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Advanced Engineering Mathematics
(Gujarat Technological University 2016)

4th Edition Ravish R Singh
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Advanced
Engineering Mathematics
Second Edition
Gujarat Technological University 2016
About the Authors
Ravish R Singh is presently Vice Principal at Shree L R Tiwari

College of Engineering, Thane. He obtained a BE degree from
University of Mumbai in 1991, an MTech degree from IIT Bombay
in 2001, and a PhD degree from Faculty of Technology, University
of Mumbai, in 2013. He has published several books with McGraw
Hill Education (India) Private Limited on varied subjects like
Engineering Mathematics (I and II), Applied Mathematics,
Electrical Engineering, Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
etc., for all-India curricula as well as regional curricula of some universities like
Gujarat Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal
Nehru Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University,
and Uttar Pradesh Technical University. Dr Singh is a member of IEEE, ISTE, and
IETE, and has published research papers in national and international journals. His
fields of interest include Circuits, Signals and Systems, and Engineering
Mathematics.
Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

Humanities and Sciences, at Thakur College of Engineering and
Technology, Mumbai. She obtained her MSc (Mathematics) from
H N B Garhwal University in 1992. She has published several books
with McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited on Engineering
Mathematics (I and II) and Applied Mathematics for all-India curricula
as well as regional curricula of some universities like Gujarat
Technological University, Mumbai University, Pune University, Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University, Anna University, Uttarakhand Technical University, and
Uttar Pradesh Technical University. She has seventeen years of teaching experience at
various levels in engineering colleges in Mumbai and her fields of interest include
Integral Calculus, Complex Analysis, and Operation Research. She is a member of
ISTE.
Advanced
Engineering Mathematics
Second Edition
Gujarat Technological University 2016
Ravish R Singh
Vice Principal
Shree L R Tiwari College of Engineering
Thane, Maharashtra
Mukul Bhatt
Assistant Professor
Department of Humanities and Sciences
Thakur College of Engineering and Technology
Mumbai, Maharashtra
McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

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Dedicated
to
Aman and Aditri
Ravish R Singh
Soumya and Siddharth

Mukul Bhatt
Contents
Preface xi
Roadmap to the Syllabus xv
1. Introduction to Some Special Functions 1.1–1.8
1.1 Introduction 1.1
1.2 Gamma Function 1.2
1.3 Beta Function 1.2
1.4 Bessel Function 1.3
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 1.3
1.6 Heaviside’s Unit Step Function 1.4
1.7 Pulse of Unit Height and Duration Function 1.5
1.8 Sinusoidal Pulse Function 1.5
1.9 Rectangle Function 1.5
1.10 Gate Function 1.6
1.11 Dirac’s Delta Function 1.6
1.12 Signum Function 1.7
1.13 Sawtooth Wave Function 1.7
1.14 Triangular Wave Function 1.7
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.7
1.16 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function 1.8
1.17 Square-Wave Function 1.8
2. Fourier Series and Fourier Integral 2.1–2.107
2.2 Fourier Series 2.1
2.3 Trigonometric Fourier Series 2.2
2.4 Fourier Series of Functions of any Period 2.3
2.5 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions 2.52
2.6 Half-Range Fourier Series 2.76
2.7 Fourier Integral 2.95
Points to Remember 2.106
3. Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications 3.1–3.239
3.2 Differential Equations 3.2
3.3 Ordinary Differential Equations of First Order and First Degree 3.5
viii Contents
3.4 Applications of First-Order Differential Equations 3.84

3.5 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order with
Constant Coefficients 3.94
3.6 Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations: Method of Reduction of
Order 3.101
3.7 Nonhomogeneous Linear Differential Equations of Higher Order with
Constant Coefficients 3.108
3.8 Method of Variation of Parameters 3.168
3.9 Cauchy’s Linear Equations 3.188
3.10 Legendre’s Linear Equations 3.206
3.11 Method of Undetermined Coefficients 3.214
3.12 Applications of Higher Order Linear Differential Equations 3.223
4. Series Solution of Differential Equations 4.1–4.45
4.2 Power-Series Method 4.1
4.3 Series Solution about an Ordinary Point 4.5
4.4 Frobenius Method 4.20
5. Laplace Transforms and Applications 5.1–5.206
5.2 Laplace Transform 5.2
5.3 Laplace Transform of Elementary Functions 5.2
5.4 Basic Properties of Laplace Transform 5.12
5.5 Differentiation of Laplace Transforms (Multiplication by t) 5.33
5.6 Integration of Laplace Transforms (Division by t) 5.45
5.7 Laplace Transforms of Derivatives 5.56
5.8 Laplace Transforms of Integrals 5.59
5.9 Evaluation of Integrals using Laplace Transform 5.68
5.10 Unit Step Function 5.75
5.11 Dirac’s Delta Function 5.82
5.12 Laplace Transforms of Periodic Functions 5.86
5.13 Inverse Laplace Transform 5.94
5.14 Convolution Theorem 5.158
5.15 Solution of Linear Ordinary Differential Equations 5.176
5.16 Solution of Systems of Simultaneous Differential Equations 5.195
6. Partial Differential Equations and Applications 6.1–6.120
6.2 Partial Differential Equations 6.2
6.3 Formation of Partial Differential Equations 6.2
6.4 Solution of Partial Differential Equations 6.14
Contents ix
6.5 Linear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.18

6.6 Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.29
6.7 Charpit’s Method 6.46
6.8 Homogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with Constant
Coefficients 6.51
6.9 Nonhomogeneous Linear Partial Differential Equations with Constant
Coefficients 6.64
6.10 Classification of Second-order Linear Partial Differential
Equations 6.66
6.11 Applications of Partial Differential Equations 6.67
6.12 Method of Separation of Variables 6.68
6.13 One-Dimensional Wave Equation 6.75
6.14 D’ Alembert’s Solution of the Wave Equation 6.88
6.15 One-Dimensional Heat-Flow Equation 6.90
6.16 Two-Dimensional Heat-Flow Equation 6.106
Solved Question Paper Summer 2015 Q.1–Q.23

Solved Question Paper Winter 2015 Q.1–Q.32
Index I.1–I.3
Preface
Mathematics is a key area of study in any engineering course. A sound knowledge
of this subject will help engineering students develop analytical skills, and thus
enable them to solve numerical problems encountered in real life, as well as apply
mathematical principles to physical problems, particularly in the field of engineering.
Users
This book is designed for the 2nd year GTU engineering students pursuing the
course Advanced Engineering Mathematics, SUBJECT CODE: 2130002 in their
3rd Semester. It covers the complete GTU syllabus for the course on Advanced
Engineering Mathematics, which is common to all the engineering branches.
Objective
The crisp and complete explanation of topics will help students easily understand the
basic concepts. The tutorial approach (i.e., teach by example) followed in the text will
enable students develop a logical perspective to solving problems.
Features
Each topic has been explained from the examination point of view, wherein the theory
is presented in an easy-to-understand student-friendly style. Full coverage of concepts
is supported by numerous solved examples with varied complexity levels, which is
aligned to the latest GTU syllabus. Fundamental and sequential explanation of topics
are well aided by examples and exercises. The solutions of examples are set follow-
ing a ‘tutorial’ approach, which will make it easy for students from any background
to easily grasp the concepts. Exercises with answers immediately follow the solved
examples enforcing a practice-based approach. We hope that the students will gain
logical understanding from solved problems and then reiterate it through solving simi-
lar exercise problems themselves. The unique blend of theory and application caters to
the requirements of both the students and the faculty. Solutions of GTU examination
questions are incorporated within the text appropriately.
xii Preface
Highlights
∑ Crisp content strictly as per the latest GTU syllabus of Advanced Engineering
Mathematics (Regulation 2014)
∑ Comprehensive coverage with lucid presentation style
∑ Each section concludes with an exercise to test understanding of topics
∑ Solutions of GTU examination papers from 2012 to 2014 present appropriately
within the chapters
∑ Solution to Summer and Winter 2015 GTU question papers placed at the end of the
book
∑ Rich exam-oriented pedagogy:
Non GTU solved examples within chapters: 531
Solved GTU questions within chapters: 105
Unsolved exercises: 571
Chapter Organization
The content spans the following six chapters which wholly and sequentially cover
each module of the syllabus.
Chapter 1 introduces Some Special Functions.
Chapter 2 discusses Fourier Series and Fourier Integral.
Chapter 3 presents Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications.
Chapter 4 covers Series Solution of Differential Equations.
Chapter 5 deals with Laplace Transforms and Applications.
Chapter 6 presents Partial Differential Equations and Applications.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the following reviewers who reviewed various chapters of the script
and generously shared their valuable comments:
Manokamna Agrawal Silver Oak College of Engineering and Technology,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat
JC Prajapati Marwadi Education Foundation Group of
Institutions, Rajkot
Shailesh Patel SPB Patel Engineering College, Gujarat
Kinnari Sutaria AD Patel Institute of Engineering, Karamsad
Prakash Kumar Patel Babaria Institute of Technology, Vadodara, Gujarat
We would also like to thank all the staff at McGraw Hill Education (India), especially
Vibha Mahajan, Koyel Ghosh, Piyali Chatterjee, Kritika Lakhera, Satinder Singh
Baveja, Anuj Shrivastava and Atul Gupta for coordinating with us during the editorial,
copyediting, and production stages of this book.
Preface xiii
Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of

all our family members. We extend a heartfelt thanks to them for always motivating
and supporting us throughout the project.
Constructive suggestions for the improvement of the book will always be welcome.
Ravish R Singh
Mukul Bhatt
Publisher’s Note
Remember to write to us. We look forward to receiving your feedback,
comments and ideas to enhance the quality of this book. You can reach us at
info.india@mheducation.com. Please mention the title and authors’ name as the
subject. In case you spot piracy of this book, please do let us know.
ROADMAP TO THE SYLLABUS
This text is useful for
SUBJECT CODE: 2130002 – Advanced Engineering Mathematics
Module 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

