PGDT College of Education and Behavioural Science

Bahir Dar University, College of Science,
Department of Biology
Biology Subject Area Method II Module
Prepared by: Bahir Dar University

Module Writer: Wubetie Adnew (Ph.D.)
Editor:
October 2022
Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
© Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia
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Biology Subject Area Methods II
Course Code: BiEd 565
Credit Hours: 4
Prerequisite module: Biology Subject Area

Methods I
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Table of Contents
i. Preface.................................................................................................................................................. vi
ii. Expected Learning Outcomes .............................................................................................................. vi
iii. Module Requirements ..................................................................................................................... vii
iv. Scope of the Module ....................................................................................................................... vii
v. Duration of the Study .......................................................................................................................... vii
vi. Teaching Methodology and Assessments Types ............................................................................viii
Module Introduction ................................................................................................................................... ix
Unit One: Biology teaching modalities (16hrs.) ........................................................................................... 1
1.1. Traditional Methods of Teaching Biology ................................................................................ 2
1.1.1. Lecture Method in Biology Teaching ............................................................................................ 3
1.1.2. Discussion Method in Biology Teaching ........................................................................................ 5
1.1.3. Project Method in Biology Teaching ............................................................................................. 7
1.1.4. Field Trip in Biology Teaching ....................................................................................................... 9
1.1.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 12
1.1.6 References/Further Reading/Web Resources.............................................................................. 13
1.1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises ........................................................................... 13
1.2. Demonstration and Experimentation in Teaching Biology (5 hrs.) ............................................ 15
1.2.1. Demonstration in Biology Teaching ...................................................................................... 15
1.2.1.1. Advantages of Demonstration ......................................................................................... 15
1.2.1.2. Disadvantages of Demonstration .................................................................................... 15
1.2.1.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Demonstration ....................................................... 15
1.2.2. Experimentation in Biology Teaching .................................................................................. 15
1.2.2.1. Advantages of Experimentation ...................................................................................... 15
1.2.2.2. Disadvantages of Experimentation .................................................................................. 15
1.2.2.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Experimentation .................................................... 15
1.2.3. Summary ............................................................................................................................. 15
1.2.4. References/Further Readings/Web Sources ....................................................................... 15
1.2.5. Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises .................................................................. 15
1.2.1. Demonstration in Biology Teaching ...................................................................................... 15
1.2.2. Experimentation in Biology Teaching ................................................................................... 17
1.2.3. Summary.............................................................................................................................. 21
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1.2.4. References/Further Readings/Web Sources ......................................................................... 21
1.2.5. Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises .................................................................... 21
1.3. Modern Techniques of Teaching Biology (5 hrs.) ...................................................................... 22
1.3.1. Concept Mapping ....................................................................................................................... 23
1.3.2. Constructivism in Biology Teaching ...................................................................................... 25
1.3.3. Focus Group Discussion ....................................................................................................... 27
6.3.4. Use of Analogy in Biology Teaching ...................................................................................... 31
3.3.5. Summary.............................................................................................................................. 34
3.3.6. References/Further Readings/Web Sources ......................................................................... 35
3.3.7. Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises .................................................................... 35
Unit Two: Instructional Materials & Resources in Teaching Biology (10 Hrs.) ........................................ 38
2.1 Instructional Materials and Resources in Biology Lessons .............................................................. 38
2.1.1 Instructional Materials ................................................................................................................ 38
2.1.2 Instructional Resources in Teaching Biology .............................................................................. 45
2.1.3 Principles of Using Instructional Materials in Teaching Biology ................................................... 49
2.1.4 Construction and Innovation of Instructional Materials............................................................... 50
2.2 Microscopy and Uses of Apparatus in Teaching Biology ................................................................ 55
2.2.1 Principles of Using Various Apparatus of Lab Work ..................................................................... 59
2.2.2 Homemade and Improvised Apparatus in Teaching Biology ........................................................ 60
Unit summary.............................................................................................................................................. 63
Unit Three: Effective Techniques of Teaching Biology (28 Hrs.) ......................................................... 66
3.1 Introduction to Effective Techniques of Teaching Biology .............................................................. 66
3.1.1 Effective Teaching Methods of Biology........................................................................................ 67
3.1.2 Effective Techniques of Teaching and Classroom Management ................................................ 74
3.2 Effective Techniques of Teaching Secondary School Biology ................................................... 76
3.2.1 Effective techniques of teaching grade 9 and 10 Biology............................................................. 76
3.2.2 Teaching of grade 10 Biology Subject .......................................................................................... 82
3.3 Effective Techniques of Teaching Grade 11and 12 Biology ...................................................... 84
3.3.1 Teaching of Grade 11 Biology Subject ......................................................................................... 84
3.3.2 Teaching of grade 12 Biology Subject .......................................................................................... 87
Unit Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 90
Unit Four: Evaluation in Biology Teaching (10 hrs) .................................................................................. 93
4.1. Evaluation of Theory I (Objectives and Essay Questions) .............................................................. 95
4.1.1. Definition of Evaluation .............................................................................................................. 95
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4.1.2. Evaluating the Cognitive Skills .................................................................................................... 95
4.1.3. The Six Categories of Cognitive Behaviour .................................................................................. 97
4.1.4. Developing Test Items to Test the Various Categories ................................................................ 97
4.1.5. Summary .................................................................................................................................. 100
4.1.6. References/Further Readings ................................................................................................... 100
1.2. Evaluation of Theory (Objectives and Essay Questions: Application, Analysis, Synthesis and
Evaluation) ............................................................................................................................................ 101
1.2.1. Testing at Higher Cognitive Levels ...................................................................................... 102
1.2.7. References/ Further Readings/Web Sources ...................................................................... 108
4.3. Other Teacher Made Evaluation Procedures.................................................................................. 108
1.3.1. Evaluating the Psychomotor Domain ................................................................................. 109
1.3.2. Affective Domain ............................................................................................................... 111
1.3.3. Evaluation of Practical Biology ........................................................................................... 112
1.3.4. Evaluation through Projects ............................................................................................... 113
1.3.5. Summary............................................................................................................................ 114
1.3.6. References/Further Reading/Web Sources ........................................................................ 114
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i. Preface
Dear learner! Welcome to this module (Subject Area Method II (BiEd 4081)) which deals
with the challenging topics of biology lessons, examine presenting methods, Lesson Planning,
Peer teachings, Self-reflection, challenges arising from teaching biology lessons, activities,
demonstrations and project works prepared for secondary school biology lessons. The module
will help prospective biology teachers anticipating and respond to typical student patterns of
understanding of the subject matter within a content area and the ability to create multiple
examples in teaching and learning processes. I hope you will find it interesting!
ii. Expected Learning Outcomes
 Design Lesson Plans for teaching biology lessons

 Produce and conduct instructional materials
 Conduct effective and quality of teaching biology
 Independently present, demonstrate experiments and biological activities
 Apply some co-curricular activities related to biology lessons
 Define teaching aids
 List types of teaching aids and importance
 Explain principles of using teaching aids
 Describe biological laboratories and usage
 Use microscopes and lab equipments properly
 List and describe apparatus and equipments used in the laboratory
 Use proper teaching materials in biology lessons
 Exercise micro and actual teachings in biology
 Skilled to manage classrooms and show quality of teaching
 Produce teaching materials, demos and projects to support the students
 Apply techniques of measurement and evaluation
 Set criteria for preparation of examinations or tests
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 Evaluate skills and abilities
 Prepare roster and rank students academically
iii. Module Requirements
To complete this course, you are required to read the study units, read the recommended texts, and
other reading materials that are provided or recommended. You will also carry out the exercises
and practical activities recommended within the course units. Each unit contains self-assessment
exercises, and at stipulated points in the course, you are required to submit assignments for
assessment purposes. At the end of the course, you will be required to write a final examination.
iv. Scope of the Module
In this module, there are four units. The first unit Biology teaching modalities. The second unit
of this module focuses on Instructional Materials & Resources in Teaching Biology, the third
unit on the Techniques of Effective Teaching of Biology, and the fourth on Evaluation and
Assessments. The module includes unit learning outcomes, relevant activities, contents & sub-
contents within topics, references, and materials for further reading at the end of each unit. A
glossary is attached at the end of the module to familiarize the students with different
terminologies.
v. Duration of the Study
This course is a four-credit hour” course and requires you a minimum of 64 hours in a semester.
To complete the module successfully, you should attend 4 hours of face-to-face sessions per week
and equivalent study hours at home/independently. Thus to achieve the learning objectives, you
need to plan your work, budget your time, and read critically & repeatedly each topic. Note that
each face-to-face hour of learning in a week requires you to invest similar study hours at home or
independently. You should finish your home study before a particular lesson is presented or after
the lesson is dealt with.
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vi. Teaching Methodology and Assessments Types
Various active learning methods will be employed during the study. Brainstorming, Gapped-
lecture, Whole class discussion, Group work, Presentation, Demonstration, Decision- line,
Ranking, questioning, and answering are essential. Various continuous assessment methods like
group work, assignments with presentations, field reports, quizzes, and exams will be employed
to evaluate the performance of the students. The module includes many relevant activities that
require you to engage in some kind of practical or mental task. The activities are planned to be
done either in groups or individually. Your performance in the course will be measured based on
your performance in these activities. The weight of the assessment will be 50% continuous
assessment and 50% Final exam. To pass the course you are expected to score at least 50 %.
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Subject Area Methods II (Major) Module
Module outline
This module consists of the four units listed below in the box that comprises different sections.
Module Introduction

Dear learners, this course is a 4-unit PGDT course. The course is available to all students who are
registered for the PGDT degree in Biology Education. The course will also be suitable for
practicing biology teachers who want to update their teaching skills. The course consists of 4 units
that will involve methods and techniques of teaching biology, resources for teaching biology,
planning for biology teaching, laboratory design, management and safety, and evaluation in
Biology teaching. There is a compulsory pre-requisite for this course (Prerequisite module:
Biology Subject Area Methods I). It is expected that before you register for this course, you must
have awarded Degree in Biology. This will give you enough content background to enable you to
appreciate and apply the methods being discussed here. If you are a practicing teacher, you can
start the course any time because you are already familiar with the contents you are expected to
teach. This course Module tells you briefly, what the course is about, what course materials you
will be using and how you can work your way through these materials.
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Time budget of the Module
The time budget allotted for this course is 9 hours (4hours contact and 5 hours self-study) per week
that totally makes 144hours. In order to cover all portions of the module within the given time
budget properly and successfully, you are expected to attend 4 hours of face-to-face teaching every
week and 5 self-study hours at home or independently. Accordingly, instructors are strongly
advised to plan ahead their semester workload, time budget and instructional materials to achieve
expected behavioral changes and professional goals.
Module learning outcomes


After completion of the module, you will be able to:
 Develop and adapt modalities of teaching skills in teaching biology,
 Produce instructional materials and resources for teaching Biology,
 Implement effective techniques of teaching core disciplines of biology’
 Use correct assessment and evaluation techniques in teaching Biology and
 Conduct exams (tests) and evaluate performance and achievement of students properly.
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Unit One: Biology teaching modalities (16hrs.)
Unit Introduction

Welcome to the module unit of Modalities of teaching biology. The teaching of biology requires
that the teacher should be knowledgeable in the various methods and strategies for teaching the
subject. The application of a particular method will help the biology teacher to achieve the desired
learning outcomes. This unit, therefore, examines the traditional methods of teaching biology,
demonstration, and experimentation on the part of the teacher, and we examine other modern
techniques of science teaching. Specifically, the unit examined the lecture method, discussion
method, and project method as well as field trips and excursions. The advantages, disadvantages,
and suggestions for the effective use of such methods, were highlighted. All these techniques
require the active participation of the learner in the learning process.
Unit learning out comes
After completion of this unit, learners will be able to:


 explain the lecture method
 list the advantages and disadvantages of lecture method
 suggest ways of making the use of lecture method more effective
 explain Discussion method
 list the advantages and disadvantages of Discussion method
 suggest ways of making use of discussion method more effective explain the term Field
Trip and excursions
 list some advantages and disadvantages of field trip and excursion
 suggest ways of making use of Field Trip more effective.
 explain the use of demonstration in biology teaching
 state the advantages and disadvantages of demonstration
 mention specific principles for the effective use of demonstration
 explain experimentation in biology teaching
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 state the advantages and disadvantages of experimentation
 enumerate some specific principles that should guide the use of experimentation.
 explain the problem-solving approach in biology teaching
 mention some of the steps involved in problem-solving
 state the advantages and disadvantages of problem-solving
 explain the meaning of games and simulation in biology teaching
 state their advantages and disadvantages
 explain the use of cooperative learning in biology teaching
Unit Outline
The unit consists of the three sections indicated in the box below that are further divided into sub
sections and lesson topics.
1.1 Traditional Methods of Teaching Biology (6 hrs.)

1.2 Demonstration and Experimentation in Teaching Biology (5 hrs.)
1.3 Modern Techniques of Teaching Biology (5 hrs.)
1.1. Traditional Methods of Teaching Biology
1.1.1. Lecture Method in Biology Teaching

1.1.1.1. Advantages of Lecture Method
1.1.1.2, Disadvantages of Lecture Method
1.1.1.3 Suggestions for the Use of Lecture Method
1.1.2. Discussion Method in Biology Teaching
1.1.2.1 Advantages of Discussion Method
1.1.2.2. Disadvantages of Discussion Method
1.1.2.3 Suggestions for the Effective Use of Discussion
1.1.3. Project Method in Biology Teaching
1.1.3.1 Advantages of Project Method
1.1.3.2 Disadvantages of Project Method
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1.1.3.3 Suggestions for the Effective Use of Project Method
1.1.4. Field Trip in Biology Teaching
1.1.4.1 Advantages of Field Trip
1.1.4.2 Disadvantages of Field Trip
1.1.4.3 Suggestion for the Effective Use of Field Trip
1.1.5 Summary
1.1.6 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
1.1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1.1.1. Lecture Method in Biology Teaching
The use of lecture method entails a one-way flow of communication from the teacher to the
students. It is a teacher-centred or teacher-dominated approach. Most of the talking is carried out
by the teacher while the students remain as passive listeners taking down notes. Hence it is referred
to as didactic approach or talk-chalk. Most teachings carried out in our schools today are through
the use of lecture method. This is because large amount of information can be presented to students
in a limited time. Most teachers embrace the use of this method due to the fact that it leads to
coverage of the syllabus. It can be used to teach large and small class sizes. The teacher may ask
few or no questions in the process. It does not require the use of instructional materials or
resources. To this effect, the students are denied the opportunity of developing manipulative skills.
The lecture method is only concerned with verbal presentation of concepts and ideas to the
students. Hence, it does not promote meaningful learning since students are not actively involved
in the learning process. The longer the teacher talks to a group of students, the less the students
retain the information presented to them.
1.1.1.1. Advantages of Lecture Method
1. Less time is required on the part of the teacher in preparing for his lessons since no
materials are needed in the process.
2. It is cheap to operate.
2. It is a good method for delivering large amount of knowledge in a short time. i.e. it
leads to a very high content coverage.
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3. It can be used to handle large classes.
4. It can be used to introduce new topics.
5. It helps to channel the students thinking towards a particular direction.
6. It helps the teacher to develop confidence in his teaching as a facilitator of knowledge.
1.1.1.2, Disadvantages of Lecture Method
1. Students are passive listeners and do not participate actively as the lesson progresses.
2. Lecture method does not put into consideration the individual differences of the learners.
This is because a class is made up of students with a wide range of intellectual abilities-
high, medium and low.
3. The non- active participation of students does not provide the teacher with the
opportunity to evaluate the students during the lesson period.
4. With lecture method, the students do not practice communication skills.
5. Lecture method is not very good for teaching certain concepts in biology that may require
attitude and feelings of students.
6. Lecture method encourages memorization of information (rote learning) without actually
promoting meaningful understanding.
7. It does not promote meaningful learning of biology concepts.
1.1.1.3 Suggestions for the Use of Lecture Method
1. Lecture method should be used in junction with other methods of teaching. This will help
to enhance students’ participation in the lesson.
2. As much as possible, avoid coverage of too many topics, which may lead to boredom and
tend to confuse the students.
3. Encourage active participation of students in class through asking questions and giving
them opportunity to make comments.
4. At the end of each lesson period, the teacher should summarize the key points
Self-Assessment Exercise 1
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1. The lecture method can be made more effective by all of these except
A. Avoid coverage of too many topics.

B. Summarize the main points after the lesson
C. Providing students with textbooks.
D. Asking Students questions as the lesson progresses
2. State three advantages of the lecture method in teaching biology.
1.1.2. Discussion Method in Biology Teaching
Discussion can be seen as talking over something from various points of view. Discussion usually
involves a group of people. Under a classroom setting, discussion is an interactive process
involving the teacher and the students or among the students themselves. In this case, a problem
or topic for the lesson is presented for discussion while the teacher helps to
direct their views towards the lesson objectives.
Discussion is different from lecture method. While the lecture method is a one-way flow of
communication between the teacher and the students, discussion involves a multiple flow of
communication arising from the members of the group. Discussion method encourages students'
active involvement in the learning. Students generate a variety of ideas, which will lead to the
solution of the problem while the teacher acts as a moderator in the learning process.
For a successful implementation of discussion method, every student should have background
knowledge of what is to be discussed otherwise it becomes a waste of time which may lead to lack
of interest in the subject. In other words, using discussion method to teach a topic the
students have no knowledge about will be counterproductive. Discussion method tends to promote
meaningful learning of science concepts.
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1.1.2.1 Advantages of Discussion Method
1. Discussion method encourages students learning through active participation in the

classroom.
2. It enables the teacher to have better knowledge of his students’ abilities and attitudes.
3. There is a greater interpersonal relationship between the teacher and students and among
students themselves.
4. Discussion can lead to the development of leadership qualities.
5. Discussion aids in problem-solving.
1.1.2.2. Disadvantages of Discussion Method
1. Discussion method takes a considerable length of time. This is due to the fact that each
student will be given opportunity to contribute to the discussion.
2. In some cases, students may find it extremely difficult to contribute meaningfully to the
discussion. This is as a result of poor background knowledge of the topic to be discussed.
3. In terms of content coverage, discussion method does not lend itself to easy coverage of
the syllabus.
4. Some student who lacks background knowledge of most of the topics discussed may begin
to be disinterested in the subject.
5. Lack of student’s participation in the discussion may reduce their understanding of the
lesson.
1.1.2.3 Suggestions for the Effective Use of Discussion
1. Topics for the discussion should centre on those in which students have requisite
background knowledge.
2. Let the students know about the topic to be discussed some days prior to the discussion
class. This will help them to read up and be able to contribute meaningfully in the
discussion.
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3. The teacher should try to avoid a situation whereby a student or few students dominate the
discussion.
4. The teacher should encourage student’s efforts by giving positive reinforcement in the form
of praise for good intellectual contributions while also rejecting the irrelevant comments
and questions.
5. In order to elicit more students’ responses, the teacher can ask those questions for more
information.
6. The teacher should not allow the students to completely deviate from the objectives of the
discussion but rather intervene in such cases.
7. The teacher should clarify students on areas that may seem difficult for meaningful
discussion.
8. Use all the meaningful contributions to form the blackboard summary.
9. The teacher may give students assignments on the topic to enhance their learning potentials.
1. State two disadvantages of the discussion method.

