +10.0mV/ºC

III. 0.5ºC accuracy guaranteed (at +25ºC)

IV. Rated for full -55º to +150ºC range

V. It is suitable for remote applications

VI. Low cost due to water-level trimming

VII. Less than 60μF current drain

VIII. Operates from 4 to 30 volts

IX. Low self-heating, 0.08ºC in still air

X. Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1mA load

3.2.12 Light Emitting Diode

This is a two lead semiconductor light source. It resembles a basic PN junction diode,

which light when activated. When a fitting voltage is applied to the lead electrons are

able a recombine with electrons hole within the device, releasing energy in the form of

photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the colour of the light

(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the

semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1mm 2), and integrated optical

39
components maybe used to shape its radiation pattern. Modern LEDs are available

across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronics devices, replacing small

incandescent bulbs. Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in

environmental and task lighting LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light

sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical

robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light Emitting Diodes are now used in

applications are diverse as aviation lighting automotive headlamps, advertising, general

lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes.

However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are still relatively expensive, and

require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp

sources of comparable output. LEDs have allowed next text, video displays, and

sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced

communications technology.

Fig 3.2.12 Light Emitting Diode (LEDs)

40
 CHAPTER 4

SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION

4.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with work done in implementing this specific system designs

described in the previous chapter. The system can be classified into its hardware and

software components. The hardware which was implemented in this chapter consist of

components such as a PIC18F4550, MQ7 sensor, capacitor, resistors, connecting wire,

transistors, voltage regulator, transformer, Light Emitting Diode,(LED), fan, Liquid

Crystal Display (LCD), Buzzer, Temperature sensor, Oscillator, Breadboard,, Zener

Diode etc. while the software involve utilizing assembly language written using the

MIDE development environment for the microcontroller. The developed system

comprises of three sections which are,

I. Power Supply Unit

II. The Signal Conditioning Unit and

III. The Output Unit

4.0.1 Power supply Unit

The power supply unit circuit can be derived from a 15v AC or 15V- 22 V DC, with

diodes (BR 1) providing reverse polarity protection. The nominal 12V supply rail is fed

through an/off switch to the input of a 3-terminal voltage regulator (LM317T), with

filtering provided by a 3300uF 25V (C4) electrolytic capacitor. This 12V supply rail

also drives a 12V fan via a 2 Kilo ohms resistor. The resistor is there to reduce the fan

41
speed and thus the noise it makes. The LM317 which is variable regulator is configured

to provide a 6V supply. The voltage between its OUT and ADJUST pins is nominally

1.25V, but in practice it ranges from 1.2V to 1.3V. if this voltage is 1.25, this means

that a current of 10.4mA flows through the 1kilo ohms resistor and the trimpot RV-1

sets the voltage across it to 4.75V and output of the regulator to 6V (i. e 4.75V +

1.25V ). This 6V supply is used to drive the heaters in the MICS 4514 sensors. In

addition, the 6V rail is fed to a voltage divider made up of RV1 and RV2 resistors. The

resulting 5V output from the divider is then fed to the input OP amp, which in turn

drives the current amplifier. The resulting 5V rail powers the microcontroller, LDR1

and the LCD.

42
Figure 4.0.1 Power Supply Unit

Figure 4.0.2

4.0.2 Signal Conditioning Circuit

This unit comprises of the sensors as an input device and the circuits which make it

possible for it to communicate with microcontroller i.e. send signals to the

microcontroller.

The output from the sensor is monitored at RB3/AN9 (pin 36) of the microcontroller.

The manufacturer’s specifications states that this sensor must initially be heated using

43
5V supply connected across its element for 60s. The heater current is then reduced by

placing just 1.4v across the element for 90s period. The carbon monoxide and the

nitrogen oxide are then being measured, after which the initial 60 heating circle begins

again. In practice, this means that measurements are repeated at 2.5 minutes (i.e. 150

seconds). The heater is powered from 6V rail via two parallel resistors, while transistors

ties the lower end of the heater element to 0V. The heater has a resistance of 33 ohms

when Q1 is on, a current of 15mA flows through it. This result in a 1V drop across the

two resistors, thus giving the required 5V supply for the heater. The transistor is

controlled by the microcontroller’s AN0 output (pin 2) and turns on when its gate I

pulled high. The AN0 switches Q3 on for 60s to provide the heating current. And the

other goes low for 90s, so the measurement can be made.

As a result, any changes in the sensor’s resistance will result in a corresponding voltage

change at the top of transistor. This signal is then applied to the AN3 input of the

microcontroller and fed to its internal A/D converter. During set-up, RV5 is set so that

AN3 is at 0.5 when the sensor is in normal air. However, this signal voltage can rise to

around 3V when the CO concentration is over 300ppm. In operation, the sensor varies

its resistance over a 10:1 range for CO concentrations ranging from 10ppm to

1000ppm.