Gamma function; Beta function; Bessel function; Error function and
complementary error function; Heaviside’s function; Pulse unit height and
duration function; Sinusoidal pulse function; Rectangle function; Gate function;
Dirac’s Delta function; Signum function; Sawtooth wave function; Triangular
wave function; Half-wave rectified sinusoidal function; Full rectified sine
wave; Square wave function.
GO TO
CHAPTER 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions
Module 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

Periodic function; Trigonometric series; Fourier series; Functions of any period;
Even and odd functions; Half-range expansion; Forced oscillations; Fourier
integral.
GO TO
CHAPTER 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral
Module 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications

First order differential equations: basic concepts; Geometric meaning of
y ’ = f (x, y) Direction fields; Exact differential equations; Integrating factor;
Linear differential equations; Bernoulli equations; Modeling: Orthogonal
trajectories of curves; Linear differential equations of second and higher
order: Homogeneous linear differential equations of second order; Modeling:
Free oscillations; Euler-Cauchy Equations; Wronskian; Nonhomogeneous
equations; Solution by undetermined coefficients; Solution by variation of
parameters; Modeling: Free Oscillations, Resonance and electric circuits; Higher
order linear differential equations; Higher order homogeneous equations with
constant coefficient; Higher order nonhomogeneous equations. Solution by
[1/f(D)] r(x) method for finding particular integral.
GO TO
CHAPTER 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications
xvi Roadmap to the Syllabus
Module 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations

Power series method; Theory of power series methods; Frobenius method.
GO TO
CHAPTER 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations
Module 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications

Definition of the Laplace transform; Inverse Laplace transform; Linearity;
Shifting theorem; Transforms of derivatives and integrals; Differential
equations; Unit step function; Second shifting theorem; Dirac’s delta function;
Differentiation and integration of transforms; Convolution and integral
equations; Partial fraction differential equations; Systems of differential
equations.
GO TO
CHAPTER 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications
Module 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications

Formation of PDEs; Solution of partial differential equations f(x, y, z, p, q) = 0;
Nonlinear PDEs of first order; Some standard forms of nonlinear PDEs; Linear
PDEs with constant coefficients; Equations reducible to homogeneous linear
form; Classification of second-order linear PDEs; Separation of variables; Use
of Fourier series; D’Alembert’s solution of the wave equation; Heat equation:
Solution by Fourier series and Fourier integral.
GO TO
CHAPTER 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications
CHAPTER
1
Introduction to Some
Special Functions
Chapter Outline
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Gamma Function
1.3 Beta Function
1.4 Bessel Function
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function
1.6 Heaviside’s Unit Step Function
1.7 Pulse of Unit Height and Duration Function
1.8 Sinusoidal Pulse Function
1.9 Rectangle Function
1.10 Gate Function
1.11 Dirac’s Delta Function
1.12 Signum Function
1.13 Sawtooth Wave Function
1.14 Triangular Wave Function
1.15 Half-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function
1.16 Full-Wave Rectified Sinusoidal Function
1.17 Square-Wave Function
1.1 INTRODUCTION
There are some special functions which have importance in mathematical analysis,
functional analysis, physics, or other applications. In this chapter, we will study
different special functions such as gamma, beta, Bessel, error, unit step, Dirac delta
functions, etc. The study of these functions will help in solving many mathematical
problems encountered in advanced engineering mathematics.
1.2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Some Special Functions
1.2 GAMMA FUNCTION

[Winter 2013]
The gamma function is an extension of the factorial function to real and complex
numbers and is also known as Euler integral of the second kind. The gamma function
is a component in various probability-distribution functions. It also appears in various
areas such as asymptotic series, definite integration, number theory, etc.
The gamma function is defined by the improper integral e x x n 1dx, n > 0 and is
0
denoted by n .
Hence, n e x x n 1 dx , n > 0
0
The gamma function can also be expressed as

x2 2 n 1
n 2 e x dx
0
Properties of the Gamma Function

(i) n 1 nn
This is known as recurrence formula or reduction formula for the gamma
function.
(ii) n 1 n ! if n is a positive integer
n 1
(iii) n if n is a negative fraction
n
(iv) n1 n
sin n
(v) 1
2
1.3 BETA FUNCTION

[Winter 2014, Summer 2013, 2014]
The beta function B(m, n) is defined by
1 m 1 1
B(m, n) x (1 x )n dx , m 0, n 0
0
B(m, n) is also known as Euler’s integral of the first kind. The beta function can also
be defined by
B(m, n) 2 2 sin 2 m 1
x cos2 n 1
x dx
0
1.5 Error Function and Complementary Error Function 1.3
Properties of the Beta Function

(i) The beta function is a symmetric function, i.e., B(m, n) = B(n, m).
m n
(ii) B(m, n)
m n
1 2m
(iii) m m
2 2 1
2 m
This is known as duplication formula.

1
xm
(iv) B(m, n) dx
0 m n
(1 x )
This is called improper integral form of the beta function.
1.4 BESSEL FUNCTION

The Bessel function (Fig. 1.1) is a special function that occurs in problems of wave
propagation, static potentials, and signal processing. A Bessel function of order n is
defined by
n 2k
( 1)k
x
J n ( x)
k 0 k! n k 1 2
xn x2 x4
1
2n n 1 2(n 2) 2 4(2 n 2)(2 n 4)
Properties of Bessel Functions

0( )
x2 x4
(i) J 0 ( x ) 1 1
22 22 42 0.8
0.6
(ii) J–n(x) = (–1)n Jn(x) if n is a positive 0.4
integer 0.2
0 5 10 15 20
–0.2
(iii) 2 n J n ( x ) J n 1 ( x) J n 1 ( x) –0.4
x
d n Fig. 1.1 Bessel function
(iv) x J n ( x) x n J n 1 ( x)
dx
(v) d x n J n ( x ) x n
J n 1 ( x)
dx
1.5 ERROR FUNCTION AND COMPLEMENTARY

ERROR FUNCTION
[Winter 2012]
The error function (Fig. 1.2) is a special function that occurs in probability, statistics,
and partial differential equations.
The error function of x is defined by

( )
2 x t2 1
erf ( x ) e dt
0
0.75
where x may be a real or complex variable. 0.5
The complementary error function of x is 0.25
defined by –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
–0.25
2 2
erfc( x ) e t dt –0.5
x
–0.75
where x may be a real or complex variable. –1
Relation between error function and the com- Fig. 1.2 Error function
plementary error function is given by
2 2
erfc( x ) e t dt
x
2 t2 2 x t2
e dt e dt
0 0
2
erf ( x )
2
1 erf ( x )
Properties of the Error Function

(i) erf (0) = 0
(ii) erf ( ) = 1
(iii) erf (–x) = –erf (x)
(iv) erf ( z ) erf ( z ), where z is any complex number and z is the complex
conjugate of z.
1.6 HEAVISIDE’S UNIT STEP FUNCTION

[Winter 2014]
Heaviside’s unit step function u(t) (Fig. 1.3) is defined by
u(t ) 0 t 0
1 t 0
The displaced or delayed unit step function
Fig 1.3 Unit step function
u(t – a) (Fig. 1.4) represents the function u(t) which
is displaced by a distance a to the right. It is defined
by
u(t a ) 0 t a
1 t a Fig. 1.4 Delayed unit step
function
1.9 Rectangle Function 1.5
Properties of the Unit Step Function

(i) f (t ) u(t ) 0 t 0
f (t ) t 0
(ii) f (t ) u(t a ) 0 t a
f (t ) t a
(iii) f (t a ) u(t b) 0 t b
f (t a ) t b
(iv) f (t ) [u(t a ) u(t b)] 0 t a
f (t ) a t b
0 t b
1.7 PULSE OF UNIT HEIGHT AND DURATION FUNCTION

The pulse of unit height and duration function
(Fig. 1.5) is defined by
f (t ) 1 0 t T
0 t T Fig. 1.5 Pulse of unit height
and duration function
1.8 SINUSOIDAL PULSE FUNCTION
[Summer 2014, Winter 2012]