2. List two ways the discussion method can be made more effective.
1.1.3. Project Method in Biology Teaching
Projects are organized or planned activities in which students are allowed to investigate or research
on their own. Project method can be used to individualize instruction or it can be used on a group
of students. For example, five students, ten students, or a whole class can be asked to execute a
project. Projects usually are given for a period of time for instance 3 days, one week, or even
months. They may be carried out during or outside class work.
Teachers may assign project topics to the students while in some cases; students are allowed to
choose any topic that might be consistent to their interest. Project method provides opportunities
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for greater understanding among students. It requires a bit of originality and creativity. It can be
used by teachers to solve the problem of individual differences among students.
Some examples of project topics in biology include:
1. Reading of Scientific Journals.

2. Planting of Seeds.
3. Drawing any of the body systems.
1.1.3.1 Advantages of Project Method
1. Project method helps to solve the problem of individual differences since each student can
carry out their own work at his/her own pace.
2. The emphasis on project is “doing” so students are given the opportunity to develop their
initiative.
3. Motivation to work is usually very high since it is based on student’s interest particularly
for students with special talents.
4. Group projects afford opportunities for developing leadership qualities.
5. Project helps students to have an in-depth study of the topic under investigation.
1.1.3.2 Disadvantages of Project Method
1. Project method is time consuming since it will surely be more than a day.
2. Project methods are mostly beneficial to students who have the potentials of independent
work.
3. It is also very difficult to ascertain the extent to which a particular student has gone with the
work since they may invite other people to do the work for them.
4. It is difficult to get a topic that will interest all the students.
1.1.3.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Project Method
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1. Provide students with the entire necessary guide that will help them carry out the project
effectively.
2. Spread the project over a long period of time to enable them has an in-depth study of the
topic.
3. Ensure that the purpose of the project fits properly into the instructional sequence.
4. Ensure that there is objectivity in marking and scoring of the project by developing a
marking procedure
Self–Assessment Exercise 3
1. State three advantages of the project method in teaching biology.

2. Suggest three concrete ways of improving on the use of the project method.
1.1.4. Field Trip in Biology Teaching
Field trip is one of the methods of teaching biology, which involves taking students outside the
classroom setting to have firsthand experiences of what happens in our environment or real-life
situations. The method enables the students to make useful observations and collect information,
which cannot be obtained within the classroom. Experiences acquired during field trip are usually
long lasting and cannot easily be forgotten by the students. Examples of areas where students can
undertake field trip include erosion sites, industries, oil spillage sites, mountains or hills, rivers,
hospitals etc. A study of these phenomena will be more meaningful when students visit the affected
sites than when discussed under the classroom setting.
Field trip is highly rewarding if it is well planned and executed. It affords the students the
opportunity of observing, collecting, classifying and having an in-depth study of certain concepts
and phenomena. With field trips, students get to know their communities and surroundings better.
Because it is an enjoyable a and exciting experience, motivation of students to read up what was
observed during field trip is usually very high and it helps to generate and sustain students’ interest
towards the subject
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1.1.4.1 Advantages of Field Trip
1. Field trip provides the students with the opportunity of having first-hand knowledge of
certain phenomena that occur in our environment.
2. It helps to generate and sustain students’ interest in the subject.
3. With field trip, motivation to work is usually very high.
4. It aids retention of information since the experiences are long lasting.
5. Field trip can help students to develop interest in certain professions e.g., engineering,
medicine etc.
6. It helps to channel student’s experiences towards one direction.
7. Field trip helps students to understand man's relationship with his environment
1.1.4.2 Disadvantages of Field Trip
1. If it is not well planned, it becomes a waste of time and resources.

2. It is extremely tedious to carry out field trips especially when it involves long-distance
trip.
3. In some situations, an accident may occur in the course of a field trip.
4. In most cases, field trip time encroaches into other lesson periods.
5. This would likely result in conflict between the teachers involved if it is not properly
handled.
6. Field trip results in extra financial expenditure on the part of the school and students
1.1.4.3 Suggestion for the Effective Use of Field Trip
1. The biology teacher should first discuss the idea of taking students on a field trip with the
school authority for approval.
2. Subsequently, she should write to the managing director (MD) if it involves an industry
for permission to visit, time of the visit as well as the date of the visit. Finally request for
any written rules guiding the place.
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3. Before the trip the biology teacher should then discuss with the students concerning the
trip, the aim of the visit, materials to take along ego pen, pencil, exercise book, ruler etc.
4. Furthermore, the teacher should inform the students about the rules guiding the place,
possible dangers, things to look out for as well as method of reporting their observations.
5. The teacher should make sure that the field experience fits properly into the instructional
sequence.
6. The biology teacher should carry first aid kit along in case of any accidents involving
students.
7. Ensure adequate arrangement for transportation in the case of trips involving long
distances.
8. After the trip, examine the students on the specimens and information collected from the
trip. This has to be in connection with the report of the trip in order to facilitate retention
of the experiences from the trip.
1. Explain what you understand by field trip in biology teaching.

2. State any 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages of the use of field trip.
1.1.5 Summary
In this unit we have learnt traditional methods of teaching biology e.g., lecture method,
discussion, project and field trip.
 The lecture method is a one-way flow of communication from the teacher to the student.
 There are seven advantages and seven disadvantages identified on the use of lecture
method.
 Four suggestions were made that will guide the biology teacher on the effective use of
lecture method.
 The discussion method is an interactive process involving the teacher and the students
themselves.
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 There are five advantages and five disadvantages on the use of discussion method.
 Nine suggestions were made on the use of discussion method. The project method is an
organized and planned activity in which students are allowed to investigate or research on
their own.
 There are five advantages and four disadvantages on the used project method.
 Four suggestions were made on the use of project method.
 The field trip is one of the methods of teaching in which students are taken out of the
classroom setting to have first-hand experience of what happens’ in our natural
environment or real life situations.
 There are seven advantages and five disadvantages on the use of trip in biology teaching.
 Eight suggestions were made on the effective use of field trip.
1.1.6 References/Further Reading/Web Resources
Maduabum, M.A (2013).Teaching Integrated Science effectively. Onitsha Space Matrix

Publications.
Nnaka, C.V. (2011) Teaching the Concept of Living and Non –Living Things: In STAN Biology
Panel Series, 2011. J. Okoli and U.M.Nzewi (Eds.)
Dienye, N. E & Gbamanja, S.P.T (2017). Science Education. Theory & Practice. Ibadan. Totan
Publishers Ltd.
Abdullahi, A. (2016). Science Teaching in Nigeria. llorin. Atoto. Press Limited.
Taylor and Francis (2003) Learning and Teaching Programming: A Review and Discussion.
Volume 13 Issue 2, 2003. Visit www.studyquirk.com
Emmadiole,N.B. & Okafor, C.U.(2014) Strategies Teachers can use to inspire Creativity in Senior
Secondary School Biology Students. Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 55th Annual
Conference Proceedings. Published by STAN, 2014, p.200
1.1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
SAE 1
1. Answer is C. - Provide students with textbooks

2. Three advantages of lecture method –
3. A large portion of the syllabus can be covered.
4. It is cheap to operate
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5. Teacher requires less time to prepare the lesson.
SAE 2
1. Discussion method consumes a lot of time.

2. Some students may find it difficult to contribute to the lesson due to poor background
information on the topic.
3. Discussion method can be made more effective by
a. Giving students advance information about the topic to be discussed

b. Summarizing all the meaningful contributions on the blackboard.
SAE 3
1. Project method gives students opportunity to develop leadership qualities.

2. Helps students to get in depth study of the topic.
3. Helps to solve the problem of individual differences.
SAE 4
1. Field trip is a teaching method in which the students are taken out of the classroom into
the environment to see the real specimens and also the real-life situation.
Advantages
1. It helps the students to understand man’s relationship with the environment.

2. It motivates the students.
Disadvantages --
1. It is expensive
2. Accidents may occur.
14
1.2. Demonstration and Experimentation in Teaching Biology (5
hrs.)
1.2.1. Demonstration in Biology Teaching

1.2.1.1. Advantages of Demonstration
1.2.1.2. Disadvantages of Demonstration
1.2.1.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Demonstration
1.2.2. Experimentation in Biology Teaching
1.2.2.1. Advantages of Experimentation

1.2.2.2. Disadvantages of Experimentation
1.2.2.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Experimentation
1.2.3. Summary
1.2.4. References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.2.5. Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises
1.2.1. Demonstration in Biology Teaching
Demonstration in biology teaching simply entails a display or an exhibition usually carried out by
the teacher while the students watch. It is mostly used in showing the students correct use of certain
science equipment. Demonstration can be carried out by a single teacher alone or by a student or
group of students.
Certain activities in biology that may require demonstration include: action of iodine on green leaf,
dissection of animal, manipulation of equipment like microscope, action of iodine on cooked
starch. In all these activities, demonstration can be used to illustrate the phenomena to
the students. Most of the activities carried out in our schools today by teachers are through
demonstration lessons. Demonstration can be used to carry out expensive or difficult experiments,
which may expose students to danger. Ability to observe clearly is very important in
demonstration.
15
1.2.1.1. Advantages of Demonstration
1. Demonstration is an inexpensive method of teaching biology since only the

demonstrator needs materials.
2. Secondly damages and breakages of science equipment are likely not to occur due to the
expertise of the teacher.
3. Demonstration helps to reduce hazards in the laboratory e.g the chances of accidents
occurring among students.
4. With demonstration, activities which may be risky or expensive for students can be carried
out effectively.
5. Demonstration can be used to introduce a new lesson to the students. In order words, it
can be regarded as attention inducer because the students will be eager to see and know
what the demonstrator is trying to do.
6. The proficiency displayed by the demonstrator reduces the error or time in carrying out
the experiment
7. A good demonstration facilitates learning by making the learners to be alert and attentive
as the lesson progresses.
8. Demonstration can be used to review experiments which the students have carried out
previously e.g. practical carried out by students in SS 1 and SS2 can be revised in SS3
through the use of demonstration activity.
1.2.1.2. Disadvantages of Demonstration
With demonstration, less scope is covered. Since it takes time for students to get familiar with the
procedure, equipment or materials used for the exercise.
1. In a situation where the class size is very large e.g. up to fifty students; visibility of details
of what the teacher is doing is not assured. This is particularly so in cases where small sized
equipment or objects are used
2. In a situation where students are not completely involved in carrying out the demonstration,
those involved in the learning process may be restricted to a few of them Furthermore, in
16
cases where the demonstration is restricted to the teacher alone, students find it extremely
difficult to acquire manipulative skills
3. Demonstration is also time consuming and does not lead to coverage of the syllabus
4. With demonstration, ability of the students to observe correctly is an important parameter
in achieving success in the learning process.
1.2.1.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Demonstration
Before the lesson commences, the teacher should assemble in advance all the necessary materials
and equipment to be used for the demonstration lesson.
1. The biology teacher should try out the demonstration first to ensure his competence and
the workability of the equipment before carrying it out with the students.
2. Students sitting arrangement should be such that smaller ones in front and tall ones behind.
This arrangement will enable all the students to observe the demonstration clearly.
3. The teacher’s voice is also very important in demonstration; hence he needs to be audible
especially in large classes.
4. Few students could be called upon to repeat the demonstration if time permits.
5. At the end of the demonstration, the key points or the procedure should be written on the
board for students in form of blackboard summary
Self -Assessment Exercise 1
1. What is demonstration?
2. State any two disadvantages of demonstration method
1.2.2. Experimentation in Biology Teaching
Experimentation is a method of learning science concepts not through what the teacher told the
students, but through what involve in the process of investigation, carrying out experiments as well
as other practical activities. Experimentation involves activity-oriented learning. In this case, the
17
emphasis is on doing. Most times, the activities are carried out in the biology laboratory. A
laboratory is a room or building set aside for scientific investigations.
Experimentation is a means of acquiring science process skills such as observation, measuring,

classifying objects or things, defining variable operationally, designing experiments, interpreting
data, hypothesizing, predicting etc. Experiments in biology can be carried out by individual
students or group of students working together. The latter is used when the equipment and
materials needed for the experimentation cannot go round to individual students.
Experimentation is a means by which students acquire meaningful learning of science concepts to

the point of achieving transfer and application of knowledge. Hence it exposes them to acquire
attitudes and skills of a scientist. This method of teaching science has proved to
be one of the most effective ways of learning.
The laboratory work involved in the process of experimentation can be broken down into different
phases since it involves whole class activity. Phase One -Pre-laboratory Session Phase Two -
Laboratory Session Phase Three -Post laboratory session.
Phase One–Pre–Laboratory Session
For a biology teacher to carry out effective experimentation in biology laboratory, careful planning
and proper organization are necessary. To this effect, he needs to assemble in advance all the
equipment and materials for the exercise. Furthermore, he has to ensure that they are
also in good working condition. Subsequently, the experiment is trial tested by carrying it out first
to ensure that the chemicals to be used are still very active and the procedure carefully followed
by the teacher. This pre-laboratory session is very important because it reduces errors
which the teacher may have committed in the actual laboratory session. Also the sitting
arrangements of students are put into consideration as well as the time to spend in carrying out the
investigation.
Phase Two–Laboratory Session
18
During the laboratory session, the teacher will first of all interact with the students by telling them
what to do, the purpose of the experiment, the procedure to be followed in carrying out the
investigation as well as safety measures to be taken to avoid incidence of accident. Thereafter,
while students are now working with their equipment and materials, the teacher’s duty is to be an
overseer. He works round the class to make sure that all the students are following the procedure
carefully. The teacher clarifies any doubt or problem arising from the students and by
so doing gives them adequate encouragement and support in the learning process.
Phase Three–Post Laboratory Session
In this session, the teacher discusses the result of the investigation in order to clarify students
who may be in doubt. He can assign marks to the work done by the students. The teacher can
also summarize the process as well as the result of the investigation in the form of backboard
summary. Finally students are allowed to clean up their tables and wash off equipment before
leaving the laboratory. This is very important especially in cases where there is no laboratory
assistant.
1.2.2.1. Advantages of Experimentation
1. Experimentation enables students to have direct sensory experience of scientific knowledge

e.g. working with living organisms; it enables the learner not only to acquire knowledge but
also to appreciate life.
2. Experimentation fosters opportunities for the acquisition of science process skills e.g.
manipulation, measuring, classifying etc.
3. It helps in the retention of information as the students interact with the scientific process.
4. The uses of experiments help students to develop scientific attitude such as enquiry,
curiosity, carefulness, objectivity, honesty etc.
5. Experimental works help to stimulate and sustain student’s interest in science.
6. It aids students in problem solving and arriving at conclusions.
19
7. It helps to increase student’s ability towards critical thinking and acquisition of better
understanding of scientific knowledge
1.2.2.2. Disadvantages of Experimentation
1. Experimentation in biology teaching is wasteful in terms of resources to be used in carrying

out the investigation unlike demonstration.
2. It is also time consuming in carrying out a single experiment. What the teacher can say in
five minutes may take one hour to investigate.
3. It also exposes the teacher’s ignorance on those areas he is not competent enough to handle.
4. In experimentation, lack of background knowledge about the activities may make students
to dislike the subject
1.2.2.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Experimentation
1. Experiments should be based on students' background and availability of materials.

2. The teacher should ensure that the time frame for the experimentation will be such that
students will be able to achieve results at the end of the time.
3. The language of instruction for any investigation should be very clear and within the child's
chronological age.
4. The teacher should make sure that the equipment for students are in good working condition
and enough materials are available for all the students
1. State 2 advantages of experimental method.