4.0.3 The output unit

Light Emitting Diodes

44
The three LEDs are used to indicate the gas levels and these are wired with transistors

R15, r16, and R17 driving their common cathode. R15-R17 are in turn driven by the

RB0, RB1, RB2 outputs of the microcontroller.

Each is driven for about 1ms before switching off. As soon as it switches off, the next

transistor is switched on to drive the next LED. However, there is short gap (or ‘dead

time’) between one transistor switching off and the other on to prevent display errors.

In operation, the LEDs are switched on and off at fast rate that they appear to be

continuously lit.

The following are the colours of the LEDs used and their interpretations

I. Green (Safe-clean Air)

II. Yellow (Moderate Concentration)

III. Red (Dangerous-polluted Air)

4.1 DISCUSSION

This project is aimed to develop a Fault-Tolerant Control Data Acquisition System with

a GPS Locator for Monitoring and Control for Air pollutant gases. In this project a

signal is sent from input units to known the specific amount of pollutant gases present

in the air which then transfer the command to the microcontroller. The microcontroller

receives, understand and then carry out the task. After carrying out this command, the

LCD is used to interact with the operator and also displays the reading of the input

units. However, the results are promising in terms of proving the performance and

45
capability of this design as a pollution monitoring device. This device is definitely in

line with existing solutions and promises to be better in terms of cost, performance and

form factor.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

5.0 Summary

The important objective of this project is to introduce a new simple, cost efficient

method for air pollution monitoring. This deigned circuit describes the construction and

implementation of a Fault-Tolerant control Data Acquisition System with a GPS

Locator for Monitoring and Control of CO pollutant concentration and temperature.

The pollution data from the sensor is saved on an SD card that makes this data helpful

and creating awareness among people. The data shows the pollutant levels and there

conformance to local air standards. The advancement is made in near future to

implement this kind of system of air pollution control monitoring makes our

environment pollution free.

5.1 Recommendations

The first stages that include the initial layout of the board with regards to components

as well as the new calibrating the sensors are now done. However there are still a

couple of aspect that needs further development so that the progress reaching the final

product can be achieved and actual on-road testing can begin. It is important to

46
remember that as this device is still in prototyping stages testing and constant

monitoring needs to be undertaken at very phase of the project. Recommendations for

essential tasks that need to be improved on or adjust include:

I. Developing another data acquisition system fault tolerant to be able to know the

fault and failure of the system.

II. Improving the software used to sync the circuit

III. Programming and sync the microcontroller to save data to the SD card

IV. Further developing mounting the device

V. Building on the foundation of previous project members in creating a smart

phone application interface. The majority of the following tasks will be software

based, as progress on the device continues we need to be able to have the

supporting software to drive the wireless device.

5.2 Future Scope of the work

Many countries are already taking initiatives to wireless monitor air pollution, countries

such as the USA and UK have already developed prototype device that can be attached

to cars and bike to be driven around the city to monitor and measure various pollutant

levels at different locations this will be next phase in monitoring air quality. Other uses

include:

I. Domestic uses for suffers of bad health such as respiratory infections.

II. Commercial use in large production factory.

III. Government incentives so that factories keep their pollutant level in control.

47
We are now in the technology era where everyone has at least one mobile. To be

enabling to incorporate this device and simplicity of a mobile phone allows

accessibility of data straightaway. In the next couple of years when we think of

monitoring air pollution people will say ‘there is an application for that’

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Appendix

Effects of carbon monoxide

Effects of produce by carbon monoxide in relation to ambient concentration in parts

per million:

Concentration symptoms

35ppm (0.0035%) headache and dizziness within six to eight hours of

constant Exposure

100ppm (0.01%) slight headache in two to three hours.

200ppm (0.02%) slight headache within two to three hours; loss of

judgment

400ppm (0.04%) frontal headache within one or two hours.

800ppm (0.08%) Dizziness, nausea, and convulsions within 45min;

insensible within 2 hours.

1600ppm (0.16%) headache, tachycardia, dizziness, and nausea within 20

min; Death in less than 2 hours.

51
3200ppm (0.32%) headache, dizziness and nausea in five to ten minutes,
death within 30minutes.

6400ppm (0.64%) headache and dizziness in one to two minutes.

Convulsions, Respiratory arrest and death in less than 20
minutes.

12800ppm (1.28%) Unconsciousness after 2-3 breathes, death in less

than Three minutes.

Sources of carbon monoxide

Concentration source

0.1ppm Natural atmosphere level

0.5ppm-5ppm Average level in homes

5ppm-15ppm Near properly adjusted gas stoves in

homes.

100ppm-200ppm Exhaust from automobiles in the Mexico

City Central Area.

5000ppm Exhaust from home wood fire.

7000ppm Undiluted warm car exhaust without a

catalytic Converter.

52