The sinusoidal pulse function (Fig. 1.6) is defined by
f (t ) a sin at 0 t
a
0 t
a
Fig. 1.6 Sinusoidal pulse
function
1.9 RECTANGLE FUNCTION
[Summer 2013]
The rectangle function (Fig. 1.7) is defined by
f (t ) 1 a t b
0 otherwise
Fig. 1.7 Rectangle function
In terms of unit step function, the rectangle function
can be expressed as
f(t) = u(t – a) – u(t – b)
If a = 0, the rectangle function reduces to a pulse of unit height and duration b

function.
1.10 GATE FUNCTION
The gate function (Fig. 1.8) is defined by

f (t ) 1 |t | a
0 |t | a
Fig. 1.8 Gate function
1.11 DIRAC’S DELTA FUNCTION

[Winter 2014, Winter 2013]
Consider the function f(t) (Fig. 1.9) over a time interval 0 < t < , defined by
f (t ) 0 t 0
1
0 t
0 t
Fig. 1.9 Any function
The area enclosed by the function f(t) and the t-axis is f(t)
given by
0
f (t ) dt f (t ) dt f ( t ) dt f (t ) dt
0
1
0 dt 0
0
1
t 0
1
As 0, the height of the rectangle increases indefinitely in such a way that its area
is always equal to 1. This function is known as Dirac’s delta function or unit impulse
function and is denoted by (t).
(t ) lim f (t )
0
The displaced (delayed) delta or displaced impulse
function (t – a) (Fig. 1.10) represents the function
(t) displaced by a distance a to the right.
0 t a Fig. 1.10 Delayed function
1
(t a ) lim f (t ) lim a t a
0 0
0 a t
1.15 1.7
Property of Dirac’s Delta Function

(i) (t) = 0 t 0
(ii) ( t ) dt 1
(iii) f (t ) (t ) t f (0)
(iv) f (t ) (t a ) dt f (a)
1.12 SIGNUM FUNCTION
The signum function (Fig. 1.11) is defined by ()

f (t ) 1 t 0 1
1 t 0 0
In terms of unit step function, the signum function can –1
be expressed as Fig. 1.11 Signum function
f(t) = u(t) – u(–t) = 2u(t) – 1
1.13 SAWTOOTH WAVE FUNCTION
The sawtooth wave function with period a (Fig. 1.12)

is defined by
f (t ) t 0 t a
0 t 0 Fig. 1.12 Sawtooth wave
function
1.14 TRIANGULAR WAVE FUNCTION

The triangular wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.13)
is defined by
f (t ) t 0 t a
Fig. 1.13 Triangular
2a t a t 2a
wave function
1.15 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL FUNCTION
The half-wave rectified sinusoidal function with

period 2 (Fig. 1.14) is defined by
f (t ) a sin t 0 t
0 t 2 Fig. 1.14
sinusoidal function
1.16 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL FUNCTION

The full-wave rectified sinusoidal function with
period (Fig. 1.15) is defined by
f (t) = a sin t 0<t<
Fig. 1.15
sinusoidal function
1.17 SQUARE-WAVE FUNCTION
The square-wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.16)

is defined by
f (t ) a 0 t a
a a t 2a
Fig. 1.16 Square-wave
function
CHAPTER
2
Fourier Series and
Fourier Integral
Chapter Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Fourier Series
2.3 Trigonometric Fourier Series
2.4 Fourier Series of Functions of Any Period
2.5 Fourier Series of Even and Odd Functions
2.6 Half-Range Fourier Series
2.7 Fourier Integral
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Fourier series is used in the analysis of periodic functions. Many of the phenomena
studied in engineering and sciences are periodic in nature, e.g., current and voltage
in an ac circuit. These periodic functions can be analyzed into their constituent
components by a Fourier analysis. The Fourier series makes use of orthogonality
relationships of the sine and cosine functions. It decomposes a periodic function into a
sum of sine-cosine functions. The computation and study of Fourier series is known
as harmonic analysis. It has many applications in electrical engineering, vibration
analysis, acoustics, optics, signal processing, image processing, etc.
2.2 FOURIER SERIES
Representation of a function over a certain interval by a linear combination of mutually

orthogonal functions is called Fourier-series representation.
2.2 Chapter 2 Fourier Series and Fourier Integral
Convergence of the Fourier Series (Dirichlet’s Conditions)

A function f (x) can be represented by a complete set of orthogonal functions within the
interval (c, c + 2l). The Fourier series of the function f (x) exists only if the following
conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (x) is periodic, i.e., f (x) = f (x + 2l), where 2l is the period of the function
f (x).
(ii) f (x) and its integrals are finite and single-valued.
(iii) f (x) has a finite number of discontinuities, i.e., f (x) is piecewise continuous in
the interval (c, c + 2l).
(iv) f (x) has a finite number of maxima and minima.
These conditions are known as Dirichlet’s conditions.
2.3 TRIGONOMETRIC FOURIER SERIES

n x n x
We know that the set of functions sin and cos are orthogonal in the interval
l l
(c, c + 2l) for any value of c, where n = 1, 2, 3, ….
c 2l m x n x
i.e., sin sin dx 0 m n
c l l
=l m=n
c 2l m x n x
cos cos dx 0 m n
c l l
=l m=n
c 2l m x n x
sin cos dx 0 for all m, n
c l l
Hence, any function f (x) can be represented in terms of these orthogonal functions in
the interval (c, c + 2l) for any value of c.
n x n x
f ( x) a0 an cos bn sin
n 1 l n 1 l
This series is known as a trigonometric Fourier series or simply, a Fourier series. For
example, a square function can be constructed by adding orthogonal sine components
(Fig. 2.1).
2.4 Fourier Series of Functions of Any Period 2.3
f (x)
x One sine component

O
f (x)
x Addition of two sine

O components
f (x)
x Addition of three sine

O components
..
..
f (x) ..
.
Addition of many sine
x
O components
..
f (x)
x Square function
O
Fig. 2.1 Representation of a function in terms of sine components
2.4 FOURIER SERIES OF FUNCTIONS OF ANY PERIOD

Let f (x) be a periodic function with period 2l in the interval (c, c + 2l). Then the Fourier
series of f (x) is given by
n x n x
f ( x) a0 an cos bn sin …(2.1)
n 1 l n 1 l
Determination of a0
Integrating both the sides of Eq. (2.1) w.r.t. x in the interval (c, c + 2l),
c 2l c 2l c 2l n x c 2l n x
f ( x )dx a0 dx an cos dx bn sin dx
c c c
n 1 l c
n 1 l
= a0(c + 2l – c) + 0 + 0
= 2la0
1 c 2l
Hence, a0 f ( x )dx …(2.2)
2l c
Determination of an
n x
Multiplying both the sides of Eq. (2.1) by cos and integrating w.r.t. x in the
l
interval (c, c + 2l),
c 2l n x c 2l n x c 2l n x n x
f ( x ) cos dx a0 cos dx an cos cos dx
c l c l c
n 1 l l
c 2l n x n x
bn sin cos dx
c
n 1 l l
0 lan 0
= l an
1 c 2l n x
Hence, an f ( x ) cos dx …(2.3)
l c l
Determination of bn
n x
Multiplying both the sides of Eq. (2.1) by sin and integrating w.r.t. x in the
interval (c, c + 2l ), l
c 2l n x c 2l n x c 2l n x n x
f ( x )sin dx a0 sin dx an cos sin dx
c l c l c
n 1 l l
c 2l n x n x
bn sin sin dx
c
n 1 l l
0 0 lbn
= l bn
1 c 2l n x
Hence, bn f ( x )sin dx …(2.4)
l c l
The formulae (2.2), (2.3), and (2.4) are known as Euler’s formulae which give the values
of coefficients a0, an, and bn. These coefficients are known as Fourier coefficients.
Corollary 1 When c = 0 and 2l = 2
f ( x) a0 an cos nx bn sin nx
n 1 n 1
1 2
where a0 f ( x ) dx
2 0
1 2
an f ( x ) cos nx dx
0
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
Corollary 2 When c = – and 2l = 2
n 1 n 1
1
where a0 f ( x ) dx
2
1
1
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
Corollary 3 When c = 0
n x n x
n 1 l n 1 l
1 2l
where a0 f ( x ) dx
2l 0
1 2l n x
an f ( x ) cos dx
l 0 l
1 2l n x
bn f ( x )sin dx
l 0 l
Corollary 4 When c = – l
n x n x
n 1 l n 1 l
1 l
where a0 f ( x )dx
2l l
1 l n x
an f ( x ) cos dx
l l l
1 l n x
bn f ( x )sin dx
l l l
Fourier Series Expansion with Period 2
Example 1
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x in the interval (0, 2 ).
Solution
The Fourier series of f (x) with period 2 is given by
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2
x dx
2 0
2
1 x2
2 2
0
2
1 4
2 2
1 2
0
1 2
x cos nx dx
0
2
1 sin nx cos nx
x (1)
n n2 0
1 cos 2 n cos 0
sin 2 n sin 0 0
n2 n2
0 cos 2 n cos 0 1
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
1 2
x sin nx dx
0
2
1 cos nx sin nx
x (1)
n n2 0
1 cos 2 n
2 sin 2 n sin 0 0
n
2
cos 2 n 1
n
1
Hence, f ( x) 2 sin nx
n 1n
1 1
x 2 sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x
2 3
Example 2
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x2 in the interval 0, 2 and, hence,
2
1 1 1
deduce that
12 12 22 32
Solution
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2
x 2 dx
2 0
2
1 x3
2 3
0
3
1 8
2 3
2
4
3
1 2
0
1 2
x 2 cos nx dx
0
2
1 sin nx cos nx sin nx
x2 2x 2
n n2 n3 0
1 cos 2 n
4 sin 2 n sin 0 0
n2
1 4
cos 2 n 1
n2
4
n2
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
1 2
x 2 sin nx dx
0
2
1 cos nx sin nx cos nx
x2 2x 2
n n2 n3 0
1 2 cos 2 n cos 2n
n cos 0
4 2 3
2
n n n3
2
1 4
cos 2 n cos 0 1
n
4
n
2
4 1 1
Hence, f ( x) 4 2
cos nx 4 sin nx
3 n 1n n 1n
2
4 1 1 1
x2 4 2
cos x 2
cos 2 x cos3 x ... (1)
3 1 2 32
Putting x = in Eq. (1),
2
2 4 1 1 1
4 2
cos 2
cos 2 cos 3
3 1 2 32
2
4 1 1 1
4
3 12 22 32
2
1 1 1
12 12 22 32
Example 3
1
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) ( x ) in the interval (0, 2 ).
2
1 1 1
Hence, deduce that 1 [Winter 2013]
4 3 5 7
Solution
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2 1
( x )dx
2 0 2
2
1 x2
x
4 2
0
1 2 2
(2 2 )
4
0
1 2
0
1 2 1
( x ) cos nx dx
0 2
2
1 sin nx cos nx
( x) ( 1)
2 n n2 0
1 cos 2 n cos 0
2
2 n n2
0 cos 2 n cos 0 1
1 2 1
bn ( x )sin nx dx
0 2
2
1 cos nx sin nx
( x) ( 1)
2 n n2 0
1 cos 2 n cos 0
( ) sin 2 n sin 0 0
2 n n
1
cos 2 n cos 0 1
2 n n
1
n
1
Hence, f ( x) sin nx
n 1n
1 1 1 1 1
( x) sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x sin 4 x sin 5 x
2 2 3 4 5
1 1
sin 6 x sin 7 x ...(1)
6 7
Putting x in Eq. (1),