2. Suggest 2 guidelines on the effective use of experimentation in teaching biology.
20
1.2.3. Summary
In this unit, we have learnt that:
1. Demonstration simply means a display or an exhibition usually carried out by the teacher
while the students watch.
2. Demonstration can be used to carry out expensive or difficult experiments which may
expose students to danger.
3. There are some advantages and disadvantages of using demonstration in teaching.
4. There are also some suggestions that may guide a biology teacher on how to use
demonstration as a teaching strategy.
5. Experimentation is a method of learning science through the process of investigation as well
as carrying out practical activities.
6. Experimentation is an activity-oriented teaching method.
7. The laboratory exercise could be broken down into three different phases-pre-laboratory,
laboratory and post-laboratory
8. There are some advantages and disadvantages of experimentation.
9. There are some suggestions that guide a biology teacher in the process of carrying out
experiments.
Ezeife. A. M. (2017). Physics Methods: The Methodology of Physics Teaching. Nsukka:

Enugu University Trust Publishers.
Maduabum. M. A. (2019). Teaching Integrated Science Effectively. Onitsha Space Matrix
Publication.
Abdullahi. A. (2011). Science Teaching in Nigeria Ilorin. Atoto Press Limited.
Thomas M.D., David H. Jonassen (2012) Designing Environments for Constructive
Learning. Springer Publishing Company.
SAE 1
21
1. Demonstration is a display carried out in the classroom or laboratory by the teacher or
group of students to show the correct use of certain science equipment
2. Disadvantages-
1. Students cannot acquire manipulative skills
2. It is time consuming and does not lead to coverage of the syllabus.
1.3. Modern Techniques of Teaching Biology (5 hrs.)
1.3.1. Concept Mapping

1.3.1.1. Advantages of Concept Mapping
1.3.1.2. Disadvantages of Concept Mapping
1.3.1.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Concept Mapping
1.3.2. Constructivism in Biology Teaching
1.3.2.1. Advantages of Constructivism as a Teaching Strategy
1.3.2.2. Disadvantages of Constructivism
1.3.3. Focus Group Discussion
1.3.3.1. Advantages of Focus Group Discussion
1.3.3.2. Disadvantages of Focus Group Discussion
1.3.3.3. Guidelines for the Effective Use of Focus Group Discussion
1.3.4. Use of Analogy in Biology Teaching
1.3.4.1. Advantages on Use of Analogy
1.3.4.2. Disadvantages of Use of Analogy
1.3.5. Summary
22
1.3.1. Concept Mapping
Concept mapping was developed to improve science teaching and learning through more
innovative teaching strategies. Concept mapping was developed by Novak and his
associates at Cornell University in 1992.
Concept mapping simply means a diagrammatic representation of concepts using arrows

to indicate their relationships in order to represent a new knowledge structure.
Concept map may be defined as a schematic device for representing a set of concept meaning
embedded in a framework of preposition (Novak and Godwin in Nzewi). It helps both the teacher
and student to pay attention to the major concepts in any given topic, for example, using the topic
plant cell. The major concepts may include:
1. Cell Wall
2. Protoplasm
3. Cytoplasm
4. Nucleus
5. Vacuole
After listing these major concepts/ideas/works they are then arranged in a hierarchy (i.e. a system
with different grades from lowest to highest). The most general concepts are placed high up in the
hierarchy while the concrete or specific concepts placed below. Then these concepts are
connected with lines or arrows showing relationships. A good concept map resembles a road map.
The construction of concept maps can be regarded as a creative activity. The construction is done
by the teachers bearing in mind his educational objectives at each point in time. According to
Nzewi (2001) for the construction of concept maps, students should be guided by the
following:
a. Note the keywords, phrases or ideas from lessons or text.
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b. Arrange them in a hierarchy
c. Draw circles around the concepts
d. Connect the concepts using arrows or lines
e. Provide examples if possible at the end of each branch.
f. Cross -link hierarchies or branches where possible.
1.3.1.1. Advantages of Concept Mapping
1. Concept mapping helps students to achieve meaningful learning and make teachers to be
highly effective in class instruction.
2. It helps them to highlight key concepts in any topic and link them sequentially.
3. Concept mapping helps to represent knowledge in form of a structure or map.
4. Concept mapping helps in understanding of the subject matter better by laying emphasis
on the major concepts.
5. Concept mapping makes the students to feel very comfortable and stabilize their emotional
state.
6. It has been found to lower student’s anxiety in science classrooms.
7. It can be used to teach any subject or any discipline.
8. Concept mapping creates opportunities for students to be highly creative in the learning
situation by making new connections and patterns of knowledge structure.
9. Concept maps can be used to suggest further exploration while revealing the extent of
knowledge of the individual.
1.3.1.2. Disadvantages of Concept Mapping
1. In construction of concept mapping, previous knowledge of the individual about the

topic affects his representation of the maps.
2. Every map reflects the extent of knowledge of the mapper and the mapper himself.
3. No map is error free. The accuracy of any map depends on the information available
to the mapper
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1.3.1.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Concept Mapping
1. The class teacher should help students to highlight the key concepts of any topic.
2. Concept mapping should be used along with other strategies otherwise students may loose
interest in the learning process.
3. Concept mapping should not be employed for students that are still in their lower classes
because its application may be too difficult for them.
1. What is a concept map?

2. State any two advantages of concept mapping in teaching biology
3. Mention one disadvantage of concept mapping.
1.3.2. Constructivism in Biology Teaching
Constructivism is a kind of learning strategy that lays emphasis on active role of learners in the
process of constructing their own knowledge. In order words, science instruction should be child-
centered and learning should be an interactive process involving both the teacher and the student.
In this case, knowledge is being constructed by the learner in the bid to integrate their experiences
into the existing knowledge structure in their memory.
In constructivism, when a learner is faced with a new task, he tries to reformulate his previous
knowledge, if the task presented is connected to the existing knowledge in the memory. Through
this process, meaningful learning is acquired by the learner.
Constructivist theory maintains that learners come into classrooms with ideas concerning the new
problem. Therefore learning occurs as a result of interaction between the new information in the
learning situation and the experiences gathered as a result of interaction with it. In constructivism,
25
knowledge can be enhanced by instruction but it is not directly applied to instruction. The learner
must engage in actively constructing knowledge onto the already existing mental framework for
meaningful learning to occur. Hence, the child’s individual development is central to instructional
process.
The role of the teacher is to organize information around different kinds of problems in order to
engage student’s interest. In the classroom setting, the students ask questions, carry out
experiments and come up with conclusions on their own. Brooks and Brooks (1993) outlined five
principles of constructivist learning as follows:
1. Posing problems of emerging relevance to students.

2. Structuring learning around primary concepts.
3. Seeking and valuing student’s point of view.
4. Adapting curriculum to address student’s suppositions.
5. Assessing students learning in the context of teaching.
It is therefore very important to note that in constructivism, what the learner already knows is very
crucial. This is because in knowledge construction, the understanding of existing knowledge,
interpretation of existing experiences are very important while the teacher guides students to
propose alternative framework that will promote knowledge construction.
1.3.2.1. Advantages of Constructivism as a Teaching Strategy
 Students are actively involved in the learning process since it is a child centred approach.
 It considers individual differences among learners. The child’s prior ideas as well as their
interest and experiences are usually taken into account while planning and executing
constructivist lessons.
 Gives student the opportunity to develop scientific knowledge, ideas and inquiry process.
 It provides students with opportunities for scientific discussions and debates.
26
 Creates a classroom atmosphere that is filled with cooperation, respect and shared
responsibility among students.
 Helps in the learning of subject matter disciplines in the context of interactive process.
 Helps in assessing students understanding of any topic.
 Few fundamental science concepts are learned at a time instead of coverage of too many
topics as found in lecture method of instruction.
1.3.2.2. Disadvantages of Constructivism
1. It is time consuming since individual students will be given opportunity to express their
ideas.
2. It will not lead to adequate coverage of the syllabus.
3. The use of constructivist approach involves a lot of funds for purchase of materials and
equipment.
1. State any three principles of constructivism.

2. State two advantages of constructivism.
1.3.3. Focus Group Discussion
Focus group discussion is a tool used for collecting qualitative data or information from members
of a group through discussions. Discussion in this case is aimed at eliciting insights and
understanding from the group members. The focus group discussion helps in facilitating an
organized discussion from members of a group.
In focus group discussion, multiple meanings of certain words or concepts in science can be
revealed by different groups. The discussion should be able to evolve new ideas or knowledge.
27
Detailed information about a particular topic in science could be obtained through this method. It
is also very important on studies that involve attitude and feelings of' students.
The information of the group can be based on different characteristics such as age, gender, race,
ability, parental occupation etc. The members of the group should have a common background. In
order words, they should be a homogenous group and also be very comfortable.
Usually a group may comprise five to eight students. In the formation of the group, the teacher or
moderator should ensure that the group of students for which the topic under discussion is meant
for is used in order to elicit correct and proper information. In focus group discussion, the teacher
occupies a key position in the discussion. The teacher directs the discussion without being part of
it i.e. a facilitator of knowledge and not to dominate the discussion. A good teacher tries to keep
the discussion on its track by asking series of open- ended questions. The teacher’s guidance helps
to acquire in-depth qualitative information concerning the student’s feelings, attitudes, interest and
perceptions on the topic discussed. The teacher tries to encourage every student to participate in
the discussion instead of allowing a few to dominate the discussion or favoring a particular student.
During the discussion, the teacher may ask probing questions such as: “give us an example of
what she is saying”, “can you tell us more about that”, “okay go ahead and explain” etc.
In a situation, where the students wander away from the objectives of the discussion, the teacher
tries to return the conversation to the topic under discussion. The teacher also records every useful
comments made by the group as well as individuals.
The role of the teacher not only being highly demanding but also very challenging. The teacher
must possess an attribute of a good listener, and nonjudgmental in character. This will help the
students to have open interactive dialogue about the topic under discussion. There are some
guidelines that will help the teacher in conducting focus group discussion.
28
1. At Preparation Level
This involves taking record of all the things that will be used for the discussion, the number of
students to be involved, venue for the discussion, developing discussion guide as well as the
question to be asked which follow from general questions to specific questions, the amount of time
to be used, choice of an appropriate equipment to be used, topic to be discussed which students
will understand better, the objectives of the discussion, Benches and tables as well as a closed
circuit television may be provided.
2. Members of the Group
This involves selection of the number of students to be involved and the size of each group. The
size may range between five and eight students to enable them provide valuable information.
3. At Discussion Level
At this stage, the teacher introduces the topic to be discussed. The teacher moves round each group,
standing at the back to watch their discussions. The questions placed on the Discussion table should
be in line with the discussion. There may be closed circuit television that records all the activities
taking place or the teacher takes notes. The discussion may last between one hour to one and half
hours.
4. Moderating the Sessions
This is one of the most difficult tasks since inexperienced teachers may not be able to moderate
the session effectively and it becomes a waste of time and resources. It requires having a listening
ability to draw information from students. In the process of moderating the session, the following
should guide the teacher.
Keeps the information flowing- The teacher should have firm control of the discussion and not
allow a situation where students wander away from the topic of discussion. Every student should
be given opportunity to express him or herself.
29
Period of Discussion -This should depend on the topic at hand as well as the objectives to be
achieved.
Teacher Role -The teacher should allow students to do the discussion instead of dominating the
discussion.
Post Discussion Session-The teacher talks to all the students. Mentioning the useful points of the
discussion and using it to form summary of the lesson.
5. Analysis of the Discussion
At this stage, the teacher can review his notes of lesson and highlight key concepts and ideas in
greater detail. This can also be accompanied with video tape if available. Ensure that the key points
were discussed.
1.3.3.1. Advantages of Focus Group Discussion
1 Focus group discussion provides insight into what the student knows and those yet to be
known.
2 It can be used to ascertain student’s needs, experiences and aspirations.
3 Students’ views and ideas can be tackled with focus group discussion.
4 Focus group discussion helps to provide an in-depth knowledge of a topic which cannot be
obtained from the teacher alone.
1.3.3.2. Disadvantages of Focus Group Discussion
1 The data or information generated may be difficult to analyse since it is not structured.
2. Few students who are extroverts may likely dominate the discussion.
3. The quality of the discussion depends greatly on the extent of teacher’s competence in
handling the issues raised in the discussion.
4. If the number of students in a group is too small, they may not actually contribute
meaningfully in the discussion.
5. Although focus group discussion is a powerful strategy in teaching and learning, it may not
be used as the only teaching method for students.
30
6. It is time consuming
1.3.3.3. Guidelines for the Effective Use of Focus Group Discussion
1 The teacher should bear in mind the level of the students, language level and their
chronological age. This will help the teacher in designing the questions for discussion.
2 The general nature of the student~ is also important. Is the group homogenous or
heterogeneous in their ability levels?
3 Focus group discussion requires highly experienced teachers in order to guide the
discussions properly.
4 The size of the group should not be more than eight students. This enables all the students
to participate in the discussion.
5 Create so many groups if the number of students in the class is large.
6 The video, if any, should cover all comments made by the various groups.
1. Explain how you can organize a focus group discussion for your students.
2. Mention any two advantages of using focus group discussion in teaching biology.
6.3.4. Use of Analogy in Biology Teaching
Analogies are important thinking tools used as a teaching strategy that helps the teacher to relate
the old ideas we already know to new ones we are yet to know. It can simply be referred to as
similarity i.e. establishment of similarity between certain dissimilar things.
According to Glynn (1991), analogies are comparisms between something that is familiar to
students (the base) and an unfamiliar things in science in which teachers want the students to
acquire (the target). Furthermore Rigas and Valanides (2003) stated that analogies are
representations that people use in order to understand new information or concepts. It involves
matching new ideas with the old ones already stored in the memory.
31
The use of analogy has been found to be very effective in teaching students in that it aids
motivation and visualization of difficult concepts in biology. Analogy plays a vital role in scientific
explanation of concepts and discovery of new ideas in science.
Science teachers at times use analogy consciously or unconsciously during explanations.

Whichever is the case, the teacher should ensure correct application of it to avoid misconceptions
that may arise from it. This can be observed when explanations are being made or reacting to
students questions especially when such words like “Is the same as”, “what you think is not
different from”, “Just like” On the other hand, textbook writers may also use such expression as
“in contrast with”, similarly, “in comparism with”, likewise. All these expressions quickly suggest
making an analogy with some other thing.
The teacher should guide the students on their use of analogy. The students may list all the things
that are related to the concept. It is therefore necessary to sequence analogy so that students will
be able to use them at each stage of the lesson. According to Nzewi (2001) there are different
forms from which a teacher can draw analogy.
1. Teacher based analogy.

2. Text based analogy.
3. Environmental based analogy.
Secondly, analogy can be drawn from student’s cultural background and it is usually more
meaningful to them. Familiar analogies are better understood and easily transferred than the
abstract ones. Glynn, Law, Gibson & Hewkins (2006) identified six basic operations in
teaching with analogy.
 Introduce target concept
 Recall of analogy concept
 Identify relevant features of target and analogy
 Map similarities
 Indicate where analogy breaks down Draw
32
 Conclusion
Also Nzewi (2001) identified certain factors for teachers’ use of analogy in Nigerian classrooms.
1. Use analogies drawn from student’s environment that also are familiar to students.
2. Engage students in the formation of analogy.
3. Use discussion to guide the students on use of analogy.
4. Differentiate between the target and the source of the learning.
5. Sequence analogy for easy application
A typical example of analogy is circulation of water aquarium (circuit) and electric circuit.
Water Aquarium--------Electric Circuit
Water---------------------Electricity
Flowing water-----------Electric current
Pipes----------------------Wires
Pump----------------------Battery
Pressure-------------------Voltage
Filter-----------------------Poor conductor
Reduce flow------- ------Resistance
Source: Glynn, Law, Gibson & Hawkins (2014)
Secondly, process of burning is analogy of respiration, the arrangement of grapes and their stems
is similar to the arrangement of alveoli and bronchial tubes in the lungs, the functions of the various
part in a school system is similar to the functions of some cell parts.
1.3.4.1. Advantages on Use of Analogy
1. Analogy enables information (knowledge) to be transferred from familiar based to

unfamiliar target.
2. Analogy can be used to introduce new lesson
3. The use of analogy helps to increase students’ imaginative abilities thereby enhancing
their understanding of the concept
33
4. Analogy helps to provide motivational support for learning
5. It helps student to generate new ideas
6. It also aids in transfer and application of knowledge
7. The base as well as the target is all examples of larger knowledge structure.
8. Analogy helps students to retrieve information stored in the memory thereby enhancing
retention of information
9. Analogy helps in making the understanding of concept much clearer.
1.3.4.2. Disadvantages of Use of Analogy
1 The use of analogy requires a lot of carefulness otherwise it becomes a waste of time
2 In some situations, it is very difficult for students to provide the analogy required for the
concept
3 It is not in every situation that is possible to provide a good analogy.
1. What do you understand by analogy in biology teaching?

2. Mention one advantage and one disadvantage of use of analogy in science teaching.
3.3.5. Summary

1. Concept mapping is a schematic device for representing a set of concepts, embedded in a
framework of preposition.
2. There are some advantages and disadvantages of the use of concept mapping as a teaching
strategy
3. There are also certain suggestions made to guide the teacher on the use of concept mapping
4. Constructivism is a kind of learning strategy that lays emphasis on active role of learners in
the process of constructing their own knowledge
5. There are some advantages and disadvantages on the use of constructivism-based learning
strategy
34
6. Focus group discussion is a tool used for collecting information from members of a group
through discussions
7. There are some guidelines that will help the biology teacher in conducting focus group
discussion
8. There are some advantages and disadvantages of focus group discussion.
9. Analogy is a teaching strategy that helps the teacher to relate the old ideas we already know
to new ones we are yet to know.
10. There are some advantages and disadvantages on the use of analogy in teaching biology
Thomas M.D., David H. Jonassen (2012) Designing Environments for Constructive Learning.
Springer Publishing Company.
Diana Laurrillard (2013). Rethinking University Teaching: A conventional Framework for the
Effective use of Learning Technologies, Oxon; Routledge Falmer Publisher.
Glynn, S. N, Law M., Gibson, N. M., Hawkins, C. H. (2014). Teaching Science with Analogies:
A Resource for Teachers and Textbook Authors.
Else, M. J., Ramirez, M. A., Clement, John (2016). When are Analogies the Right Tool? A Look
at the Strategic Use of Analogies in Teaching Cellular Respiration to Middle-School
Student.
SAE 1
Concept mapping is a diagrammatic representation of a concept using arrows to indicate their
relationship in order to recreate new knowledge.
Advantages:
1. It highlights key concepts in any topic and links them sequentially.

2. It improves understanding by laying emphasis on the major concepts.
Disadvantages –
1. Every map reflects the extent of knowledge of the Mapper
35
SAE 2
Three principles of constructivism –

1. It structures learning around primary contents
2. Seeking and valuing students’ viewpoints
3. Assessing students learning in the context of teaching
Advantages-
1. Helps in assessing students understanding of any topic.
2. Students are actively involved since it is a child-centered learning approach.
SAE 3
To organize a focus group discussion the following must be provided/stated
 the number of students to be involved
 venue for the discussion
 questions to be asked
 time to be used
 topic to discuss
 objectives of the discussion
 appropriate equipment
Advantages –
1. It provides insight into what the students know and those yet to be known.
2. It is useful in ascertaining students’ aspirations, needs and experiences.
SAE 4
Analogy is establishing similarity between dissimilar objects.

Using objects that are familiar to compare unfamiliar ones that the teacher wants the students to
learn.
36
Advantage - It can be used to introduce new topics.
Disadvantage – It can be very difficult for students to provide the analogy for some concepts.
37
Unit Two: Instructional Materials & Resources in Teaching
Biology (10 Hrs. )

Unit Introduction
The unit introduces instructional materials and resources used in the process of teaching and
learning biology lessons and their applications at various levels and forms. In this unit, the students
interact with the instructional materials or all materials that are designed for use by students and
their teachers as a learning resource and that support students to acquire facts, skills or opinions or
to develop cognitive processes.
Unit Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, the students will be able to:
 Define instructional materials and resources in teaching biology
  List types of teaching aids and their importance
 Describe biological laboratory safety rules, apparatus and activities
 Exercise micro-teachings using instructional materials and resources
 Use microscopes, lab apparatus and demonstrate teaching biology
 Construct some homemade or improvised lab apparatus
Unit Outline
The unit subdivides into 2 sections listed in the box below.
2.1 Instructional materials and resources in teaching biology (5 hrs.)

2.2 Microscopy and uses of apparatus in teaching biology (5 hrs.)
2.1 Instructional Materials and Resources in Biology Lessons
2.1.1 Instructional Materials
Instructional materials are all materials designed for uses by students and teachers as learning tools
to acquire facts, skills or opinions and develop the cognitive processes of students. Instructional
materials include instructional and learning theories with terminologies used in teaching the
prescribed curricula that could be printed or none printed and may embrace teaching materials,
textbooks, technology based materials, other educational materials and tests.
38
Instructional theory is an explicit guidance on how to better help students learn, develop focus
on how to structure materials for promoting the education of human beings. In biology education,
it is based on a number of teaching and learning applications like discovery, hands-on, experiential,
collaborative, project-based and task-based learning. Instructional theories differ from learning
theories in which learning theory describes how learning takes place whereas an instructional
theory prescribes how to better help students learn.
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed
and retained during learning.
1. What are instructional materials, instructional and learning theories?


2. How do you relate instructional material to teaching biology?
Learning style theory refers to the different ways of learning of individuals that includes four
distinct styles called feeling, watching, thinking and doing. The average student learning style in
isolation performs significantly less well than those learning with collaboration and mediation
(through talk, discussion and argumentation).
Can you explain the difference between learning theory and learning style?

John Amos Comenius (1896), the Czech Educator, emphasized that science instruction must move
from words to things in order to teach useful knowledge and stressed learning by doing must be
practiced largely (Figure 2.1).
39
Figure 2.1 Learning by doing and prompt feedback
Photo by Sutuma Edessa (Harar, 2013)
The general theoretical stances of learning contain the conceptual understanding and terms used
to describe styles and learning theories.
Behaviorism is a learning theory based on a change in knowledge through controlled stimulus or

response conditioning or learning is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.
Cognitive learning theory is the theory through which humans generate knowledge and meaning
by sequential development of an individual’s cognitive abilities such as the mental processes to
recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand and evaluate.
Humanism as a learning theory is based on human generation of knowledge, meaning and

ultimately expertise through interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. Human its emphasize the
importance of self-knowledge and relationships in the learning process of self-directed learning
that need motivated and adaptive learning. The learning goal of humanism is to become self-
actualized with intrinsic motivation toward accomplishment and to be able to adapt prior
knowledge to new experience. Acquisition, development and integration of knowledge occur
through the strategy of personal interpretation, evaluation, reasoning and decision-making.
40
Constructivism is a theory to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when
information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed by experiences.
Those who advocate constructivism believe that a learner's ability to learn relies to a large extent
on what is already known, understood and that the acquisition of knowledge should be an
individually tailored process of construction.
Transformative learning is to explain how humans revise and reinterpret meanings. It is the
cognitive process of effecting change in a frame of reference, which defines our view of the world
(emotions are often involved). Transformative learning takes place by discussing with others in
support of competing interpretations by critically examining evidence, arguments and alternative
points of view. When circumstances permit, transformative learners move toward a frame of
reference that is more inclusive, discriminating, self-reflective and integrative of experience.
Remember that adults have a tendency to reject any ideas that do not correspond to their particular
values, associations and concepts.
Multiple intelligences theory believes that different kinds of intelligences exist among human
beings based on the result of continuous assessment development in training teachers. Studies are
beginning to support the theory of multiple intelligences where learning is seen as the interaction
between dozens of different functional areas in the brain, each with their own individual strengths
and weaknesses in any particular human learner.
Activity: describe and align these terms in teaching biology
Behaviorism Multiple intelligence

 Cognitive theory Neuroscience theory
Constructivism Humanism theory
Transformative learning
Educational neuroscience theory studies the link of understanding of brain processes with
classroom instruction and experiences. It seeks to analyze the biological changes that take place in
the brain as new information is processed and looks at what the environmental, emotional and
social situations are best for new information to be retained, stored in the brain and to reabsorb
lost information.
41
Feedback
 Behaviorism theory is the acquisition of a new behavior through conditioning.
Cognitive theory tells us that humans generate knowledge and meaning by
sequential development of mental abilities to recognize, recall, analyze,
reflect, apply, create, understand and evaluate.
Constructivism is a theory to explain how knowledge is constructed in the
human being through interpersonal and intrapersonal learning.
Transformative learning theory describes how humans revise and
reinterpret meanings.
Multiple intelligences theory deals with the existence of different
intelligences or talented individuals among learners.
Neuroscience learning theory is linking brain understanding with
classroom instruction
2.1.1.1 Terminologies Used in Instructional Materials
In the application of instructional materials, instructional and learning theories, candidates require
some terms that teachers often use to describe the educational development and career proficiency.
1. Andragogy (Greek, andro = man, ago = to lead)was developed into a theory of adult
education and learning strategies that focuses on educational development with a mentor
who encourages, enables the mature learner by providing access to appropriate resources
and refrains from obtrusive interference.
2. Diaskagogy (Greek: entertainer): a pre-school education that focuses on schema building
or caregiver who observes, measures and modifies behavioral change in specified direction.
The teacher-student relationship of the scenario is entertainment, which could be described
as learning by playing pre-school education.
3. Heutagogy: (Irregular Greek: heurista = to discover) is the study of self-determined
learning. It means to discover, invent, find out and lead learning strategies focused on
42
maturity where a facilitator (teacher) enables quested learning to modify the existing
knowledge and creation of new knowledge.
4. Pedagogy (Greek: pedagogue, ped = child) literally means to lead the child where a
teacher develops conceptual knowledge and manages the content of learning activities or
child education.
Education improves the quality of life and empowers people to solve all kinds of social and
environmental problems and spread values in official and hidden curricula. Through time, certain
individuals had contributed precious and countless values to education and transformed and
brought it to the current science and technology development view of the world. Accordingly, the
following educators have invested intellectual values and deposited lifelong assets to humans.
2.1.1.2 The Contribution of Educators in Developing Instructional Materials
1. Socrates (470–399 BC) introduced methods where a problem is broken down into a series
of questions and answers. The approach is strongly felt today in the use of the scientific
method where hypothesis is the first stage of problem solving.
2. Aristotle (384-322 BC) postulated experience as the source of knowledge and believed
that knowledge is gained through experiencing the environment. He believed that
knowledge is an associative and the meaning of one idea will trigger to recall of the other,
which is a prelude to sequential learning and schema development.
3. Plato (428-348 BC) believed that students learn about ideas through reasoning. He taught
about a mental discipline and believed that if we exercise our mind, it would strengthen
touted rigor.
4. John Locke (1632-1704) believed that skills and knowledge are acquired through example
and practice. Exhaustive drills are not required for children to memorize rules or principles
and desirable behaviors are learned by unconsciously imitating the manners of role models.
5. Etienne B. de C. (1715-1780) developed the doctrine of Essays and Treatise reigned in

the schools of France for over 50 years. It is an extensive course of study emphasizing the
importance of using the senses to increase learning.
43
6. John Dewey (1859 -1952) argued to make education the most effective one and the content
to be presented in a way that allows the students to relate the information to prior
experiences and deepening the connection with the new knowledge.
7. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) explored changes in internal cognitive structure as well as

recognizing the contribution of environment to learning. He identified four stages of mental
growth (sensory motor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational).
8. Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999) made contributions to the classification of educational
objectives, the theory of mastery-learning and developed taxonomy of educational
objectives as one of the first modern codifications of learning processes.
9. Malcolm S. Knowles (1913-1997) introduced the instructional theory called and ragogy
and developed courses using the andragogical model.
Instructional materials are considered to be forms of communication and delivered in a manner

that is equally effective for persons with disabilities. The effectiveness of communications in
instructional materials implementations is measured when they are comparable in quality to those
received by students without disabilities in timeliness of delivery, availability, appropriate to the
significance of the outcome and the abilities of learners on receiving the material.
 As a teacher, what new instructional materials can you

contribute to the development of biology education?
Instructional materials should specifically address:

1. Timely renovation and adoption,
2. Alignment of academic concepts to create and use technology based resources and
3. Early identification of students with disabilities to modify instructional materials in order
to meet their need.
Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization,

management, evaluation of processes and resources for learning based on syllabi contents.
Technology based materials are basic or supplemental instructional materials that are designed for
use by learners and teachers in which electronic equipment are used as a learning resource. They
are not limited to, but include software programs, video disks, compact disks, optical disks, video
44
and audio tapes, lesson plans and data bases used in teaching biology lessons connected to pertinent
destinations. Connectivism is a recent theory of network, which focuses on learning as making
connections to all required destinations.
Can you explain how to use instructional and educational technologies in


biology classrooms teaching practices?
Educational technology is the study of ethical practices to facilitate learning and improve
performances by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources
including other systems used in the process of developing human capability. It is a growing field
of study which uses technology as a means of solving educational challenges, both in the classroom
and in distance learning environments.
To sum up, instructional materials are those materials aligned with the academic content standards
and recognized through review processes outlined by concerned educational organizations for uses
in the classrooms while instructional technology covers processes, systems of learning and
instruction.
2.1.2 Instructional Resources in Teaching Biology
Instructional resources are educational inputs of vital importance to the teaching of any subject in
the school curriculum. The proper use of instructional resources would help to discover facts glued
firmly to the memory of students. Well-planned and imaginative resources should do much to
banish apathy, inadequacy and attract the interest of students by giving them something practical
to see and do.
At the same time, instructional resources help to train students to think things out in selection of
materials related to the basic contents of biology lessons and supports in-depth understanding the
concept of biology.
As a teacher who is ready to embark to teach a biology lesson topic “The


human heart”, what type of teaching resources do you plan and use?
45
Instructional resources include teaching aids that are most commonly accepted in teaching and
tools required to run and supplement a classroom, laboratory or experimental centers and learning
processes. Teaching aids (including sensory aids) are well-known resources used to embark on
and make teaching and learning concrete, effective and interesting. Good teaching aids make the
lesson attractive to the students, motivate them to learn and thereby arrest their attention too.
Teaching aids are classified into:
1. Direct sensory contact: real objects and models,

2. Pictures and charts: printed or drawn matters and
3. Oral or printed words: scenery expressions written.
Direct sensory contact aids, pictures and charts or printed words are the most useful resources that
supplement in teaching biology lessons. Teaching aids enhance to create conducive teaching and
learning environment when applied properly on time. In view of that practical uses of teaching
aids in biology lessons contribute the following advantages.
1. Teaching aids help the teacher to get the attention of her/his students,
2. They help in creating the interest of students in the topic and activate the mental process
of students,
3. The students get firsthand experience in visualizing some concrete things, living specimen
and actual demonstration or experimental works,
4. Teaching aids help to have a clear conception of ideas, information, facts and principles,
5. Teaching aids help students in understanding some complicated and difficult concepts,
6. They provide an opportunity for a change in the monotonous atmosphere that prevails in
a classroom and
7. Help students to develop a scientific attitude and training in scientific method.
2.1.2.1. Types of Teaching Aids
The concept of teaching aids has five types that one could apply in teaching biology. They are:
1. Visual aids, 4. Activity aids
2. Aural aids, 5. Memory aid
3. Audiovisual aids and
46
Visual aids are teaching aids are display boards, charts, pictures and models that can be
escalate conceptual understanding by seeing. A display board is any flat surface that can be
used to write information to be communicated and includes black boards, chalk board, flannel
boards, bulletin boards, magnetic boards or vision visualizer etc. Visual aids integrate audio-
visual techniques that influence the curiosity and recollection of information by students
learning biology and make the best stage of learning and teaching process if effectively used.
A teacher may bring a chart or draw a neat diagram on the board, but effective learning still
misses out if the necessary multimedia is not present if the necessary multimedia is not present.
Using multimedia teaching aids give the students a better learning experience as they can view
the real phenomena and processes in an animated format so that teachers can annotate and
apply interactive whiteboards.
A vision visualizer is a type of video camera or document camera (visual presenter) used to
display text, objects on display devices such as interactive whiteboards, plasma screens and
touch screens. It is clear that all the teaching solutions including visualizers, interactive
whiteboards, student response systems and projectors play an equally important role in
educating students.
Figure 2.2Visual aids usable in teaching biology

At the very first glance, you will feel the difference that a vision-visualizerhas the ability to
revive the whole spirit of classroom teaching and can help in grooming students in a much
better way if compared to conventional ways of teaching and learning. The best part is that
47
vision visualizers are extremely useful in visualizing the subject matter, improving their
logical abilities and understanding of biology lessons.
Activity
 Prepare a complete human heart model to be used as a teaching aid in biology
Advantages of vision visualizers:

1. Vision visualizers help to display artifacts and objects of biology topics in close details.
2. Interoperability is the key feature of vision visualizers as they could be used in
conjunction with data projectors, personal computers and interactive whiteboards.
3. Visual presenters help in reviewing and evaluating student’s work by projecting it on a
screen or whiteboard for group discussions or general comments.
4. Image freeze, zooming and positive and negative conversion is also possible with vision
visualizers.
5. Vision visualizers create wonders in demonstrating art techniques such as color mixing,
object or paper cutting, brushwork and shading art usable for biology class.
6. Teachers can annotate images shown on screens or boards, zoom in and out, get
different views and angles and capture still shots with the help of the visual aids in
teaching biology.
7. All biology and many difficult subject topics can be taught easily and in more depth
with the help of visual aids.
Aural aids are broadcast talks, gramophone lectures and tape recordings, which are used for
special needs in the situation where conditions require to use in any teaching process.
Audiovisual aids are the uses of two of our senses that are “hearing and seeing” and classified
as Televisions and optical aids or magic lanterns (glass slide projectors) used to grasp abstract
facts. Epidiascope is a more costly optical instrument used to project opaque as well as
transparent objects that include film projectors, micro-projectors and film strip projectors.
Activity aids are science museum, nature study garden and science fairs that could be helpful
to show the students in relation to the lesson taught.
Memory aids are activities (short dramas, acts, demonstrations, discussions, report
presentation etc.) or tools that support to build the retention or recalling capacity of students.
48
Feedback
Teaching models (aids) that represent the real object can be prepared in schools

using available materials from the surrounding. To make a model of human heart,
find clay soil, mix up with water and some sands and keep it under mulch for
about 5 days to make it pottery mud. Then, find a model of human heart already
made by someone or fabricated that could help you to shape out the model you
need. Make a model of human heart from the pottery mud and let it to get dry.
Finally, paint it with the right color to resemble human heart.
2.1.3 Principles of Using Instructional Materials in Teaching Biology
Principles of using instructional materials and resources describe ground rules on how to
implement and what to use in teaching biology lessons. It deals with how to design and steps
of using the instructional materials and resources in teaching biology lessons.
Principles of using instructional materials and resources describe:
1. Planning, preparation and practical use of instructional materials for biology lessons,
2. Designing relevant instructional resources and applications in teaching biology,
3. Setting classrooms, adequate textbooks and related materials and
4. Preparation and uses of pertinent assessment and evaluation of performances of
learners
Activity: group discussion

Instruction: Be sure that some of the group leaders are female trainees
1. Composition of teaching aids.
 2. Steps of employing teaching aids.
3. How to make a teaching aids relevant to the lesson topic?
2.1.3.1. Principles of using teaching aids and resources
The principle of using teaching aids in teaching biology deal with proper applications and
preferences of the type of the teaching relevant to the lesson topic to be taught and its effective
systems connotation.
The principle of using teaching aids and resources should addresses:
49
1. Teaching aids should be woven with classroom teaching and should be used to support
the oral and written work being done in the class,
2. While making use of a teaching aid, an effort should be made so that the teaching aids
being used in any class are in conformity with the intellectual level of the students and
in accordance with their experiences,
3. Teaching aids that provide stimulus to the students for greater thinking and activity are
due to be preferred,
4. In biology lessons, actual specimen are preferred for lab, photograph or slide,
5. The teaching aids to be used should be exact, accurate and real as far as practicable,
6. The teacher should use teaching aids only when he/she is quite sure of handling about
the apparatus (operating) for embarking the teaching process,
7. Teaching aids to be used should be relevant to the topic and closer to students’
experiences,
8. The teacher should use teaching aids only after a proper planning so that the aids are
used exactly at the point where it best fits during the process of teaching,
9. Teachers should carry out occasional evaluation of the use, function and effectiveness
of teaching aids on the learning process in order to renovate or improve the quality as
well as the quantity timely and
10. Teachers must select the best teaching aids, catalogue and store properly for further
uses through renovations.
Feedbacks
Teaching aids are materials that supplement the process of teaching and learning
process. Teaching aids could be visual, aural, audio-visual and activity or the

like. Teaching aids are presented aligned with lesson presentation steps in the
form of discussion and demonstration simultaneously.
2.1.4 Construction and Innovation of Instructional Materials
Construction and innovation of instructional materials is preparation of all required teaching

materials and resources to embark teaching. It deals with lesson planning, teaching aids
designing, preparations of reading materials, consistency and timely innovation to the required
levels and standards.
50
2.1.4.1 Lesson Plan Construction
A lesson is a structured period of time where learning is intended to occur that involves one or
more students (learners) being taught by a teacher. It may be either one section of a textbook
or more frequently a short period of time during which learners are taught about a particular
subject on how to perform a particular activity. Lessons are generally taught in a classroom,
but may instead take place in a situated environment. In a wider sense, a lesson is an insight
gained by a learner into previously unfamiliar subject matter that can be planned or accidental,
enjoyable or painful.
Lesson planning is a teacher’s detailed description of the subject or course of instruction for
one class to teach specific topic of a lesson. It is being ready to embark on the topic with
confidence up on understanding and preparing to carry out it to the level of a workable
conclusion.
Lesson planning requires a rewarding hard work so that teachers have to value their works as
the lesson proceeds, equally be aware of failure and success and get preparedness to learn from
the experiences. Lesson planning consists of both the subject matter and methodology of its
delivery to students, a key to effective teaching so that the teacher is expected to know in
advance biology and mode of its delivery in the classroom. This gives the teacher an idea of
how to develop a lesson plan using key concepts of the lessons, how to correlate them to real
life situation and how to conclude the lessons. In lesson planning, teachers decide the time
allotted for a unit and breakdown each unit into a number of lessons and each lesson complete
itself.
 What is lesson planning?
The lesson planner has to foresee the difficulties that likely arise and prepare to deal with all
perspectives of lesson delivery. Biology subject units are related learning segment of textbooks
or a large chunk that are made up of lessons to be actually executed in the classroom within the
time ranges of 3 to 6 weeks.
Activity
1. Discuss the composition of a lesson plan.
 2. List types of lesson plans in accordance with time sequence.
A biology lesson delivery method ranges from a lecture to a demonstration, laboratory works,
experiments, investigations, discussion or a blend of some of these common presentations.
51
Some lessons delivery may involve works by both female and male students including
scientific problem solving, research works or creating something tools and apparatus used as
teaching aids.
The potential format and structure of a lesson plan is dependent upon factors such as culture,
learning objectives, timely revised format and style of the individual teacher. A lesson plan
designing should deal with specific, measurable, achievable and relevant and time bounded
objectives that incorporated applicable teaching materials that support to embark on teaching
biology lessons accurately. Most commonly, lesson plans in our curricula are designed and
budgeted for lesson delivery periods stated in time sequences.
Feedback: Constituents of a lesson plan