2
1 1 1 3 1 1 5
sin sin sin sin 2 sin
2 2 2 2 3 2 4 5 2
1 1 7
sin 3 sin
6 7 2
1 1 1
1
4 3 5 7
Example 4 2
x
Obtain the Fourier series of f ( x ) in the interval 0 x 2 .
2
Hence, deduce that
2
1 1 1
2 2 [Winter 2014]
12 1 2 32
Solution
The Fourier series of f(x) with period 2 is given by
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x ) dx
2 0
2
1 2 x
dx
2 0 2
2
1 ( x )3
8 3 0
1
( 3 3
)
24
2
12
1 2
0
2
1 2 x
cos nx dx
0 2
2
1 2 sin nx cos nx sin nx
( x) 2( x )( 1) 2( 1)( 1)
4 n n2 n3 0
1 cos 2 n cos 0
2 2 sin 2 n sin 0 0
4 n2 n2
1 2 2
2
cos 2 n cos 0 1
4 n n2
1
n2
1 2
bn f ( x ) sin nx dx
0
2
1 2 x
sin nx dx
0 2
2
1 2 cos nx sin nx cos nx
( x ) 2( x )( 1) 2( 1)( 1)
4 n n2 n3 0
1 2 cos 2n 2 cos 2n 2 cos 0 cos 0

3
2
4 n n n n3
[ sin 2 n sin 0 0]
2 2
1 2 2
[ cos 2 n cos 0 1]
4 n n3 n n3
0
2
1
Hence, f ( x ) cos nx
12 2
n 1n
2 2
x 1 1 1
2
cos x 2
cos 2 x cos 3 x ....(1)
2 12 1 2 32
2
1 1 1
0 2 2
12 1 2 32
2
1 1 1
2 2
12 1 2 32
Example 5
3x2 6x 2 2
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) in the interval (0, 2 )
12
2
1 1
Hence, deduce that 1 2
6 2 32
Solution
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2 3x2 6x 2 2
dx
2 0 12
2
1 x3 x2 2
3 6 2 x
24 3 2
0
3 2
1 8 4 3
3 6 4
24 3 2
0
1 2
0
1 2 3x2 6x 2 2
cos nx dx
0 12
2
(3 x 2 6x 2 2
) (6 x 6 ) 6
12 n n2 n3 0
1 cos 2 n cos 0
(6 ) 2
( 6 ) sin 2 n sin 0 0
12 n n2
1 6 6
2
cos 2n cos 0 1
12 n n2
1
n2
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
1 2 3x2 6x 2 2
sin nx dx
0 12
2
(3 x 2 6x 2 2
) (6 x 6 ) 6
12 n n2 n3 0
1 2 2 2 cos 2 n cos 2 n cos 0

(12 12 2 ) 6 ( 2 )2
12 n n3 n
cos 0
6 sin 2 n sin 0 0
n3
0 cos 2 n cos 0 1
1
Hence, f ( x) 2
cos nx
n 1 n
2 2
3x 6x 2 1 1
cos x cos 2 x cos 3 x … (1)
12 22 32
Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),
2
1 1
cos 0 2
cos 0 cos 0
6 2 32
1 1
1 2
2 32
Example 6
Find the Fourier series of f(x) = e–x in the interval (0, 2 ).
1 ( 1)n
Hence, deduce that . [Summer 2014]
2 sinh n 2 n2 1
Solution
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2
e x dx
2 0
1 x
2
e
2 0
2
e e0
2
2
1 e
2
1 2
0
1 2 x
e cos nx dx
0
2
x
1 e
( cos nx n sin nx )
n2 1 0
2
1 e 1
2
( cos 2 n ) 2
( cos 0) sin 2 n sin 0 0
n 1 n 1
1 2
(1 e ) cos 2 n cos 0 1
(n2 1)
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
1 2 x
e sin nx dx
0
2
x
1 e
( sin nx n cos nx )
n2 1 0
2
1 e 1
2
( n cos 2 n ) 2
( n cos 0) sin 2 n sin 0 0
n 1 n 1
n 2
2
(1 e ) cos 2 n cos 0 1
(n 1)
2 2 2
1 e 1 e 1 1 e n
Hence, f ( x ) 2
cos nx 2
sin nx … (1)
2 n 1n 1 n 1n 1
2 2
1 e 1 e ( 1)n
f( ) 2
cos n ( 1)n , sin n 0
2 n 1n 1
2 2
1 e 1 e 1 ( 1)n
e
2 2 n 2 n2 1
2
1 e ( 1)n
n 2 n2 1
( 1)n
2
e (1 e ) n 2 n2 1
( 1)n
e e n 2 n2 1
1 ( 1)n
Hence,
2 sinh n 2 n2 1
Example 7
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) 1 cos x in the interval (0, 2 ). Hence,
1 1
deduce that 2
.
2 n 1 4n 1
Solution
n 1 n 1
x
f ( x) 1 cos x 2 sin
2
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2 x
2 sin dx
2 0 2
2
2 x
2 cos
2 2 0
2
( 2 cos 2 cos 0)
2
2 2
[ cos 1, cos 0 1]
1 2
0
1 2 x
2 sin cos nx dx
0 2
2 2 2n 1 2n 1
sin x sin x dx
2 0 2 2
2
2 2 2n 1 2 2n 1
cos x cos x
2 2n 1 2 2n 1 2 0
2 2 2 cos 0 2 2 cos 0
cos(2 n ) cos(2 n )
2 2n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2n 1
2 4 4
cos(2 n 1) cos(2 n 1) 1,cos 0 1
2 2n 1 2n 1
4 2 1
2
4n 1
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
1 2 x
2 sin sin nx dx
0 2
2 2 2n 1 2n 1
cos x cos x dx
2 0 2 2
2
2 2 2n 1 2 2n 1
sin x sin x
2 2n 1 2 2n 1 2 0
0 sin(2 n 1) sin(2n 1) sin 0 0
2 2 4 2 1
Hence, f ( x) 2
cos nx … (1)
n 1 4n 1
Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),
2 2 4 2 1
f (0 ) 0 2
n 1 4n 1
1 1
2 2
n 1 4n 1
Example 8
Find the Fourier series of f ( x ) 1 0 x
2 x 2
Solution
n 1 n 1
1 2
a0 f ( x )dx
2 0
1 2
( 1)dx 2 dx
2 0
1 2
x 0 2x
2
1
( ) (4 2 )
2
1
2
1 2
0
1 2
( 1) cos nx dx 2 cos nx dx
0
2
1 sin nx sin nx
2
n 0 n
0 sin 2 n sin n sin 0 0
1 2
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
0
1 2
( 1)sin nx dx 2 sin nx dx
0
2
1 cos nx 2 cos nx
n 0 n
1 cos n cos 0 2 cos 2 n 2 cos n
n n n n
3
[( 1)n 1] cos 2 n cos 0 1, cos n ( 1)n
n
Hence, f ( x ) 1 3 ( 1)n 1
sin nx
2 n 1 n
1 3 2 2
2 sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x
2 3 5
1 6 1 1
sin x sin 3 x sin 5 x
2 3 5
Example 9
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x + x2 in the interval (– , ), and
hence, deduce that
2
1 1 1
(i)
12 12 22 32
2
1 1 1
(ii) 2 2
[Winter 2012]
6 1 2 32
Solution
n 1 n 1
1
a0 f ( x )dx
2
1
( x x 2 )dx
2
1 x2 x3
2 2 3
2 3 2 3
1
2 2 3 2 3
3
1 2
2 3
2
3
1
1
( x x 2 ) cos nx dx

( x x2 ) (1 2 x ) 2
2
n n n3
1 cos n cos( n )
(1 2 ) 2
(1 2 )
n n2
1 cos n
4 os( n )
co cos( n )
n2
4( 1)n
2
cos n ( 1)n
n
1
bn f ( x )sin nx dx
1
( x x 2 )sin nx dx

( x x2 ) (1 2 x ) 2
2
n n n3
1 2 cos n cos n
( ) 2
n n3
2 cos( n ) cos( n )
( ) 3
2
n n3
1 2
cos n cos( n ) cos n
n
2( 1)n
cos n ( 1)n
n
2
( 1)n ( 1)n
Hence, f ( x) 4 cos nx 2 sin nx
3 n 1 n2 n 1 n
2
1 1 1
x x2 4 2
cos x 2
cos 2 x cos3 x
3 1 2 32
1 1 1
2 sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x ...(1)
1 2 3
(i) Putting x = 0 in Eq. (1),
2
1 1 1
0 4 2
cos 0 2
cos 0 cos 0
3 1 2 32
2
1 1 1
2 2
12 1 2 32
(ii) Putting x = in Eq. (1),
2
2 1 1 1
4 2
cos 2
cos 2 cos 3
3 1 2 32
2
1 1 1
4 2 2 … (2)
3 1 2 32
Putting x = – in Eq. (1),

2
2 1 1 1
4 cos( ) cos( 2 ) cos( 3 )
3 12 22 32
2
1 1 1
4 2 2 … (3)
3 1 2 32
Adding Eqs (2) and (3),
2
1 1 1
2 2
6 1 2 32
Example 10
Find the Fourier series of f (x) = x + |x| in the interval – < x < .
[Winter 2014]
Solution
n 1 n 1
1
a0 f ( x ) dx
2
1
(x | x |) dx
2
1
x dx | x | dx
2
a a
1 f ( x ) dx 2 f ( x ) dx, if f ( x ) is even function
0 2 | x | dx a 0
2 0
0, if f ( x ) is odd function
1
x dx
0
1 x2
2 0
2
1
2
2
1
1
( x | x |) cos nx dx
1
x cos nx dx | x | cos nx dx
1 x cos nx is odd function

0 2 | x | cos nx dx
0 and | x | cos nx is even function
2
x cos nx dx
0
2 sin nx cos nx
x (1)
n n2 0
2 cos n cos 0
[ sin n sin 0 0]
n2 n2
2
( 1)n 1 cos n ( 1)n , cos 0 1
n2
1
bn f ( x ) sin nx dx
1
( x | x |)sin nx dx
1
x sin nx dx | x | sin nx dx
1 x sin nx is an even function

2 x sin nx dx 0
0 | x | sin x is an odd function
2 cos nx sin nx
x (1)
n n2 0
2 cos n
[ sin n sin 0 0]
n
2
( 1)n cos n ( 1)n
n
2 ( 1)n 1 ( 1)n
Hence, f ( x ) cos nx 2 sin nx
2 n 1 n2 n 1 n
2 2 2 2
x |x| 2
cos x 2
cos3 x cos 5 x
2 1 3 52
1 1 1
2 sin x sin 2 x sin 3 x
1 2 3
Another random document with
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VII
SECOND-HAND BOOKS
The love of books is a love which requires neither

justification, apology, nor defence.—Langford.
I HAVE confessed that I am of the company of book-lovers who
delight in dipping into the ‘lucky-tubs’ to be found outside
booksellers’ windows. I know of no pleasanter way of spending a
spare half-hour. Give me a few ‘loose’ coppers, place my feet upon a
likely road, and I am content. I am now, let me say, of the happy
company of book-fishermen. And this, mark you, is fishing in real
earnest, this effort to ‘hook’ good food for the mind, to place in one’s
basket a ‘book that delighteth and giveth perennial satisfaction.’
Ah! it is a good road I am on—one of London’s happiest
thoroughfares—a road rich in book-shops. Here for a humble penny
one may dip into tub or barrel and perchance pick out a volume
worth its weight in gold! We hear so frequently of marvellous
‘catches.’ You know how this, that, or the other fine sportsman
boasts of landing fish of amazing weight—well, it is so with your
book-fisherman. Has he not told you of first editions procured for a
single copper? And who shall say what fine day may not find us
among Fortune’s favoured ones?
And so now to our fishing! Here is a copy of Milton’s Paradise Lost,
‘hooked’ in the deep waters of a ‘penny tub.’ It is calf-bound, mark
you, and in fairish condition, though much stained with the passing of
years. My heart leaps; it is very old—a first edition possibly! But no; it
is anything but that, and alas! like the egg that has grown into a
proverb, it is only good in parts. Many of the pages are entirely
missing, and others partially so. Judged by the books that surround
me, it is dear at a penny ... Paradise Lost!
Yes, I confess that this fishing has its distressing side. One is
frequently disappointed. And how heart-rending it is to find great
works in a soiled and tattered condition, to discover, on drawing
one’s hand from some ‘lucky-tub,’ that one holds the remains, a few
pages, it may be, or the cover only, of a book that has played a part
in the making of this world’s history! And how touching to find a
winsome companion like the gentle Elia soiled, torn, bereft of
covering, showing yellow gum and coarse stitching! I confess that
such a sight almost moves me to tears. Fair wear and tear would
never have reduced the gentle Elia to so pitiable a state. I suspect
hands as callous as those of the butcher in the slaughterhouse
across the way. Alas! that there should be men to whom books are
merely so much paper and cloth. ‘A book,’ you tell them, ‘is the
precious life-blood of a master-spirit, embalmed and treasured upon
purpose, to a life beyond.’ And their answer is a smile. But this is no
time for repining. The great army of book-lovers swells with each
passing year. From all sides come recruits, often from the most
unexpected quarters, from mill and factory, mean street and slum.
Yes; ’tis a great day for books, and soon Everyman will have his
library, in fact as well as in name. And who dare say, who can guess,
what treasures his library will hold?
Now back to our fishing. Here is a tub that promises well; the price
per volume, as aforetime, is only one penny. See! Here is a dainty
volume, slim and shapely of form, and clothed in a delicate green. A
minor poet, you guess. Yes; the work of a minor poet, published, no
doubt, at the author’s own expense. But do not turn aside. Do not
say that such books are of no value. I confess that I am for lingering
over this slender booklet. Its cover is very pleasing; the type is large
and clear; the paper is of good texture. And what anxiety, what
patient care, probably went to the making of its contents! Brave
minor poet! You have withstood many rebuffs. The road you travel
holds, I doubt not, many pure delights: you walk, it may be, beneath
a star-strewn sky. But star-gazing has proved in your case a
dangerous occupation. ‘He who raises his eyes to the heavens
forgets the stones and puddles at his feet.’ Alas! you have had many
falls. And when perchance you have come to the ground, it has often
been to the accompaniment of heartless laughter. ‘Here,’ cry the
critics, ‘is another minor poet on all fours.’ And with ill-timed jests
they proceed to point out your weaknesses; how that you have not
the feet to walk aright, much less run; and as for wings, there is not,
’tis frequently said, so much as a sign of their sprouting. But for all
that you have scrambled to your feet, and marching bravely forward,
continued to give generously of your gentle fancy. Long may you
live! In you we have (and here is my strongest point in your favour)
many a great and worthy poet in the bud.
And so I confess gladly, and, indeed, with a proud heart, that in my
bookshelves you hold a warm, well-sheltered corner. I love to handle
your slender volumes, to pore over your early fancies, ill-expressed
at times, it may be, but with a sincerity that is refreshing, and a
simplicity that is delightful. And if your work is poor from cover to
cover—which is rarely, if ever the case—well, you have given us a
book.
Yes, I am of the company of book-lovers who revere anything in the
form of a book. Lovers are made that way; and it is futile to inquire
how I can bring myself to love books of ‘all sorts and conditions.’ As
well might you ask the nature-lover why he speaks so tenderly of,
say, the worm that peeps through the tender green of some sun-lit
lawn. ’Tis simply love—love for the humblest children of dear Mother
Earth. And so it is with the true book-lover; for the humblest volume
he has a tender thought.
But what of our fishing? This is, I take it, a fitting place to record how
on such and such a day I had the good fortune to ‘hook’ a copy of
this or that desirable work for a few humble pence—a ‘mere song’!
Well, so it has been, ‘day in and day out.’ But those books, I would
remind you, are now my companions, my friends, and I can no more
associate money with their value than I can judge a friend in the
flesh by the contents of his purse. To me they are priceless.
VIII
‘THE CULT OF THE BOOKPLATE’
YOU have often heard the cry, and know full well its meaning, ‘My
books are priceless.’ What wonder, then, if you and I—lovers of
books—take lively interest in what an ingenuous man of business
has called ‘The Cult of the Bookplate.’ ‘The mission of the
bookplate,’ he advises us, ‘has always been, and must always be,
primarily to indicate ownership of the books in which they are placed.
They may be ornate or simple, as the taste or means of the owner
may indicate; they may incorporate crests, arms, motto, or other
family attribute; or, again, they may reflect the personal interests or
occupations of the owner; but the real aim of the bookplate remains
ever the same—a reminder to those who borrow.’
Pretty ground this for contemplation—for doubts, counsels, hopes,
fears, regrets; aye, and for rejoicing! How my mind leaps, first this
way, then that, when I meditate upon that rich circle of friendship in
which I may borrow from a fellow book-lover’s treasured volumes,
and, of course, lend of my own! Yet by what unspeakable regrets am
I possessed when I think of certain treasured volumes lent in wildly
generous moments to good but ‘short-minded’ friends! I have in mind
a little volume of essays—a first and only edition—by an unknown
but charming writer, which is now in the possession of that restless
fellow K——. May he see these words and repent! And what of that
treasured edition—once mine, but, alas! mine no more—of certain
writings of Dr. Johnson? Oh, that I could send the good doctor in
quest of the volume! What blushes of shame he would bring to the
cheeks of the heartless borrower! ‘Sir!’ he would cry. And what words
would follow! Very speedily should I be in a position to fill the gap in
my shelves.
And there is that dainty little calf-bound volume of Lamb’s essays,
borrowed some months back by J——. Where are you and my little
volume now, good friend? For reasons known to ourselves alone I
address you tenderly. But I would that I could send the gentle Elia to
recover my lost gem. Very gently would he deal with you, with quaint
phrases, puns, and happy jests. Aye, and with little speeches uttered
with that fascinating lisp of his. Indeed, I fear, now that I come to give
the matter careful thought, that he would leave you empty handed. It
would be so like his charming ways to console, comfort, and amuse
you, and leave with you, after all, my volume of his incomparable
essays.
The truth is, this work of restoring borrowed volumes to one’s
shelves calls for a stout heart. I confess that I am wanting in the
necessary qualifications. I have not the courage to speak harshly to
a fellow book-lover. So firm is his hold on my affections that I am as
wax in his hands. Yet book-lovers to a man agree that the borrower
who never repays stands in dire need of correction. I must call
another to the task—one of stronger metal.
Listen! ‘Even the fieldmouse,’ cries my champion, ‘has a russet gown
to match the mould, but the book-lover who has let loose a borrower
in his library is as forlorn as the goat tied up for tiger’s bait. True, that
to spare your Homer you may plead you are re-acquainting yourself
with the Iliad, but that is to save Homer and lose Virgil. You cannot
profess that you study all the classics simultaneously; and who
knows that better than the borrower? Snatch your Browning from his
grip, and his talons sink into Goethe instead. What does it matter to
him? He is out for books, and he will not be placated until he has left
gaping rents in your shelves, like the hull of a bombarded battleship.
These chasms shall burden your soul with the weight of many
unkindly maledictions, but the borrower will return no evil thought, for
the simple and satisfactory reason that he will now think no more
either of you or of your books. Stabled securely upon his shelves,
they will remain on one of those perpetual leases that amount to a
freehold. It is useless to invade his lair with the hope of bringing back
the spoil. Are you not instructed that he has not yet had time to read
them, but that they are yours again whenever you will?
Outgeneralled and outflanked, you retreat empty-handed.
‘Books are gentle, lovable company. Why should the lust of them
corrupt human nature, turning an amiable citizen into that hopeless
irreclaimable, the inveterate book-borrower? Is it that law of
contrasts which associates with the noble steed the ignoble horse-
coper, and with the gentle dove the cropped head and unshaven jowl
of the pigeon-flyer? But truce to theories! It is the hour of action. Will
not a benignly reforming Government insist that lent books shall be
registered like bills of sale, and a list drawn up of notorious
borrowers, with compulsory inspection of their dens, to protect our
defenceless libraries from the ravages of the book-pirate? If it is
hopeless to look for his cure, shall we not at least petition for his
prevention?’
You will allow that all this bears directly upon the subject in mind.
Does not the ingenuous gentleman whom I have quoted at the head
of this chapter aver that the real aim of the bookplate remains ever
the same—‘a reminder to those who borrow.’ Here, then, is one
thread of hope, but only a very thin thread, I fear. Not for one
moment dare I venture to think that it will bear the weight of our
grievances. It is too fine, too delicate, to save us from the hands of
the ruthless borrower. Indeed, I suspect that if it in any wise alters
our position, it is only to draw us into fresh danger. For you know
how many and how varied are the charms of bookplates, both old
and new. Indeed, I have known book-lovers borrow a volume for the
sole purpose of tracing the design upon the fly-leaf. It is a fault of
which the present writer is guilty. With shame he confesses it.
But wait! Why should I speak with blushes of my admiration for the
brave armorial designs which adorn the calf-bound volumes of my
friend H——? Well may he be proud of his family attributes, and well
may I admire the manner in which some skilful designer, long
departed, has incorporated arms and family motto with the familiar
words Ex Libris. I know not, by the way, how any book-lover can
bring himself to ignore information so absolutely clear. The
announcement ‘from my library’ seems in the case of the
particular bookplate in mind to come, nay, does come, from a
trumpet of amazing dimensions. But it is to be feared that the
imaginative designer has been allowed too free a hand. So rich is his
fancy, so skilful his line work, that the force of his call to duty is
dulled by admiration. Perhaps that is why my friend’s volume still
rests on my shelves. And perchance herein may rest an explanation
of the heartless manner in which my friend has held fast to my
treasured volume of Cowper’s poems.
It is, I say, to be feared that designers of bookplates have sacrificed
the primary aim of their calling to the elaboration of playful fancies.
From the very birth of the bookplate the fault seems to have been
present. I am told that the earliest specimens date back to 1516, and
on the Continent, notably in Germany, even earlier than that. Far
back into the ages must we travel to find the first offenders. Let the
interested book-lover examine the ancient examples presented in
1574 by Sir Nicholas Bacon to the University of Cambridge. He will
then see pretty clearly how the war has been waged between the
pictorial and the practical, and how, all along the line, the victory has
been with the former. And what wonder with such mighty craftsmen
as Albrecht Durer, Lucas Cranach, and Hans Holbein to wield the
steel point of the engraver! Can one be surprised if such men defeat
the chief aim of the bookplate, and put to silence with their wonderful
skill the simple cry Ex Libris? Bookplates by Durer, Cranach, or
Holbein must surely give great value to the volumes in which they
rest. Note the danger! True book-lovers will blush to own it, but we
must acknowledge the fact that a bookplate may have greater
attractions than the volume in which it rests!
Wherefore, I say, we book-lovers will be well advised if we see to it
that we do not fall into the error of keeping on our shelves books
which may be coveted for the plates they contain. Bookplates in the
delicate manner of Chippendale, with ‘wreath and ribbon’ and open
shell work, are too alluring. Designs in the manner of Sheraton are
also dangerously attractive. Jacobean plates come nearer the
desired mark. But to my mind the good old English style of plate,
‘simple armorial,’ is best fitted for the purpose.
Always must we remember that the primary object of the bookplate
is a reminder to those who borrow. On this score I am disposed to
favour those inexpensive modern plates in which are interwoven
some dear, familiar scene—a nook or corner of one’s garden, or a
beloved scene in one’s native place. If the ruthless borrower has
aught of good in him, surely he will be affected by such tender
personal associations! But we have seen that the average borrower
of books is a strange fellow. Alas! I know him only too well. Indeed, I
too must confess that ‘out of an intimate knowledge of my own sinful
ways have I spoken.’
IX
BEDSIDE BOOKS
I come to my subject in a sleepy mood. It seems a daring confession