1. Lesson title,
 2. Time required to complete the lesson,
3. List of required materials,
4. List of outcomes (what learners able to do on lesson completion),
5. Set of skills and concepts that lead in or bridge in to focused on the
lessons,
6. Instructional components (sequences of events to make up the lesson),
7. Independent practice that allows students to extend skills on their own,
8. A summary where the teacher wraps up discussion and answering
questions,
9. An evaluation component (questions to check mastery of instructed
skills),
10. Analysis used by the teacher to reflect on what is worked and what is
needed to improve and
11. A continuity of reviews of components, consistency to reflect and
improve.
Time budgeted lesson plan types are:
 Daily lesson Plan is planned for a topic to be covered within a day,
 Weekly lesson plan is planned to cover portions of the week,
 Monthly lesson plan is planned to cover portions designed for a month,
 Semester lesson plan is planned to cover portions designed for the whole
semester and
 Annual lesson plan is planned to cover portions of the whole year.
A daily lesson plan is developed by the teacher to guide class instruction although the details
vary depending up on lesson topics, preference of the teacher, portions to be covered and the
need or curiosity of students. Lesson planning and employing in biology teaching provides the
following advantages.
1. Makes the work regular, organized and more systematic.
52
2. Induces confidence in the teacher and makes teachers quite conscious of the aim.
3. Saves a lot of time.
4. Makes correlations between the concepts with the students’ environment.
5. Stimulates the teacher to ask striking questions.
6. Provides more freedom in teaching.
Activity: Discuss and workout

Instruction: Some of the group leaders will be female trainees

1. Design two daily lesson plans on different topics to teach biology lessons.
2. Assess the lesson delivery in relation to the understanding of your students.
3. Describe major points missed in both of your lesson plans.
4. Plan what and how to improve.
A well-developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students and incorporates
best practices for the field of biology. In biology lesson delivery, the following sequential
steps of teaching procedures are inescapable.
1. Objective: anticipated outcomes of learning to be fulfilled.
2. Content: biology lessons to be covered within the prescribed time.
3. Method: the most appropriate strategy of lesson delivery chosen and made suitable to
teach biology lessons with relevant teaching aids and supplementary materials.
4. Evaluation: assessments to find out to which extents designed objectives are achieved.
53
Feedback: A template topic lesson plan
 Teacher’s name: xx School:xx

Subject: Biology Date of lesson:13.08.13
No. of students: Male20Female23Total43 Grade: 9
Lesson topic: The parts of a plant
Specific objectives: at the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
1.List and label the parts of a plant on a diagram
2.Demonstrate and discuss the parts of the plant using a live plant
3.Describe the functions of each part of the plant
Teacher’s activities Time in Students’ activities
minutes
Introduction: Motivates, Brainstorm ideas on parts of a plant and
brainstorms and introduces the 3 take notes
lesson on the parts of a plant
Presentation: Explains and Discuss, demonstrate, list the parts of
discusses the function of each a plant and describe the functions
part and demonstrates using 27 of each part
the live plant
Recapitulation: summarizes Answer, ask questions for clarity
main concepts and points 5 and understanding and discuss
Evaluation: Asks oral question Answer questions, demonstrate
on part of a typical plant in 5 each part of the plant, describe
relation to designed lesson its function and take notes on the
objectives result of discussion
Instructional resources: A live plant specimen and diagram with all parts,
chalk, duster etc.
Assessment questions to be used:
1. List and label the parts of a plant
2. Demonstrate the parts of the plant in groups and discuss their functions
Mode of lesson delivery of teaching biology should focus on:

1. Introduction: Motivation, review question and introduction of the new lesson.
2. Presentation: Lecture-demonstration, discussion, experiment and association.
3. Recapitulation: Generalization, questioning, discussion, investigation and expression.
4. Assessment: Discussions targeting objectives and checking what students learned.
The school may provide teachers with expired lesson plans or textbooks and limited choice of
resources so that teachers must take great care and use the timely renovated and standardized
lessons plans and recently revised textbooks in accordance with given curricula. Teachers must
watch for cues that students are becoming confused, bored or restless due to inappropriate
designing of lessons so that lesson plans have to be manageable within the time budget, short
and precise.
54
2.2 Microscopy and Uses of Apparatus in Teaching Biology
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view samples and objects that cannot
be seen with the unaided eye. The invention of a simple microscope by a Dutchman named
Leeuwenhoek, which viewed hitherto unknown microorganisms, was the beginning of the
history of microscopy.
Consequently, the use of microscopes in biology found out the existence of microscopic
organisms, which enabled biologists to identify unique organisms like Euglena that have both
plant and animal characteristics.
It is the development of microscopy that enabled biologists to identify various microscopic
organisms and cells, classify organisms and illustrates yet obscured mystery of living
organisms and life. Various types of microscopes are commonly in use for various purposes
and functions that provide advantages in mastery of training students in biology and related
lessons like the oral microbial works.
Most microorganisms are too small to be visible to the unaided eye so that variety of apparatus
specifically microscopes are needed to observe objects in teaching biology.
The development of technology in biological sciences emerged with three developmental levels
of microscopes.
They are:
1. Simple microscope
2. Compound microscope
3. Electron microscope
A simple microscope composes of only one

magnifying lens can enlarge the size of an object
500 times (Figure 2.3). It is can be often compared
with a hand lens (a simple magnifying glass that
helps to observe very small organisms or objects)
but a simple microscope has a base to stand on.
Figure 2.3 a simple microscope
55
A compound microscope is a microscope consisting of more than one optical lens (Figure
2.4). All lenses magnify, separate objects and show fine images. The magnifying power of a
compound microscope of an object is more than 2000 times of its original size.
An electron microscope is the highest technological device in the field of microscopy (Figure
2.5). The microscope is capable to magnify objects more than 500,000 times of its original size.
Objects that could not be seen by a simple and compound microscopes could be observed under
the electron microscope easily.
In the search for information about the structure and composition of cells, biologists have to
solve two limitations like the exceedingly small dimensions of objects, their component parts
and the transparent nature of objects. The diameter of the majority of cells falls within a range
of 0.2 and 50 μ m and human eyes have limited resolution power to distinguish.
The ability of an observational instrument such as a human eye or a microscope to reveal details
of structure of objects is expressed in terms of limit of resolutions.
Key to the parts

A = Eyepiece
B = Arm
C = Stage
D = ocular lens
E = Diaphragm lever
F = Objective lenses
G = Stage clips
H = Course focus
adjustment
I = Light source
J = Base
K= Fine focus adjustment
Figure 2.4 Compound microscope
Activity: Discuss and write short notes

 1. What is microscopy and who was the first person to invent a microscope?
2. List and discuss the categories of microscopes and their ability of resolutions.
3. What is the difference between compound microscope and electron microscope?
56
Resolution is the smallest distance that may separate two points on an object and still permit
their observations as distinct separate
points. The unaided human eye under
optimal conditions in green light (most
sensitive) cannot distinguish between
points less than about 0.1 mm or 100μ m
apart.
Structural details of smaller objects than
this point (cells) are unsolved unless
some instruments capable of higher
resolutions of magnifying glasses
(electron microscopes) are used.
Figure 2.5 Electron microscope
In microscopy, among various types of light microscopes in use for various resolutions
throughout the world, the followings were taken for discussions.
Bright-field microscope is the most widely used optical microscope that requires the least
amount of training to use and which can produce a useful magnification of 1000x. A greater
magnification than 1000x gives a fuzzy image because of a physical phenomenon known as
resolution or resolving power. Resolution is the ability of an instrument to optically separate
two very close objects in the field so that they can be distinguished individually and not as a
single object.
Dark-field microscope is a useful instrument for examining unstained living microorganisms

suspended in fluid preparation. Any specimen in a dark field appears bright and self-luminous
against a black background.
Interface microscope converts small differences in optical path length, indices of refraction
and qualities that cause rotation of light in different parts of the specimen into differences in
brightness and color. All lights entering the interface microscope are polarized by a filter
located under the condenser.
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Phase contrast microscopes are advanced students or research grade designs, which contain
optical components that change phase differences into different brightness and provide contrast
without staining. It is the most common instrument for studying unstained living cell. Our eyes
cannot detect phase shift, but the phase microscope contains optical components that change
phase differences into differences in brightness. To effect this change, an annular phase ring
is placed in the optical system below or between elements of the condenser and a matching
phase shifting element is placed at the rear focal plane of each objective. In phase contrast
microscope, bright contrast in which the object appears as a bright image against a darkened
background and a dark contrast is in which the object appears dark against the lighter
surrounding.
Fluorescence microscopy is important in biology due to its easiness to use and a remarkable
degree of specificity that can visualize by linking a fluorescence dye to an antibody, which is
raised against a particular macromolecule of interest. Fluorescence is a phenomenon, which
occurs in substances that can absorb a quantum of light at one wavelength and after a brief
delay reemit of a quantum of light of longer wavelength.
A number of biological molecules like the chlorophyll in algal chloroplasts auto-fluoresce red
when excited by the appropriate filters in a fluorescence microscope. Fluorescent microscopes
have lamps (mercury or tungsten halogen) that emit strongly at the short end of the visible
spectrum. In general optical and electron microscopy involving diffraction, reflection or
refraction of electromagnetic radiation or electron beams interacting with the specimen and
the subsequent collection of this scattered radiation is made in order to create an image.
Scanning probe microscopy involves the interaction of a scanning probe with the surface of
the object of interest. The most common way to increase contrast is to stain the different
structures with selective dyes, but this often involves killing and fixing the sample. Staining
may also introduce artifacts and apparent structural details that are caused by the processing of
the specimen and are thus not a legitimate feature of the specimen.
Feedback
Microscopy is the study of microscopes, their parts, function and operations.

It also deals with measuring the magnification capacity that helps to identify
objects observed. The first microscope was invented by A Dutchman A. V.
Leeuwenhoek whereas a compound microscope was invented later by an
Englishman Robert Hooke (1820). Differences among microscopes are
technological, magnification and resolutions.
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2.2.1 Principles of Using Various Apparatus of Lab Work
Principles of using various apparatus of lab work in teaching biology is the application of lab
equipment, pertinent compartments and supportive tools required to embark on teaching
biology lessons in laboratory, demonstration and experimental activities. Optical microscopes
are the commonly used apparatus to observe biological objects accurately and identify images
exactly. To do so students should be able to operate microscopes and resolve observed objects
accordingly. For example: a light microscope can resolve objects as small as 0.2 µm but in
practice, its resolution varies from 0.3 to 5.0 µm.
The resolving power of a microscope is its ability to distinguish two closely situated points of
an object seen under the microscope as two clearly visible distinct points. Numerical aperture
(NA) is a measure of the size of the cone of light that can be gathered by the objective, which
is a function of the diffraction patterns formed at the aperture of the lens. As magnification is
increased, the design of lenses is with increased numerical aperture. The space between the
objective and the specimen (working distance) decreases as the focal distance decreases
inversely to magnification. The focal plane of the microscopic field is parallel lines exactly of
0.01 mm or 10 μ m appear. Accordingly, the smallest units of measurements used in a
microscopic works are:
 1 millimeter = 1000 micrometer
 0. 001 mm = 1μm (micron)
 0. 0001 mm = 0.1 µm
 0. 00001 mm = 0.01 µm etc.
Magnification: the object you see under the microscope is due to the reason of its
magnification by the combination of lenses (the objective and the ocular). Therefore,
magnification refers to how many times of its actual size an object is enlarged by the
microscope.
Magnification of an object seen under the microscope is calculated by multiplying the

magnifying power of the objective by that of the ocular, which is a disc of glass on which
equally spaced lines are etched.
According to Harry et al. (1991), the magnifying power of a lens is indicated on the body of
usual lenses as indicated below.
Ocular Objective
X6 (low power) X4 (low power)
X10 (high power) X10 (medium)
X40 (high power)
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X100 (oil immersion)
Ocular x objective = magnification

Accordingly:
Ocular Objective
 (X6) X (X4) = X24
 (X6) X (X10) = X60
 (X10) X (X10) = X100 etc.
Activity: Discuss and write short answers

1. What are lab apparatus?

2. What is the difference between magnification and resolution
power of a microscope?
3. How do you calculate the magnifying power of a microscope?
The most commonly used objective lenses on a bright field microscope are 10 x 40 or 44x and
95 or 100x. Hence, a student microscope with 100x objective usually has a numerical aperture
of 1.25 whereas research microscope lenses can have a numerical aperture of 1.3 to 1.4.
Feedback
Laboratory apparatus means all equipment used for lab works including the
microscope. Magnification refers to how many times of its size the image of
 an object is enlarged under the microscope whereas resolution is the ability
to distinguish two closely situated points of an object seen under the
microscope as two clearly visible distinct points. The magnifying power of
a microscope can be calculated by multiplying the magnifying power of the
objective by that of the ocular.
2.2.2 Homemade and Improvised Apparatus in Teaching Biology
2.2.2.1 Homemade Apparatus
Laboratory equipment refers to the various apparatus and tools used by practitioners of lab
work, which include microscopes, laboratory beakers, flasks, graduate cylinder, volumetric
flask, reagent bottle, laboratory glassware, thermometer, PH meter and the like. Homemade
apparatus are teaching equipment devised and made in school workshop or laboratory by the
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teacher or students. It is commonly expected that biology teachers are capable of devising and
making apparatus for some simple experiments, modify apparatus and carry out simple repairs
too. A biology teacher with a little thought or ingenuity can make a number of valuable and
serviceable models and making use of cheap materials. Examples: Jars, gauges, lab equipment,
agar, corks or yeast from homemade dough etc.
Some of the advantages of using homemade apparatus are:
1. Economically useful,
2. Make the concept of life science clear and bring closer to learners,
3. Provide encouragement to produce similar apparatus and adapt it as a hobby,
4. Help to correlate biology with manual training to and create extra interest and
5. Provide training with manual skill, resourcefulness and inventiveness.
As a result, teachers are advised to plan, prepare and use homemade apparatus just for filling
the gap of scarcity but not to sacrifice efficiency.
 Have you ever produced a teaching apparatus?
2.2.2.2 Improvised Apparatus
The term improvising refers to as creating, inventing, make a shift of arrangements for
accomplishing the intended learning task or use of learning aids that are prepared from simple,
cheap and available materials by both teachers and students. To teach biological sciences, the
availability of good apparatus and well equipped laboratory is a must. If not, the shortage or
lack of all required apparatus and laboratory insists teachers and students to fill the gap of
scarcity either by original apparatus or by the improvised ones. In view of this, every biology
room should be equipped with work benches and kits of tools that may be used by both female,
male students and teachers.
Advantages of apparatus improvisation for teaching biology are:
1. Develop instructional value, the dignity of labor and satisfies the interest of creativity,
2. Splash the cost of apparatus and helps in making the school self-efficient.
3. Develop the habit of cooperation and coordination and
4. Provide training in thinking skills through the process of looking alternative substances.
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Activity: Discuss in groups and produce
 Instruction: be sure that some of the group leaders will be female trainees
1. What is the difference between homemade and improvised apparatus?
The process of improvisation is a3systematic
2. Produce homemadeofand
constructing a piece
3 improvised of apparatus
apparatus or designing
for teaching the
an experiment. structure human body biology lesson topics.
Steps constructing improvised apparatus are:
1. Making careful study of the conventional apparatus or experiment,
2. Thinking of some low-cost substitutes that may be available in the market,
3. Designing the improvised apparatus or experiment and putting them to test,
4. Making further improvements in the improvised apparatus using the test results and
5. Making use of the improvised apparatus in the laboratory in practice.
Feedback
Homemade apparatus are tools made in school workshop or laboratory by
 the teacher or students. Improvised apparatus are created or invented
teaching aids or lab tools that fill the gap of scarcity. Both teaching aids can
be prepared from locally available or less costly materials.
2.2.2.3. Student Roster Preparation in Teaching Biology
A student roster is a list of students with pertinent performance scores as a result of both
assessments and evaluations in a particular grade level marked for each students through the
year. A student roster is prepared by the homeroom teacher of a specific grade level for each
semester (one and two) separately and finally the average of the two is made at the end of each
academic year.
Activity: Student roster preparation