to make. But you will allow that only when one’s mind is bent on
thoughts of sleep can one hope to speak fittingly of bedside books.
’Tis a subject calling for gentle, quiet thoughts. And what better state
of mind? You remember Robert Louis Stevenson’s prayer, ‘Give us
the quiet mind.’ How often has a similar prayer been offered! Too
often are we disturbed in thought—harassed, perplexed, worried. Let
us now turn our attention to books that soothe and lull to rest. Here
they stand, ready to hand. But name them I dare not, save in my
own heart. For your taste in this matter may be totally different from
mine. I dare only say at this point—for here surely I may speak with
confidence—that no bedside shelf is complete without a copy of
Stevenson’s prayers. With gratitude I confess that of the many
volumes which have comforted me during dark hours not one is so
dear, so close to my heart, as the little volume bearing the golden
letters R. L. S.
‘Be with our friends, be with ourselves. Go with each of us to rest. If
any awake, temper to them the dark hours of watching; and when
the day returns, return to us our sun and comforter, and call us up
with morning faces and with morning hearts—eager to labour: eager
to be happy, if happiness be our portion; and if the day be marked for
sorrow, strong to endure it.’ Certainly the prayers of R. L. S. should
have a place on every bedside shelf. That you are familiar with the
foregoing prayer, I cannot doubt. ‘Many are the golden passages the
lover of good books has by heart.’ It may be that you have upon your
own particular bedside shelf many ‘devotional authors’ with whose
every word you are familiar—books, small and great, which are as
jewels in your shelf. And no doubt you have upon the same shelf
many every-day and every-hour books, acting, as it were, as a
setting to your gems. For certainly the bedside shelf, if it is to be
complete, must contain books to suit all moods. One cannot be
certain in what mood the night watches will find one. The over-
excited brain, for instance, needs its own particular medicine, and
sometimes two, three, or more drugs are required, according to the
state and nature of the patient. In the majority of cases it is futile to
attempt a cure with a book less lively than the patient’s own brain.
His abnormal condition must be righted by degrees. One book, or
drug, must follow another, till his mind has been restored to a normal
state. Then may he resort to his accustomed ‘rest books,’ and so fall
asleep.
But I fear that such talk ‘smacks’ of the doctor and his medicine
chest, and I desire to conjure up restful thoughts. Well may the
reader be forgiven if he starts up in protest. Indeed, here is the
difficulty and the danger of seeking to promote a restful condition.
One is so apt to make, with the best intentions possible, a remark
which has the reverse effect. There is, I say, the risk of naming a
book which to the reader might come as a call to action—to daring
deeds and mighty enterprises—a mood as far removed from slumber
as the North Pole from the South.
I may, however, speak freely enough in the company of book-lovers
who wake with the rising sun and take to themselves one of their
beloved books. They will not resent my likes and dislikes—they who
open the day with a ‘jolly good book.’ In their company I may confess
that for the early morning I prefer a book with plenty of ‘go’ in it. Give
me life and spirit and enterprise. Thus may I hope to retain some
measure of the buoyancy of youth. It is good to have been young in
youth, and, as the years go, to grow younger. ‘Many,’ it is written,
‘are already old before they are through their teens; but to travel
deliberately through one’s ages is to get the heart out of a liberal
education. Times change, opinions vary to their opposite, and still
the world appears a brave gymnasium, full of sea-bathing, and horse
exercise, and bracing, manly virtues; and what can be more
encouraging than to find the friend who was welcome at one age
welcome at another?’
Let Westward Ho! stand on your bedside shelf, and many other
books of the same brave and lively order—‘the travel and adventure
books of our spirited youth.’ These, if you meet fresh days with a
book, will brace you for the battle. Stevenson must, of course,
remain one of your companions—your faithful friend both night and
morning. Bravery he will give you, and grace also.
Forth from the casement, on the plain