1. Prepare a sample roster for 10 students in grade 9A for first semester.

2. Prepare a sample roaster for the same students of the same class for the
second semester.
3. Prepare the average of both semesters of the same students of the same
class and rank them accordingly.
4. Check if you have made errors in calculating.
5. Prepare a grade report card for the same 10 students of the same class.
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A student roster in practice is the registry format of all students attending a particular class
listed alphabetically on a grid sheet of paper containing spaces for all subjects learned, sum,
average and rank of each semester and the annual result across each student’s name. At the
end of each semester, the mark of each student scored in each subject gained out of 100 is
recorded, compared and ranked starting from the highest average score in each semester. Then,
the average result of both semesters are added and divided by two to gain the annual average
and rank in comparison with the result of each student.
Feedback: template roster for grade 9 (2013)


No Name Semester I rank Semester II rank Average Rank
subjects subjects
1 2 3 T 1 2 3 T a a a T
1 A 2 1 2
2 B 3 3 3
3 C 1 2 1
4 D 4 3 4
5 E 5 4 5
Legend
A, B, C, D and E: are name of students alphabetically arranged

a, a and a: are average points of both semesters
T stands for total
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate serial number of students.
1, 2 and 3: are subjects learned through the year (both semesters).
Rank of the student is determined by comparing the total average
score of marks gained.
The annual result of the student is transferred into a report card with ranks carefully, submitted
to the school principal for signature and stamp and given to each student at the end of academic
year in the presence or absence of parents.
Unit summary
63
Instructional materials and resources that include instructional theory, learning theory,
resources, lesson plans and teaching aids to embarking the process of teaching and learning are
key tools that play pivotal roles of any educational systems.
Laboratory is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific research,

experiments and measurements may be performed. Labsthat serve for scientific research take
many forms because of the differing requirements of specialists in the various fields of science.
Despite the great differences among laboratories, some features are common. Biology teaching
uses a wet laboratory. The use of workbench or countertops either sit or stand is a common
way to ensure comfortable working conditions for the cabinets for the storage of laboratory
equipment is quite common. It is traditional for a scientist to record experiment's progress in a
laboratory notebook, but modern labs almost always contain at least one computer workstation
for data collection and analysis. Laboratory might offer work space for just one to more than
thirty researchers depending on its size and purpose. Recently, a new type of laboratory called
open laboratory has emerged. Its format allows the sharing of space, equipment, support staff
between different research groups and also fosters information exchange through
communications across fields.
However, the balance between instructional materials, resources and plans designated to be
taught keeps the learning and teaching process normal and learners understand the concept of
biology lessons.
Methods and strategies

 Explanation and feedbacks on instructional materials, resources and lab works
 Construction of a template lesson plan with relevant teaching techniques
 Demonstrations of various teaching aids for teaching biology
 Discussions on techniques of implementation
 Continuous assessments
 Portfolio development
Activities

In setting activities, the interaction, discussion and practical works of both teachers and
students’ are described.
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Students’ activities
 Plan lessons, prepare and use appropriate and relevant teaching aids,
 Prepare improvised and homemade apparatus from the surroundings,
 Set a microscope, prepare wet mounting(specimen) and observe objects under
microscopes and
 Record results of observations in worksheets and lab diary.
Instructor’s Activities
 Explains about instructional materials, resources and principles of uses in practice,
 Describes contents and design template lesson plans for uses,
 Guide, discuss and orient how to prepare homemade and improvised resources and
 Check the appropriateness of all materials used in teaching biology.
Assessment strategies and techniques

 Appropriateness of prepared instructional materials and resources set for teaching,
 Uses of laboratory safety rules and guidance,
 Independent lesson planning and pair works on various teaching aid preparation,
 Arrangement of teaching aid in relevant to lesson topics and
 Practical demonstrations and experiment in laboratories.
Instructional resources and apparatus

 Biology Subject Area Methods II Module
 Overhead projector
 LCD Projector
 Teaching aids (real objects, drawings and charts)
 Lab apparatus, samples and specimens
Unit reading materials

1. Harry W. S., Paul J., Vandemark, J. and John, J. L. (2003): Microbes in action: A
laboratory Manualof microbiology, Company, New York, USA
2. Yadav, M.S. (2000): Teaching of Science. Anmol publications, New Delhi, India
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Unit Three: Effective Techniques of Teaching Biolo gy (28
Hrs.)
 Unit Introduction
The unit is composed of the three sections listed below in a box that further divide into sections.
The unit is aimed at practicing effective techniques of teaching biology lessons in general and
to exercise Secondary School biology lessons in particular. It is designed to introduce
appropriate methods and effective techniques of teaching in core biology disciplines and
conduct in practice in lessons set for grades nine to twelve.
The major focus is to train biology teachers by bringing them closer to their future lifelong
profession. It is also to create intellectual honesty and ethical traditional hallmarks of the
practices of biological science teaching, rooted in accurate and proper teaching methods that
come up with quality of teaching profession.
Unit Learning Outcomes

After completing the unit, the students (trainees) will be able to:
  Use proper instructional materials and resources in biology lessons

 Exercise micro and actual teaching of secondary school biology
 Manage classrooms and practice quality of teaching effectively
 Exercise lab activities, demos and experiments
Unit outline

1.1 Introduction effective techniques of teaching biology (6 hrs.)

1.2 Effective techniques of teaching grade 9 and 10 Biology Lessons (12 hrs.)
1.3 Effective techniques of teaching grade 11 and 12 Biology Lessons (12 hrs.)

3.1 Introduction to Effective Techniques of Teaching Biology
Teaching is the most difficult task that everybody does not fit. Some persons have a flair for
teaching, the ability to awaken the interest of learners and arrest the attention of students. Those
who are not fortunate can improve their teaching through practice using various teaching
methods. Effective techniques teaching or tips of lesson delivery in biology are such
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approaches in which students understand the concepts and the meanings of the lessons. Teachers
must be models and set personal and professional qualities before getting on teaching, which was
connoted by a known educator Rousseau stated as “remember, you must be a man yourself before
you try to train a man. You must set patterns she/he shall copy “.Similarly, female teachers must be a
good model that girls shall copy.
3.1.1 Effective Teaching Methods of Biology
Effective teaching is establishing a positive classroom environment, ground rules, and

procedures and consistently reinforcing teaching to be pleasant, accepting individual
differences and gender issues in learning activities and making the class cooperative and
supportive.
Embarking on biology teaching must begin by giving clear instructions with desired quality of
work and paraphrasing directions to ensure that everyone is paying attention.
To approach and maintain student attention, teachers should use random selection in calling
upon both female and male students varying whom to call on and how to call on for questions
and wait at least 5 seconds for a response.
Then, he/she should move around and attend to individual needs, provide simple step-by-step
instructions and utilize a freeze and listen to signals when necessary. The teachers should
demonstrate and model the types of responses or tasks she/he wants students to perform,
provide guided practice for both female and male students, monitor responses of girl and boy
students deliberately and deliver immediate and corrective feedback.
Furthermore, he/she should reinforce and summarize the lesson and focus on positive gains
made by students, use surprise reinforce as a direct result of their good behavior and evaluate
what has taken place as a result of the lesson.
 1. What is effective technique of teaching?

2. What are teaching methods?
Proficiency in teaching and effective techniques of lesson delivery needs practical training and
can be gained by exercising various methods of teaching in the form of micro teaching or peer
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teaching before embarking on formal classroom teaching after placements. Accordingly,
trainees exercise the following teaching methods or approaches using secondary school biology
lessons.
1. Lecture method of teaching
Lecture method is a teacher controlled and information centered, where the teacher acts as a
resource. The teacher goes ahead with the subject matter at his own speed, may make use of
the blackboard at times and dictate notes. Such teacher-centered (oriented) method in its
extreme form, does not expect any question or response from the students.
Lecturing in biology lessons requires pre-hand preparation for the whole period of time.
Equally important point of teaching will be designing objectives of the lesson that could lead
to the result of behavioral changes brought up on the students after each lesson.
The lecture presents prepared lessons based on the objectives designed using teaching materials
such as teaching aids, visual aids and the like. The teacher has to justify the balance of
interactive activities of teachers and students and check that both female and male students are
attentive and responsive to the lecture materials and discussion.
Figure 3.1 Lecture method of teaching

Photo by Sutuma Edessa (November 2012)
2. Lecture-demonstration teaching methods

Demonstration is the scientific method and processes of teaching using different tools, metric
measurements, laboratory and ambient experimentation that fit for biology lesson delivery.
Demonstration is showing or practically exercising the process of teaching using designated
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resources. It is a superior method of teaching in comparison with lecture method and used by
good biology teacher for imparting biology lessons in classrooms.
The teacher performs experiments before class and simultaneously explains what is to be done
and asks relevant questions and students are compelled to observe carefully. Questioning and
cross-questioning are interferences drawn by both female and male students are guided and
discussed in the class.
Demonstration method in teaching biology is based on the principle of fact, which is always
true and reality.
Figure 3.2 Lecture-demonstration methods

Photo by Sutuma Edessa (December 2012)
Components and steps of good demonstration include:

1. Planned and rehearsed activities beforehand by the teacher.
2. All apparatus planned for use should have to be ready ahead.
3. These apparatus should have to be big enough to be seen by the whole class.
4. Adequate light arrangement and interesting approach.
5. A clear statement and good demonstrations should be made to the students.
6. The teacher must be sure that the method leads to the participation of all students.
7. The demonstration must be quick and slick.
8. The teacher must be sure of success of the experiment to be demonstrated.
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9. No complaint about inadequate and faulty apparatus should be made by the teacher,
but he should use his skill of art to find solutions.
 Look at the picture (Figure 3.2), read the components of good demonstration and
find out missing matters that hinder conceptual and technical understanding.
3. Heuristic teaching method

Heuristic method is a pure discovery method of learning biological sciences independent of
teachers. It involves students by placing them in the attitude of discoverer aimed at findings
instead of being merely told about things. Heuristic method of teaching initiates the students to
solve a number of problems experimentally, which is also intended to provide a laboratory-
based training exclusively. The basic idea of this method is that students should discover
everything they learn from their observations and experiments. As a result, their powers of
observation, experimentation and critical thinking and reasoning will develop.
 As a teacher of biology, how can I implement heuristic method in

teaching lessons?
4. Assignment teaching method

Assignment method is the best approach that suits for teaching biology. Because this method
involves harmonious combination of teaching and documentation of students’ performances
and individual laboratory work activities demonstration in progress charts.
Activity: performance assessment records
 Prepare students’ performance progress chart where to record assignment

results.
In this method, the given syllabus is spilt into well planned assignments with a set of
instructions about solving the assignments.
Feedback: Student performance progress chart

 School _______________ Class ___________ from ________ to _______
No Name of student Class test result Assignment Exams result Remark

1 Loti Siba 1 2 3 4 ... 1 2 3 4 I II Total
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5. Concentric teaching method
Concentric teaching method is a system of organizing that implies widening and extending
knowledge by a system of arranging the subject matter. In this method, the study of a topic is
spread over a number of years based on the principle that the subject cannot be given an
exhaustive treatment at the first stage. To begin with, a simple presentation of the subject is
given and further knowledge is imparted in the following years or it begins from a nucleus,
then, the circles of knowledge go on widening year after year.
 As a biology teacher, can you use this method to deliver biology lessons?
6. Unit method of teaching

Unit method is a purposeful learning experience that focuses on some socially significant
understanding, which modifies the behavior of learning and adjust to a life situation more
effectively. It is one of the latest methods in the field of education, which involves students
more actively in the processes of learning biology.
6.1 Characteristics of unit teaching method

1. It is an organization of activities around purposes,
2. It involves students in learning process and has content significance,
3. Students can cope with new problems and situations competently,
4. It deals with sizeable to picand appropriate,
5. It emerges from past experience and lead to broader interests and
6. Provide scope for using variety of materials and activities.
7. Historical method of teaching

Historical method is an approach of following the stages through which biology has passed
during its course of development from its early beginnings. As a subject, biology has its own
historical background that can makes easier biology teaching when the historical experience is
used as a technique of teaching. It is possible to develop a topic starting from its early period
through its various developmental stages before attaining the modern shape. Example: the
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invention and development of microscopes led to the historical treatment of the field
microbiology, bacteriology, virology etc.
Discuss the history of renowned biologists
 Louis Pasteur
  Gregor Mendel
 Aklilu Lemma
 Antonin Van Leeuwenhoek
 Robert Hooke
8. Discussion method of teaching

The method is used for those topics in biology or sciences, which cannot be easily explained
by demonstration or other techniques. It could be about a certain specimen or model or a chart.
The topic should be announced to the students well in advance with brief introduction on the
contents of the topics and suggestions with reference books or materials to be read for
discussion.
Figure 3.3Teacher guided discussion teaching method

Photo by Sutuma Edessa (December 2012)
9. Inductive-deductive methods of teaching

9.1 Inductive method
Inductive method is an approach that leads from concrete to abstract, from particular to general
and from simplex to complex broad rules. In this method, universal laws are proved by showing
that, if it is true in a particular case, it is also true in other similar cases. The method has been
72
found to be quite suitable for teaching biology, because most of the principles of science or
conclusions are results of induction.
Example: illustration or generalization could be made by taking a blue litmus paper and dipping
it in a test tube containing hydrochloric acid and observing the change in color (turns red). If
you repeat the experiment with other acids (oxalic acid, acetic acid etc.) in different test tubes
in each case, the blue litmus turns red, which generalizes that acids turn blue litmus red.
9.2 Deductive method
Deductive method is an opposite of inductive method in which the learner proceeds from
general to particular, from abstract to concrete and from complex to simplex ways. In this
method, the teacher announces the topics of the day and gives relevant formula, rule or
principle etc. The law or formula is also explained to the students with the help of certain
examples, which are solved on the blackboard. That means, facts are deduced or analyzed by
the application of established formula or law of experimentation.
10. Reading as a method of teaching
Reading is defined as a skill to understand written text as well as concept of particular of

biology descriptions. As a teaching method, reading is the process by which individuals are
taught to derive meanings from texts and equally dependent on two critical skills in which each
of these competencies is likewise dependent on lower level skills and cognitive abilities.
1. Understanding the language in which the text is written and

2. Recognizing and processing printed texts
Students who readily understand spoken language and who are able to fluently and easily
recognize printed words, do not usually have difficulty with biology texts and conceptualize it
as per the designed purpose. At the conclusion of reading, students should be able to learn and
retell the story in their own words including characters, setting and the events of the story in
biology lessons. In biology, reading as a teaching method will be helpful when students read
given texts or case study and retell for further discussion.
1. Identify teaching methods that fit for teaching biology lessons.

2. List out those teaching methods that do not fit for teaching biology
lessons.
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3. Can you propose any other teaching methods of biology?
3.1.2 Effective Techniques of Teaching and Classroom Management
Effective techniques of teaching deal with orientation and guidance on how to embark on
lesson delivery, modalities and how to come up with proficiency and competence in the
classroom. As a teacher, you should apply the following strategies:
1. Create a positive classroom climate on the very first day: Teachers should have to
put a question saying can I effectively lead discussions, interact with students in a
positive manner and handle difficulties which may arise and find solutions? To do so,
they have to speak clearly and confidentially, establish their credentials within biology
disciplines, show evidence of organization and preparation and taking steps, starting
the quarter with firm stand about your plan.
 Enhance students in learning, guided and avoid dogmatic dictatorial manner
through the material graciously and you are neither a crutch nor a substitute for
hard work of students.
 Gain the respect of your students early on and
 Reflect up on role models whose teaching method you admire and consider how
you could adapt the positive aspects of what impressed you while still being
yourself.
2. Address problems before they escalate: tackle disruptive or disrespectful behavior as
soon as possible. If you don’t, your students think that you are not bothered by that type
of behavior and you are powerless to deal with it. If you don’t want to deal with such
negative behavior in front of the entire class, inform the student to meet after the class
and unless you take actions, such behavior might continue and escalate. Possibly, some
students might not like you or the way you teach, but you have the right to be treated
with respect.
3. Be competent and professional: If you are unfamiliar with biology and exhibit a poor
background in the substance, you will have a difficult time in gaining students’ respect
in the classroom. As a beginner teacher, consider the following points.
 You should be knowledgeable in biology and comfortable with biology materials.
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 If you cannot answer a question or need more time to respond to a situation, don’t
be evasive and tell them that you will check it and report back to the class.
 Remember that students are very perceptive when you are bluffing.
 Recognize that a lack of respect is because of perceived incompetence of you that
can result in students’ taking advantage of the situation and taking the class
requirements and their own work less seriously.
 Show that you are serious about your position by being on time for sections and
office hours, being equitable and fair in the classroom, grading fairly, returning
graded materials promptly, holding yourself to the highest standard of
professionalism and expecting the same of your students.
 At the end of the semester, use your evaluation constructively. Look for your
repeated comments, separate irrelevant comments like race, religion, gender and
sexuality that students write based on their own performance in biology or
preconceived notions about what they expect in a teacher, but such comments should
not affect your feeling of confidence or self-esteem.
1. Maintain Personal and professional boundaries: Students often see teachers as mentors
as well as peers, which can cause problems when students overstep their boundaries and
infringe up on the teacher’s boundaries. Have an informal classroom atmosphere in which
a great deal of productive learning goes on and maintain personal and professional
boundaries.
2. Seek professional guidance: You need guidance, rules and instructional materials to
proceed with and find out those experienced teachers who provide you a positive
mentoring experience.
3. Disseminate knowledge: Teaching is to deliver reasonable information and ideas that are
conveyed and up-to-date.
4. Develop the ability to use ideas and information: The capacity to use ideas and
information involves moving beyond comprehension and range of applicability (where,
when and how it is appropriate to use).
5. Develop student’s ability to test ideas and evidence: The rationale for the development
of critical faculties as a major part of the mission of teaching biology requires the ability
to test ideas and evidence, which is significant for transferable skill.
6. Develop the student’s ability to generate ideas and evidence: It is a complement to
develop creativities in both sides of teaching and research promotion of biology teaching.
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7. Facilitate the personal development of students: It influences the effectiveness of
learners in their professional roles in many ways so that all-round development will be a
key for the solution.
8. Develop the capacity of students to plan and manage own learning: Build the ability
to design, adjust, test, and plan and mange proper use of a given time budget and place
while conducting learning. It is important to motivate and guide students to build the
capacity of properly designing, adjusting, testing, planning, managing and using the given
time budget and place while conducting learning.
 1. What are the tips for effective teaching and classroom management?
2. How do you align teaching techniques in your biology class?
3.2 Effective Techniques of Teaching Secondary School Biology
Effective techniques of Secondary School biology lesson delivery takes place when the subject
matter is presented in a conducive, integrated and correlated and related manner to the
environment of learners. The aspect of teaching core disciplines of biology can be processed
and implemented by means of designing instructional materials and resources that facilitate to
work collaboratively.
The diversity of biology content materials throughout secondary school biology syllabi and
contents allow students to look at other biological sciences as vocational careers in which
biology background is necessary. The most important aspect of the biology strand is that
biological science is an integral part of society as well as relevant to the day-to-day life values
of students too.
Introducing Secondary School biology lessons provides trainees an opportunity to get

acquaintance with contents and concepts of designated biology syllabi for biology, which they
are going to teach after placement. Exercising conceptual understanding of the contents, tasks
and activities of biology lessons of each grade level enables trainees to gain rich experience in
their future career and produce qualified, skilled, competent and proficient biology teachers.
3.2.1 Effective techniques of teaching grade 9 and 10 Biology
3.2.1.1 Teaching of grade 9 Biology Subject
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1. Teaching Biology and Technology
The unit biology and technology, consists of two major
lessons topics designated as renowned Ethiopian
biologists and biological research in Ethiopia. The
methods of teaching best fit to present lessons topics of the
unit are historical, scientific, project and problem solving
in combination with lecture-demonstration and laboratory
based experimental methods.
Figure 3.1 Research on yield of Sorghum

To embark on teaching of different topics of the unit, the teacher must prepare instructional
materials, laboratory and improvised apparatus in addition to proper lesson plans with relevant
teaching aids.
This unit tells you the historical development of biological sciences along with the development
of biology and technology through researches. To accompany teaching lessons of the unit,
activities on the discovery of Ethiopian biologists, discovering more about research and making
a table of research institution in Ethiopia is very important. Finally, discussing the summary
of the unit, review questions and end of unit questions confirms and evidence of portion
coverage.
Activity: Discuss and workout using grade 9 biology textbook (pages 6 – 11)
 1. Discover major Ethiopian biologists and their contributions
2. Make a table of research institutions in Ethiopia and their focuses of
research
2. Teaching Cell biology

The unit consists of lesson topics such as the microscope, the cell and the cell and environment.
Actually, teaching methods suitable are laboratory, scientific, research and problem solving
methods.
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Instructional materials and resources to be used include proper lesson plans, teaching aids and
microscopes including microscopy. Additionally, exercising practical activities like learning
to use a microscope, making a slide of plant and
animal cells, using the microscope to look at slides
of both plant and animal cells and observing
different human cells are very important.
Demonstrating diffusion, detecting diffusion, the
effect of temperature on diffusion, using potato cups
as osmometers, affection of osmosis on animal
cells, plant cells and affection of osmosis on potato
tissues need practical activities.
Figure 3.2 Animal cell

Lastly, discuss the summary, review and end of unit question to justify proper coverage of the
unit.
1. Enumerate some of the technological contributions of biology to

 everyday life of humans.
2. List the resources that you need to demonstrate the processes of
diffusion and osmosis.
3. Teaching Human Biology and Health

This unit deals with five lesson sections categorized as food and nutrition, the digestive system,
the respiratory system, cellular respiration and the circulatory systems.
Teaching nutrition and foodstuff requires searching for sources of these foodstuffs and
particularly doing exercise of experimental tests for starch, simple sugars, proteins, lipids as
described in the student textbook. Minerals and effects of their deficiency must be discussed
taking relevant examples. Vitamins, their sources and effect of vitamin deficiency must be
discussed in groups with case study assignments.
Consequently, experimental tests for vitamin C are expected to be practiced by trainees. Plenty
of resources are available from the surroundings to teach the sections of the unit.
Concerning the lesson balanced diet, students must discuss and calculate the body mass index
(BMI) and prepare a sample family diet diary required. Teaching the digestive system must be
supported by colored charts that show all tracks of digestive system or models, enzymes, food
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movement and experimental activities on food break down and how to investigate the activity
of amylase.
The issue of digestive health, timing food through the digestive system and food hygiene need
real consideration. Teaching the circulatory system, investigating the role of valves in veins,
examining the mammalian heart, measuring your own heart rate and investigating the effect of
activity on your heart rate, modeling the effect of narrowing blood vessels on blood pressure
are key practical activities.
Teaching respiratory system is accompanied by the activity on the breathing structures of a

mammal, looking at the tissues of the respiratory system, investigation breathing movements,
demonstrating the presence of carbon dioxide in exhaled air, demonstrating the presence of
heat in the air you breathe out, demonstrating the presence of water vapor in exhaled air,
investigating the effect of physical exercise on breathing rate and demonstration of the presence
of tar in cigarette smoke.
In teaching cellular respiration, investigating anaerobic respiration in muscles (muscle fatigue)

is useful. Teaching body circular
system requires activities of
investigating the role of valves in
veins, examining a mammalian
heart, measuring your own heart
beat rate and investigating the
effect of activity on your own heart
beat rate and modeling the effects
of narrowing blood vessels on
blood pressure.
Figure 3.3 Hard exercise
Teaching methods seem to fit for these lessons are lecture-demonstration, laboratory, active
learning and the combination of other approaches preferred conditionally. At last, unit
summary, review questions and end of unit question need painstaking handling and
discussions.
Discuss in groups: Some of the group leaders should be female trainees

1. Undertake food tests for starch, simple sugars, lipids and proteins. If you can
get a laboratory resource and discuss the procedures among your selves.
2. Go to the nearby health station or clinic and measure the rates of your
heartbeats before and after an exercise and discuss the changes.
4. Teaching Microorganisms and Diseases
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The unit composes of major lesson topics like microorganisms, diseases and HIV and AIDS
that sub divided into lesson topics. Teaching microorganisms and diseases need careful
treatment, correct procedures and safety rules of works in culturing microbes, staining bacteria
and the like to undertake laboratory works.
Teaching about pathogens and diseases they cause in order to control or prevent in advance is
life important. Teachers must be aware of sexually transmitted diseases (Gonorrhea, Syphilis,
Chancroid etc.) need to understand about causes, symptoms, control, preventions and uses of
medicament correctly. While teaching about HIV and AIDS, the teacher must create awareness
on the basis of national and international trends of the disease information, cares, the immune
system and the role of teachers in creating awareness on the mechanism of prevention.
Conducting designated activities such as looking at mosquito flies and producing information
leaflet on acute water diarrhea including cholera bacteria are very important.
Teaching methods recommended are lecture-demonstration, laboratory, active learning and
others that offer group discussions. Resources like charts models, drawings, samples to be
observed under the microscope supplement lessons and make more effective. To end the lesson,
summary of each unit, review questions and end of unit question need thorough discussions.
Instruction: Some of the group leaders should be female trainees.


1. Read in reference books or manuals, discuss in groups and write a
report on the methods of staining bacteria.
2. List sexually transmitted diseases (infections), discuss and write their
cause, symptoms, effects and treatment or prevention mechanisms.
5. Teaching Classification of organisms

The unit classification of organisms comprises of major sections like principles of classification
and the five kingdom classifications that further divided into subsections and lesson topics. The
students need to revise the law of taxonomy to classify organisms into kingdoms and domains
that follow the evolutionary lines. As candidates, the trainees must revise rules of
nomenclatures and the taxonomical hierarchy of organisms from the kingdom to species. As
the current classification has proceeded beyond the five kingdom classification developed to
eight kingdoms and three domains, the issue of classification should be considered in such a
standardized worldwide view of nature.
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Exercises like identification and classification of common organisms to the grade level of
students is very important that again requires looking at various microorganisms under the
microscope and describe activities accordingly.
The methods of teaching to be used include lecture-demonstration and lab teaching methods.
Resources could be such as drawn charts, dry specimen, wet mounts from dirty water and
simple homemade dough to look at yeasts. In order to learn the development of plants, live
samples of bryophytes, Pteridophytes, angiosperms and gymnosperms are recommended to be
used as teaching aids in the classroom or outside of the class relevantly.
To learn animals, samples and pictures of coelenterates, flatworms, roundworms, annelids,
echinoderms, arthropods, chordates, vertebrates, and mammals are recommended to be used.
Resources like charts, live examples in classroom or outside of the class rooms, museums,
herbariums and the like centers for observations.
To end the unit, students should have to discuss the unit summary and do all review and end of
unit questions respectively.
1. Write at least 5 common and scientific names of plants and 5
 common and scientific names of animal species of Ethiopia.

2. Write the scientific names of at least 5 endemic plants and 5 endemic
animals of Ethiopia.
6. Teaching the Environment

The unit includes subtopics such as ecosystems, food relationships, recycling in nature,
adaptations and tree growing projects.
The teacher must be aware that the unit deals with lessons important for our life, the human
relationships, integrations and interaction with the ecosystems, anthropogenic impacts and as
a result harmful consequences of such impacts.
To teach the lessons, lecture-demonstration, field study method, case study method and other
relevant methods are recommended. Resources to be used are colored pictures, charts, movies
or audio-video shows of various ecosystems and live example of some plants of various
indicators of environmental changes that can serve as indicators of various environmental
changes.
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Figure 3.4 Save the environment by planting trees
Activities like investigating food chains, calculating surface area volume ratios and planning a
tree planting program supports to deeply understand the lessons.
Activities like investigating food chains, calculating surface area volume ratios and planning a
tree planting program supports to deeply understand the lessons. At the end of the unit, students
must discuss the summary and do all review and end of unit questions correspondingly.
1. List harmful anthropogenic activities on our environment.

 2. Study the impact of misusing fertile land on the environment and write
are port on solutions for this problem.
3.2.2 Teaching of grade 10 Biology Subject
1. Teaching Food making and Growth in plants

The unit consists of sub units like the leaf,
photosynthesis, transport and response in plants with
different lesson topics.
The unit is concerned to teach the function of leaves and

photosynthesis, transport in plants, and responses of
plants which are very important for agriculture and all
life forms on earth.
Figure 3.6 plants making food
The methods to be used for teaching the topic must be
pure lecture-demonstration, laboratory, and field method and must be supplemented by real
object resources. Microscopes and related apparatus are helpful to observe the internal
structures of leaves.
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Designated activities to be performed in this unit include examining the external feature of a
flowering plant, investigating leaf structure, testing a leaf for starch, oxygen production during
photosynthesis, the need of light during photosynthesis, the need of chlorophyll for
photosynthesis, finding out the distribution of plant transport tissues, investigating the content
of plant storage organs using food tests, looking at the stomata in a leaf, investigating factors
that affect transpiration, investigating factors that affect transpiration, investigate water loss
from the leaves, find out ways of reducing water loss in plants, investigate diocot and monocot
seeds, observation of epigeal and hypogeal germinations, determination of the effect of light
on shoot growth, determination of the effect of gravity on shoot and root growth, investigate
the effect of water on root growth and investigating the role of the shoot tip in the growth of a
plant.
The teaching method recommended is lecture demonstration, laboratory methods, field
method, heuristic, discussion method and assignment methods. Resources to be used are real
objects, experimental works, assignment based activities (seed germination and follow up) or
different pictures, charts, audio-video shows and the like. Lastly, students are expected to
discuss unit summary and do all review and end of unit questions with equal participation of
female students.
2. Teaching Conservation of natural resources
The unit is divided into sections termed as definition of resources, conservation, biodiversity,
wildlife and air.
In teaching conservation of natural resources, methods that fit to present the lessons are lecture-
demonstration, case study, problem solving, experimental, discussion, field trip method and
the like.
Teaching aids that suit to present lesson of the unit are plenty, but some of them are visual aids,
audio-visual aids, activity aids, pictures, charts, diagrams, sample field visit, practical activities
or learning by doing in conservational acts. Teaching conservation should has to be
supplemented by doing designated activities of natural resources of Ethiopia, the uses of
vegetation, finding out about endemic species and conserving local vegetation. Completion of
the unit could be confirmed by discussing unit summary and doing review and end of unit
review questions properly.
Activity: Seed germination

Instruction: female and male trainees should equally participate
1. Germinate been seeds, observe their growth and record changes every 2
days.
2. Demonstrate leaf transpiration and discuss on the results.
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3.3 Effective Techniques of Teaching Grade 11and 12 Biology
3.3.1 Teaching of Grade 11 Biology Subject
1. Teaching the Science of Biology

The unit consists of methods of science, tools of biologist, relevance and promise of biological
sciences and biology and HIV/AIDS. In teaching the lesson topic methods of science,
description of science of biology, scientific methods and steps, ways of disproving the idea of
spontaneous generation, cause and effect in actual practices, accuracy, reliability and validity
of scientific experiments.
In teaching tools of a biologist, apparatus used in biology, laboratory apparatus and tools used
for field works are due to be practically exercised.
Besides, teaching relevance and promise of biological science includes biology and agriculture,
biology and medicine, biology and the environment and the relevance of biology in Ethiopia
that should have to be discussed thoroughly.
Explanation and discussion what is science, activities on library search, Pasteur’s work,
planning the investigations, writing a report on an experiment, making a plant press,
biotechnology and its relevance in Ethiopia. Teaching methods recommended for the unit are
lecture-demonstration, discussion, laboratory and research methods, which the teacher must
select proper and the relevant sources.
Relevant resources here are charts, colored pictures, microscopes, lab apparatus, real objects
and specimen or preparations made by the teacher and the students in cooperation (yeast).
Students must discuss the unit summary and do all review and end of unit questions of the
biology textbook.
1. Design your own experiment and write the:

a) Independent variables
 b) Dependent variable (variables)
c) Control variables
2. Outline the steps of scientific methods.
3. Visit the biology lab of your institution and list the basic tools of a biologist that
are available.
2. Teaching Biochemical Molecules

The unit consists of major lesson topics designated as classification of inorganic and organic
molecules, inorganic molecules, and organic molecules. The teaching methods recommendable
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to present lesson topics and sub topics of the unit are discussion, lecture-demonstration and
related approaches that fit to explain more about biochemical molecules.
Resources to be used to supplement teaching the lessons are diagrams, charts, illustrative
pictures; models, audio-visuals and vision visualize sin addition to student textbooks, teacher’s
guide and reference books.
Activities dealing with grouping molecules, library search (for sodium, potassium and
phosphorus), library search for gas exchange, making wall chart on the importance of water
for living organisms, making poster on carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, iodine test for starch,
Benedict’s’ test for reducing sugars, Benedict’s test for non-reducing sugars, the emulsion test
for lipids, the Biuret test for proteins, library search for biosensor-based test for glucose, debate
on the importance of four groups of biological molecules and drawing biological molecules.
Discussion of unit summary and answering review and end of unit question are very important
to cover portions respectively.
1. List the major functional groups found in biological organic molecules

and draw their structures.
 2. Describe the bonds that hold together the monomer units of the different
biological polymers.
3. Teaching Enzymes
The unit composes of lesson topics designated as the nature of enzymes, function of enzymes
and factors affecting the function of enzymes. Teaching methods recommended to deliver the
lessons properly are lecture-demonstration, laboratory, field, discussion and related approaches
that suite more each lesson topic.
Resources like illustrative colored picture, diagrams, charts, audio-visuals and vision
visualizers in addition to student textbooks, teacher’s guide and reference books. Activities
designed to accompany the lessons of the unit such as making poster on criteria for naming
enzymes, discussion the importance of enzymes, field visit of enzyme manufacture, designing
a 3-dimensional model to show how enzymes work, measuring the rate enzyme controlled
reactions, finding the effect of temperature on enzyme, investigating the effect of PH on the
rate of enzymes controlled reaction (starch breakdown)and investigating the effect of changing
the substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme controlled reaction are tasks to be completed.
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Unit summary discussion, providing correct answers to review and end of unit questions is
important.
1. List the factors that affect the rate of an enzyme catalyzed reaction and
design an experiment to show the effect of each factor.
 2. Draw a diagram that can help you to illustrate the effect of each factor.
3. Visit nearby factories that use enzymes to process their products and
others that use enzymes as parts of their products.
4. Teaching Energy Transformation