Where honour has the world to gain,
Pour forth and bravely do your part,
O knights of the unshielded heart!
Forth and for ever forward!—out
From prudent turret and redoubt,
And in the mellay charge amain
To fall, but yet to rise again!
Captive? Ah, still, to honour bright,
A captive soldier of the right!
Or free and fighting, good with ill?
Unconquering but unconquered still!
And mark again with what ‘manly grace’ and beauty of expression
Stevenson turns our thoughts to the ‘Giver of all strength.’
‘Give us grace and strength to bear and to persevere. Offenders,
give us the grace to accept and to forgive offenders. Forgetful
ourselves, help us to bear cheerfully the forgetfulness of others. Give
us courage and gaiety and the quiet mind. Spare us to our friends,
soften us to our enemies. Bless us, if it may be, in all our innocent
endeavours. If it may not, give us the strength to encounter that
which is to come, that we be brave in peril, constant in tribulation,
temperate in wrath, and in all changes of fortune, and down to the
gates of death, loyal and loving one to another.’
If there is a more helpful bedside author than Stevenson, I should
much like to make his acquaintance. To few is it given to speak ‘the
word that cheers’ with such a fine combination of tenderness and
courage.
‘It is a commonplace,’ he says, ‘that we cannot answer for ourselves
before we have been tried. But it is not so common a reflection, and
surely more consoling, that we usually find ourselves a great deal
braver and better than we thought. I believe this is every one’s
experience; but an apprehension that they may belie themselves in
the future prevents mankind from trumpeting this cheerful sentiment
abroad. I wish sincerely, for it would have saved me much trouble,
there had been some one to put me in a good heart about life when I
was younger; to tell me how dangers are most portentous on a
distant sight; and how the good in a man’s spirit will not suffer itself
to be overlaid, and rarely or never deserts him in the hour of need.’
To the troubled, relaxed mind such words come as a bracing tonic.
Too often have we passed sleepless hours for the want of a word in
season—something to put a little ‘grit’ into us for the duties of the
morrow. Where the average mortal is concerned Stevenson certainly
supplies that need. Should he by any chance fail—well, there is an
essayist of our own day, waiting to minister to the most exacting
needs. I have in mind the many beautiful and tender pages written
by one whom we associate with a certain college window. Certainly
of him it may be said that he seeks to comfort and console, and to
soothe and lull to rest.
X
OLD FRIENDS
Come, and take choice of my library,

And so beguile thy sorrow.
Goldsmith.
NOW let us dwell upon our every-day and every-hour books—our

dear old familiar friends. ‘On a shelf in my bookcase,’ says
Alexander Smith, ‘are collected a number of volumes which look
somewhat the worse for wear. Those of them that originally
possessed gilding have had it fingered off, each of them has leaves
turned down, and they open of themselves in places wherein I have
been happy, and with whose every word I am familiar as with the
furniture of the room in which I nightly slumber; each of them has
remarks relevant and irrelevant scribbled on their margins. Those
favourite volumes cannot be called peculiar glories of literature; but
out of the world of books I have singled them, as I have singled my
intimates out of the world of men.’
Ah! that makes pleasant reading. For do not the sentiments
expressed reflect our own feelings? And do they not place us in
gracious and distinguished company? In his charming way,
Goldsmith whispers, ‘The first time I read an excellent book, it is to
me as if I had gained a new friend. When I read over a book I have
perused before, it resembles the meeting with an old one.’ And to
this Dillon adds, ‘Choose an author as you would choose a friend’;
whilst Langford, touching the same theme, declares that ‘a wise man
will select his book with care, for he will not wish to class them all
under the sacred name of friends.’
And as friendship has its roots deep set in love and sympathy, and is
for ‘serene days and country rambles, and also for rough roads and
hard fare, shipwreck, poverty, and persecution, and, moreover,
keeps company with the sallies of the wit,’ it is easy enough to
understand why such authors as Charles Lamb, Oliver Goldsmith,
William Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt, Richard Jefferies, Thomas De Quincey,
Joseph Addison, and, of later years, Robert Louis Stevenson, have
our affections.
Here they stand—Lamb, Goldsmith, Hazlitt, Hunt, Jefferies—the
whole lovable company. What shall I say concerning these friends of
ours? I am moved by deep and serious feelings. But, according to
his own telling, the gentle Elia, the first in mind, ‘had a general
aversion from being treated like a grave or respectable character,
and kept a wary eye upon the advances of age that should so entitle
him. He herded always, while it was possible, with people younger
than himself. He did not conform to the march of time, but was
dragged along in the procession. His manners lagged behind his
years. He was too much of the boy man. The toga virilis never sate
gracefully on his shoulders. The impressions of infancy had burnt
into him, and he resented the impertinence of manhood.’ And
therein, surely, rests the secret of his charm. In spite of his brave
confessions, how firm to discerning hearts is the bed of the stream
over which his thoughts flow! Who can doubt the source of a stream
that flows so sweetly?
And what of Oliver Goldsmith—poor ‘Goldy,’ as he was called by his
circle of intimates on earth? He, too, was very human, and, indeed,
had many weaknesses. And they tell us—they who write of such
matters with authority—that his days of poverty and wretchedness
were largely, if not entirely, the outcome of his follies. Even in the
sphere in which he shines—a clear, bright, inextinguishable star—it
is said that he had many short-comings. ‘He had neither the gift of
knowledge nor the power of research. As an essayist and poet, he
has neither extended views nor originality; as a critic, upon the few
occasions upon which he embarks on criticism his sympathies are of
the most restricted kind.’ And yet for the warmth and gentleness of
his heart and the purity of his style we love him. ‘His playful and
delicate style transformed everything he touched into something
radiant with warmth and fragrant with a perfume all its own.’
And how fared it with Hazlitt—the keen critic, the impassioned writer
—‘unbending and severe, insurgent in his political views’? Are we
not told that he was really more of an artist and sentimentalist than a
politician? ‘As for his life, it was aesthetic, Bohemian, and irregular in
the extreme. The restraints of domestic life were intolerable; he
wanted to be alone to write; rough accommodation and coarse fare
appeased him best; tinkerdom was the ordinary state of his interior
environment; save for two pictures (which served as a link with past
aspiration and were treasured accordingly), he had no property; a
fugitive amour seemed to furnish the emotional side of him with the
stimulant it most required; he was a night rambler and a reveller in
Rousseau, over whose Héloise and Confessions he expended
literally pints of tears.’ Such was the temperament of the writer, artist,
and sentimentalist who gave us those incomparable essays ‘On
Going a Journey,’ ‘On the Ignorance of the Learned,’ and ‘On
Familiar Style.’
And what of those other old friends, Hunt, Jefferies, De Quincey,
Robert Louis Stevenson? But our inquiries have gone far enough.
What boots it to repeat that our friends were human in life, just as
surely as they are human in their books, but with a humanity that
allures, charms, captivates? They do not preach to us, these old
friends of ours, or make open claims to virtue; and yet we are never
so conscious of goodness as when they are near. Their lightest
raillery scorns a mean act. In their company meanness flees as from
a pestilence.... Our friends!
Wisely is it said that the ‘best way to represent to life the manifold
use of friendship is to cast and see how many things there are which
a wise man cannot do himself; and then it will appear that it was a
sparing speech of the ancients to say, “that a friend is more than
himself”: for that a friend is far more than himself.’
And so I thank heaven for my friends, for the wise, the lovely, and
the noble-minded who stand side by side, ever willing, ever ready,
upon my humble shelf.
XI
THROUGH ROSE-COLOURED SPECTACLES
NOW let another occupy the printed page. I have promised to give
the experiences of other book-lovers, to show how books influence
their thoughts and ways; and I am anxious to introduce a short, slim
gentleman of sixty odd summers, with a smiling face and an air of
wellbeing, a retiring, peaceful book-lover, whom you would never
suspect of playing any part in a mystery.
Nevertheless, my friend must plead guilty to practising the ‘art of
make-believe’ to such a degree that one could never be certain how
much was real concerning him and his affairs and how much was
imaginary. Indeed, the only sure and unchanging thing about him
was his spectacles and the manner in which he viewed life through
them—his point of view.
‘My spectacles,’ he told me, over and over again, ‘are rose-coloured.
You understand, rose-coloured. They and myself are inseparable.
Without them I am as bad as stone-blind, and dare not take a step in
any direction.’
Then he would smile in a manner that led one to suspect that he was
merely drawing upon his imagination. But I learnt that my friend’s life
had been lived under such peculiar difficulties, and that he had
passed through so much sorrow and affliction, that without his rose-
coloured spectacles he was, in one sense, stone-blind.
It pleased him to imagine that the lenses in his treasured spectacles,
which were gold-rimmed and old-fashioned in shape, had been cut
from rose-coloured pebbles, with the power of giving a rosy hue to
life, and bringing all things into correct perspective.
‘Correct perspective and the right point of view,’ he remarked on a
certain day, ‘are everything in life. My spectacles give me the correct
vision. They bring men and affairs into proper focus, and, what is
more, they give them a rose tint. Robert Louis Stevenson wore
spectacles something like mine, but his were far and away more
powerful. They enabled him to see farther and more clearly. They
were of a deeper and purer tint.’
He drew from his pocket a small cloth-bound edition of passages
from Stevenson’s works. The little volume did not measure more
than, say, three by five inches, and was considerably soiled and
worn; but he handled it as though it were worth its weight in precious
stones.
It was clear, before he opened the volume, that he knew the greater
part of the contents by heart; for he commenced to quote as he ran
his fingers round the edge of the cover:
‘“When you have read, you carry away with you a memory of the
man himself; it is as though you had touched a loyal hand, looked
into brave eyes, and made a noble friend; there is another bond on
you thenceforward, binding you to life and to the love of virtue.”’
He accompanied the quotation with a pleasing smile, as who should
say, ‘How true that is and how nobly expressed!’ Then he turned the
leaves hastily as though looking for a favourite passage; but he
abandoned the search a moment later, and glanced up.
‘I fancy I can give you the passage correctly. I should like you to hear
it. It will throw light upon what I have said about my rose-coloured
spectacles.’
He looked up, as he spoke, at the trees overhanging the lane
through which we walked.
‘“Nor does the scenery any more affect the thoughts than the
thoughts affect the scenery. We see places through our humours as
through differently-coloured glasses.”’
He paused a moment, then repeated the last line slowly and with
emphasis: ‘We see places through our humours as through
differently-coloured glasses.’
‘“We are ourselves,”’ he continued, ‘“a term in the quotation, a note
of the chord, and make discord and harmony almost at will. There is
no fear for the result, if we but surrender ourselves sufficiently to the
country that surrounds and follows us, so that we are ever thinking
suitable thoughts or telling ourselves some suitable sort of story as
we go. We become thus, in some sense, a centre of beauty; we are
provocative of beauty, such as a gentle and sincere character is
provocative of sincerity and gentleness in others....”’
Then he told me ‘some suitable sort of story’ about a certain man
who built a castle upon dry land, a castle of stone, firm as a rock,
and filled it with his heart’s desire. But no sooner had the man taken
up his abode therein than the tide of circumstances turned.
Misfortune followed misfortune; sorrow followed sorrow; first, the loss
of earthly possessions, then the loss of loved ones. All brightness
and hope were taken out of the man’s life, and for many years he
dwelt in darkness.
At this point my friend turned away, and slowly, thoughtfully, polished
his spectacles. One could not help thinking that he was relating in a
parable the story of his own past. This suspicion was strengthened, if
not actually confirmed, when he readjusted his spectacles and
continued:
‘Then this same man built a castle in the air partly out of the
creations of his own mind, partly out of the creations of others, a
castle of thought, a building without visible support. He found,
however, that this castle in the air, built on lines he had been taught
to smile at in his youth, was more enduring than his castle of stone.
Moat and drawbridge were impassable, the gates impregnable.
Changed circumstances could not affect it; misfortune and sorrow
could not shake it; even death left it unmoved.’
‘You see,’ he continued, ‘what I am driving at? Listen to this from my
little volume: “No man can find out the world, says Solomon, from
beginning to end, because the world is in his own heart.” And this:
“An inspiration is a joy for ever, a possession as solid as a landed
estate, a fortune we can never exhaust, and which gives us year by
year a revenue of pleasurable activity. To have many of these is to
be spiritually rich.”’
The next moment he drew from his pocket a worn leather case and
showed me a portrait of Robert Louis Stevenson. He had it wrapped
in two layers of paper, both yellow with age and stained from much
handling. But the likeness was well preserved, as clear, perhaps, as
on the day it was taken.
‘I number this likeness,’ he said, ‘amongst my treasures. They go
everywhere with me—this portrait of Stevenson and this little volume
of extracts from his works.’ He fingered the cover affectionately. ‘The
case,’ he continued, ‘is worn with much handling, but the rose-
coloured lenses have not lost their power. Listen to this: “It is in virtue
of his own desires and curiosities that any man continues to exist
with even patience, that he is charmed by the look of things and
people, and that he awakens every morning with a renewed appetite
for work and pleasure.” And this: “Noble disappointment, noble self-
denial, are not to be admired, not even to be pardoned, if they bring
bitterness. It is one thing to enter the kingdom of heaven maim;
another to maim yourself and stay outside.”’
He glanced up and handed me the volume. ‘Make your own
selection,’ he suggested; ‘read something that condemns me.’
I acted on the suggestion, or, rather, the first part of it; for my
selection, contrary to his request, was in the form of commendation:
‘“His was, indeed, a good influence in life while he was still among
us; he had a fresh laugh; it did you good to see him; and, however
sad he may have been at heart, he always bore a bold and cheerful
countenance, and took fortune’s worst as it were the showers of
spring.”’
I was not aware how entirely this fitted my friend’s case until some
months had passed. Our friendship was only in its infancy at that
time, little more than an acquaintance. We had no formal
introduction. He had asked the time of day, then gone on to talk of
his rose-coloured spectacles. We had much to say concerning his
spectacles in the days that followed—always in a light and pleasant
vein. To be tedious or heavy was, to his mind, a grievous fault,
particularly in books. In life and in letters he would always look for,
and never fail to find, the brightest side, the happiest passages. And
he would apply the one to the other—a passage from Stevenson, or
some other author, to an incident in his own or some other life—in a
manner that was wonderfully illuminating and helpful.
In brief, his was ‘the life that loves, that gives, that loses itself, that
overflows; the warm, hearty, social, helpful life.’ From a sorrowful
chapter in his history he would weave a story for the help of others,
always from a rose-coloured standpoint; from a calamity he would
make a fairy tale, showing that, in spite of adversity, the House
Beautiful was still upon its hill-top.
I remarked, in introducing him, that he was guilty of playing a part in
a mystery. You will have seen through the mystery by now; at least,
as regards his rose-coloured spectacles. But there is more to be said
concerning his life and his love of books.

Advanced Engineering Mathematics Gujarat Technological University 2016 4Th Edition Ravish R Singh Full Chapter

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Advanced Engineering Mathematics

(Gujarat Technological University 2016)

Ravish R Singh is presently Vice Principal at Shree L R Tiwari

Mukul Bhatt is presently Assistant Professor, Department of

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited

McGraw Hill Education Ofﬁces

Visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in

Soumya and Siddharth

3.4 Applications of First-Order Differential Equations 3.84

6.5 Linear Partial Differential Equations of First Order 6.18

Solved Question Paper Summer 2015 Q.1–Q.23

Our acknowledgements would be incomplete without a mention of the contribution of

SUBJECT CODE: 2130002 – Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Module 1: Introduction to Some Special Functions

Module 2: Fourier Series and Fourier Integral

Module 3: Ordinary Differential Equations and Applications

Module 4: Series Solution of Differential Equations

Module 5: Laplace Transforms and Applications

Module 6: Partial Differential Equations and Applications

1.2 GAMMA FUNCTION

The gamma function can also be expressed as

Properties of the Gamma Function

1.3 BETA FUNCTION

Properties of the Beta Function

This is known as duplication formula.

1.4 BESSEL FUNCTION

Properties of Bessel Functions

1.5 ERROR FUNCTION AND COMPLEMENTARY

The error function of x is deﬁned by

where x may be a real or complex variable. 0.5

The complementary error function of x is 0.25

Properties of the Error Function

1.6 HEAVISIDE’S UNIT STEP FUNCTION

Properties of the Unit Step Function

1.7 PULSE OF UNIT HEIGHT AND DURATION FUNCTION

1.8 SINUSOIDAL PULSE FUNCTION

[Summer 2014, Winter 2012]

If a = 0, the rectangle function reduces to a pulse of unit height and duration b

1.10 GATE FUNCTION

The gate function (Fig. 1.8) is deﬁned by

1.11 DIRAC’S DELTA FUNCTION

Property of Dirac’s Delta Function

1.12 SIGNUM FUNCTION

The signum function (Fig. 1.11) is deﬁned by ()

1.13 SAWTOOTH WAVE FUNCTION

The sawtooth wave function with period a (Fig. 1.12)

1.14 TRIANGULAR WAVE FUNCTION

1.15 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL FUNCTION

The half-wave rectiﬁed sinusoidal function with

1.16 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED SINUSOIDAL FUNCTION

The square-wave function with period 2a (Fig. 1.16)

2.2 FOURIER SERIES

Representation of a function over a certain interval by a linear combination of mutually

Convergence of the Fourier Series (Dirichlet’s Conditions)

2.3 TRIGONOMETRIC FOURIER SERIES

x One sine component

x Addition of two sine

x Addition of three sine

Fig. 2.1 Representation of a function in terms of sine components

2.4 FOURIER SERIES OF FUNCTIONS OF ANY PERIOD

Corollary 2 When c = – and 2l = 2

Fourier Series Expansion with Period 2

Putting x in Eq. (1),