The unit composes of designated lesson topics like respiration and how plants harness light
energy in photosynthesis.
Teaching methods could be lecture-demonstration, laboratory and laboratory-based

experiment, scientific and field approaches using more of student-centered practical activities.
Activities designed to complete portions of the unit are making a model of ATP and ADP,
drawing and labeling a mitochondrion, making a large annotated wall chart of glycolysis,
measuring the rate of respiration of pea seeds, investigating the rate of fermentation in yeasts,
planning a simple demonstration of anaerobic respiration, discussion on photosynthesis,
drawing and labeling the structure of a chloroplast (light-dependent and light-independent),
separating photosynthetic pigments in spinach leaves, investigating the rate of photosynthesis,
listing C4 plants, presentations on photosynthesis and making a big poster of Calvin cycle in
photosynthesis. Teachers and students must also take care of review questions of each lesson
topics and end of unit questions respectively.
Supplement materials like illustrative colored pictures, diagrams, charts, audio-visuals and
vision visualizers in addition to student textbooks, teacher’s guide and reference books.
1. Draw and label the structure of a chloroplast on a chart, showing where the
light-dependent and the light–independent reactions of photosynthesis take
 place.
2. Draw charts to illustrate:
a) Absorption spectrum for each of the pigments in the chloroplast
b) Action spectrum of the different wave lengths of light.
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3.3.2 Teaching of grade 12 Biology Subject
1. Teaching Ecology
The unit consists of lesson topics like cycling matter through ecosystems, ecological
successions, biomes, biodiversity and populations.
In teaching cycling of matter through ecosystems where recycling of plastics, metals, papers
and other are undertaken, field method, discussion and lecture-demonstration supported by
movies are recommended. Recyclable wastes need conversions into usable materials through
recycling factories.
To fully cover the portions, students are expected to discuss activities such as poster, collection
of recyclable wastes and write a narrative report on cycling materials and do review questions.
In teaching ecological successions, biomes and biodiversity, the use of field method is very
important in which the nature itself can service as supportive materials. Activities like debating
on forest clearance, investigating a local biome, essay on biodiversity, food web lot,
identification of environmentally damaged areas, pertinent review questions and what can I do
for Ethiopia?.
In teaching population, lecture-demonstration and discussion methods with relevant examples

could be employed. Resources like charts, graphic illustrations and movies can be helpful in
addition to student textbooks, teacher’s guide and reference books.
Doing activities like analyzing population pyramids and what is to be done to balance the
population to food resource with pertinent unit summary and review and end of unit questions
will be important.
1. Share the natural cycles among the groups so that each group makes a
 big poster on their own natural cycles that can be used as a teaching
aid.
2. Choose a habitat in your surrounding and draw a food web involving
as many organisms as possible to indicate the biodiversity of that
2. Teaching Genetics
The unit composes of lesson units like genetic crosses, molecular genetics, protein synthesis
and mutations. To teach the unit of genetics, explanation of the meaning is very important. For
example: the term genetics is (Greek, genesis=origin) a discipline of biology and the science
of genes, heredity and variation in living organisms.
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Accordingly, lecture- demonstration method will be helpful to present the lesson, accompanied
with observation activities of people having different genetic traits at home and around.
Discussion on the Mendel’s technical work on peas and crossing dynamic practices dealt with
that organisms inherit traits by way of discrete units of inheritance. The teacher is expected to
produce homemade model of the double helical structure of crossing (Figure 3.1)
In order to complete the unit successfully, the indispensable activities for this unit include on
genetic cross model, probability, seed counting, work on genotypes, making an edible model
of DNA, extracting DNA from bananas, human cloning, genetic engineering in improving food
resources, other biotechnological works (penicillin) views on uses of biotechnology, protein
synthesis, the importance of mutations, related review and end of unit questions must be
conducted accordingly.
Resource like illustrative colored pictures, charts, audio-visuals and vision visualizers can be
employed in addition to student textbooks, teacher’s guide and selected reference books.
Figure 3.7 Helical structure of DNA
1. Construct a model for the double helix structure of a DNA molecule using
pieces of paper or any other suitable material.
 2. Write, on a large sheet of paper, genotypic representations for all the pea
phenotypes that were studied by Mendel in the form of a table.
3. Do the same work for the F2 generation
3. Teaching Evolution
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The unit compromise lesson units like the origin of life, theories of evolution, the evidence for evolution
and the process of evolution. In teaching the lessons of the unit, methods to fit are lecture
demonstration, experiment and field methods using proper description of the term evolution in its
modern sense.
Evolution is the change in the
inherited characteristics of biological
population over successive generation
through time.
Instructional materials to be used are

a diagram showing evolutionary
episodes of life, Darwin’s clock of
evolutionary change through time and
Figure 3.8 Human body evolutions
related models. Resources expected to
be used are pictures, diagrams, charts, homemade and improvised models, visiting the Lucy
museum and displays using audio-visuals and movies.
Designated activities that deal with experiments on life forming elements and debating the
origin of life, dating fossils, reports on extinctions, fossils of Ethiopia and roles its contribution
to the world and apes to humans must be conducted. Discuss the unit summary and provide
correct answers for review and end of unit questions painstakingly.
 1. Debate on the origin of life by giving the following names to your
groups.
a) The creationists
b) The spontaneous generationists
c) The eternalists
d) The cosmozoans
e) The abiogenesists
2. Take one theory of how life on Earth began and research into it. Discuss
the theory in groups and consider any scientific evidence, which is
suggested to support the theory. Present the result of your discussion to
the class.
4. Teaching Behavior
The unit consists of lesson units such as an introduction to behavior, innate behavior, learned
behavior and examples of behavioral patterns.
To teach lessons stated, teaching methods such as discussion, lecture demonstration and other
proper approaches that better fit can be used. Resources like illustrations, audio-video shows
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and suitable movies in addition to the student textbook, teacher’s guide and selected reference
book.
Activities on definition of behavior, reflexes of learners, investigating behavior in woodlice,

conserving endangered species, habituation of mosquito larvae, behavior, learning as a
behavioral change, reviews and end of unit questions are expected to be conducted properly
one after the other.
1. Brainstorm your ideas on what you think behavior means for 3

minutes in small groups. Then, forward your ideas to the class when
 you are given the chance.
2. As a class brainstorm on descriptions of the major types of behavior.
Unit Summary
Teaching biology in secondary schools is a key turning point to provide the trainees with rich
experience on how to teach design instruction materials and resources and how to use
practically for each lesson describe in each unit.
Learners exercise how to teach and prepare pertinent teaching aids as per the designated
biology lessons syllabi and this promotes professional potency. Cores of biology disciplines
were put sequentially through grade levels of 9-12 that can lay corner stone skills for the
students and enhance to attend higher levels of learning biology in concerned institutions or
tertiary.
In order to complete all units and portions designated in each syllabus of grade level as
prescribed, the teachers are expected to work hard, be competent and professional.
To embark on teaching biology, teacher must prepare relevant instructional materials and
resource ahead of time, prepare themselves to teach, enhance learners in all difficulties, give
feedbacks timely and answer questions raised by students properly and promptly.
Methods and strategies

 Instructional materials and resource preparation
 Lesson planning and making pertinent supplemental materials
 Microteaching using appropriate methods with relevant teaching aids
 Demonstrations, lab works, experiments and discussions
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 Conducting all activities designed for each lesson topic throughout grade levels of 9-12
Activities

Students’ activities
 Prepare instructional materials and resources
 Plan lessons and design relevant teaching aids for each topic
 Implement micro and actual teaching independently using various methods of
teaching and relevant teaching aids to each lesson content and topic
 Conduct laboratory and experimental activities independently
 Do all activities designed for each lesson topic through grade levels of 9-12
Instructor’s Activities
 Explains effective techniques of teaching
 Guides and discusses on methods of teaching
 Orients and checks the lesson plan and gives feedback before presentation
 Evaluates all activities of students
 Gives timely and overt feedback
Assessment strategies and techniques
 Self-reflection capacity
 Independent lesson planning and preparation of supportive materials
 Implementation of micro or actual teaching using appropriate methods
 Practical demonstrations and experimental activities
 Laboratory works
 Written final exams
Instructional resources and equipment

 Overhead projector
 LCD Projector
 Teaching aids (real objects, drawings and charts)
 Samples and specimens
 Lab equipment (Microscope etc.)
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Key readings
1. Lovegrove (1961): The quality of teaching, a handbook of teachers, Auckland.
2. MoE (2010): Biology Students textbook and teacher’s guide for grade 9
4. MoE (2010): Biology Student textbook and teacher’s guide for grade 11
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Unit Four: Evaluation in Biology Teaching (10 hrs)
Unit Introduction

There are many important elements in a teachers teaching function. He prepares his lessons,
introduces and develops it, and then he checks to see if his students have learnt what they are
expected to learn. It is only after a teacher has confirmed that his students' have learnt what he
has taught them that he will be comfortable to conclude his lesson.
The teacher is also concerned with making many decisions e.g. whether to continue to teach
particular concept or whether to move on to another one, whether to adopt a new teaching
method, discard an old one,: who to promote. Who has done well in a course, etc. before a
teacher can make any of the above decisions, he needs to assess his students, he needs to
measure them, and he needs to evaluate them. It is the information he gets from this evaluation
or assessment that will help him to take informed and appropriate decisions. We will look at
how to set objective and essay type questions that can be used to assess learning
outcomes in the higher cognitive processes of Application, Analysis and Synthesis.
The primary way that teachers obtain data concerning their students' attainment is by their daily
contacts with the students. Teacher observations of daily behaviour and the tests they give
constitute the major impact upon teacher evaluation of students' achievements. There are
certain aspects of classroom work that cannot be tested with the conventional paper and pencil
test but with other techniques. Such practical activities abound in biology. In this unit, we will
study such other evaluation techniques that you need as a biology teacher in evaluating your
learning outcomes.
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Unit learning out comes
After completion of this unit, learners will be able to:


 define Evaluation
 describe how to evaluate the cognitive skills set essay and objective type questions
 list the six categories of cognitive behavior
 develop test items to test behaviour at the Knowledge level
 develop test items to test behaviour at the Comprehension level.
 give the conditions under which good application questions can be set
 write test items that will be used to assess learning at the application level.
 distinguish between procedures and products in academic achievement
 describe performance tests
 describe procedures and processes using a biology topic,
 describe how to evaluate procedures and products
 describe how you will evaluate the psychomotor skills
 discuss the affective skills that can affect the success of your teaching
 identify instruments you can use to evaluate affects
 list the aspects of a practical work you will assess using a biology topic,
 design a rating scale you will use to assess a given practical exercise
 design a rating scale you will use to evaluate projects.
Unit Outline
The unit consists of the five sections indicated in the box below that are further divided into
sub sections and lesson topics.
4.1. Evaluation of Theory I (Objectives and Essay Questions) (4 hrs)

4.2. Evaluation of Theory II (Objectives and Essay Questions: Application,
Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation) (3 hrs)
4.3. Other Teacher Made Evaluation Procedures (3 hrs)
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4.1. Evaluation of Theory I (Objectives and Essay Questions)
4.1.1. Definition of Evaluation

4.1.2. Evaluating the Cognitive Skills
4.1.2.1. Essay Type Questions
4.1.2.2. Objectives Type Questions
4.1.3. The Six Categories of Cognitive Behaviour
4.1.4. Developing Test Items to Test the Various Categories
4.1.5. Summary
4.1.6. References/Further Readings
4.1.1. Definition of Evaluation
As you read some books, you will notice that the terms tests, assessments, measurement and
evaluation are used interchangeably. These terms are related since they all deal with checking
for changes in behaviour of students because of teaching, but they have some minor
differences. We will not be concerned with these differences now since you will have
opportunity of learning about them in another course. For our purpose here, we will define
evaluation as a systematic process of determining the extent to which students achieve
educational objectives. This definition has two important aspects. One is that evaluation
involves a systematic process, which does not include casual uncontrolled observation of pups.
Second, evaluation always assumes that educational objectives have been previously identified.
Without previously determined objectives, it will be extremely difficult if not impossible to
judge the extent of progress. (It will just be like someone leaving his house to go somewhere
without a destination in mind, the person will not know when he/she gets to his/her destination).
4.1.2. Evaluating the Cognitive Skills
Evaluating the cognitive skills generally involve the use of paper and pencil tests. However
these assessments can also be done on computer systems. Two types of paper and pencil tests
are generally used. These are the essay and objective type questions.
4.1.2.1. Essay Type Questions
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These are questions requiring students to write down their answers. Essay questions are usually
of two types. One is the short answer type, e.g. when you ask a student to explain using three
sentences the meaning of photosynthesis. The second type of essay is the extended response
format e.g., when you ask a student to give a detailed account of the process of photosynthesis.
The difference in the two formats is that in the short response format, you are restricting the
student to a few sentences or lines, while in the extended response format, there is no page
restriction and the student is free to write as much as he/she wants.
4.1.2.2. Objectives Type Questions
Objective type questions require students to choose answers from a given list or to supply one-
word answers. They are of many forms and we will look at some of them. The most common
form of objective type questions is the multiple-choice question. This involves asking a
question or making a statement and giving a number of response options from which the student
is expected to pick the correct one. Another form of objective type question is making a
sentence and leaving out a key word in the middle or at the end of the sentence and then asking
the student to supply the word to in the gap. It could also be in the form of making two lists A
and B and asking students to match statements from the two lists.
Let me give you some examples and allow you to give some more.
Example 1: One of the under listed is not a class of food
a) Fat
b) Protein
c) Carbohydrate
d) Milk
Example 2: What part of the nose is responsible for
smell?.............
Example 3: …….is the movement of solvents
across a semi-permeable membrane.
Example 4: In a food chain……..is the primary producer?
Using the topic, Living and non-living things, construct
1. Two essay type questions
2. Two objective type questions
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4.1.3. The Six Categories of Cognitive Behaviour
For you to evaluate meaningfully in Biology, you must take care of the various mental and
intellectual skills, which learners are supposed to acquire. These skills have been classified into
six by Bloom (1956). We will briefly look at the meaning and expectations in each of these
categories before looking at how to evaluate them. In this section, you will read about each
category, and get a brief description of what each category stands for.
Knowledge - this refers to those behaviour and test situations which emphasis the remembering
by either recognition or recall of ideas, materials or phenomena e.g., how many legs have a
cockroach?
Comprehension - refers to those behaviour or responses that represent understanding of the
literal message contained in a communication, that is, ability to give an explanation not a
definition e.g. explain the process of photosynthesis.
Application - This is the ability to apply the appropriate abstraction without having to be shown
how to use it in that situation e.g. given a biological principle and appropriate environmental
conditions, the student should be able predict the result.
Analysis - this emphasizes the breakdown of a material into its component parts and the
detection of the relationships of the parts and of the way they are organized.
Synthesis - this is the putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole, that is,
working with elements, parts etc., and combining them in such a way as to constitute a pattern
or structure not there before.
Evaluation - this is the making of judgment about the value for some purpose of ideas, works,
solutions, methods, materials etc. It involves the use of criteria as well as standards for
appraising the extent to which particulars are accurate, effective, economical or satisfying.
(You will see examples of these three categories when we look at how to set test items to assess
them).
4.1.4. Developing Test Items to Test the Various Categories
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Knowledge - This is an area of evaluation, where most teachers do not have problems. Most
questions that teachers ask belong to this category. We will not waste too much time on them
because, I am sure that you can ask millions of questions that will test this domain. I will give
you some examples, and then allow you to give some more examples. Examples
1. How many legs has a cockroach?
2. Which part of a leaf is involved in photosynthesis?

Set two questions under the topic NUTRITION, that will measure at knowledge level. (One
example is given to you-how many classes of food do we have?)
Comprehension
Comprehension items should aim at finding out whether or not the students understand the
biological concepts studied; whether they can give an explanation, not a definition. While
knowledge may imply that students can recall or recognize a concept, comprehension implies
in addition a thorough or reasonable familiarity with the concepts. What this means is that when
you state a fact or principle using other words or in unfamiliar circumstances, your
students should be able to understand it. In setting questions that will test for comprehension,
you can use both the essay type and objective type of questions. You must however,
ensure that your questions meet some important criteria and observe some conditions for the
effective use of questions in evaluating at the comprehension level.
1. Ability to select the best explanation of a biological concept from a list of explanations.
An example of a question that meets these criteria is given: Which of the following would
you say is a good explanation of the process of photosynthesis?
A. It is the whole process by which the simple inorganic raw materials are converted into
complex substances of which the green plant is composed.
B. It is the process of making fats, oils, and proteins in the green leaves of a plant during
sunlight, with water and carbon dioxide as raw materials.
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C. It is a chemical reaction that takes place in the green parts of plants resulting in the
formation of simple sugars and oxygen D. It is the reaction between food substances like
glucose with oxygen, resulting in the formation of water, carbon dioxide and energy.
D. It is the conversion of the glucose or simple sugars manufactured in the leaves into starch
and cellulose for storage. Within the five alternative responses in this item, the main
components of photosynthesis - energy, green leaves, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
simple sugars have been included in all forms of order that do not all constitute
photosynthesis. Understanding of the termwould imply ability to relate each of the
components mentioned to the others to be able to arrive at the correct answer.
In an essay form, you may ask the student to explain the process of photosynthesis. His answer
may be a recall of a previously learned explanation and so is not likely to discriminate between
those students who comprehend and those who merely recall the concept.
1. Ability to criticize an inadequate definition or explanation. Example: Criticize the

following definition: A reptile is an animal which does not suckle its young ones and
which lives on land. Obviously, this is neither a good definition nor an explanation of
the term “reptile”. To answer it adequately requires that the student have an adequate
or more plausible understanding of what a reptile is. This understanding will enable the
student point out that there are many animals which do not suckle their young and which
cannot be classed as reptiles. In addition, there are many land animals, which are not
reptiles
2. Ability to draw and label important structures of plants and animals. Example: make a
diagram of the cross-section of a dicotyledon term, and label the following parts: pith,
cortex, xylem, phloem and epidemics. The question requires the student to show that
he knows the relative sizes and relative positions of the structures involved, as well as
being able to label certain structures. A good diagram, which is well labeled is as good
evidence of understanding as a page or more of written description and explanation.
3. Ability to associate a given structure(s) in a given diagram with various functions, and
ability to associate a given function(s) in a diagram with a part or parts of the diagram.
Example 1: In the diagram provided (diagram is the longitudinal section of a dicot
leaf), what is the function of the part labeled C? (C consists of a group of spongy
mesophyll cells).
1. Proteins are manufactured here.
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2. Starches are converted to simple sugar.
3. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere.
4. Manufactured food is stored for later use.
5. Glucose is manufactured in this section.
Here the student has to associate a given structure (not named, but given an alphabetic label)
with a number of functions. It involves both naming the structure, (even though the student
may not write it down), and knowing its function to the organism and therefore rejecting any
other answer (in a multiple-choice form) which does not fit.
Example 2: In what structure in the diagram provided is excess water got rid of. (Same
diagram as in example 1).
1.A 2 .G 3.F 4.D 5.B
Here the reverse mental process takes place. The student thinks out the name of the structure,
which performs that function, and then tries to identify this structure in the diagram provided.
4.1.5. Summary

i. Evaluation is a systematic process of determining the extent to which students achieve
educational objectives.
ii. Evaluating the cognitive skills generally involve the use of paper and pencil tests.
iii. Two types of paper and pencil tests are generally used. These are the essay and objective
type questions.
iv. The six categories of cognitive behaviour are Knowledge, Comprehension,
Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation.
v. Developing test items to test the various categories requires various skills and
techniques.
4.1.6. References/Further Readings
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Aliyu Abdullahi (2018). Science Teaching in Nigeria: Atoto Press, Ilorin.
Ali Anthony, (2016 ). Strategic Issues and Trends in Science Education, Onitsha: Africa
Cape Publisher International Limited. Visit www. study.com.
SAE 1
Two Essay Questions-

1 Discuss the characteristics of living things
2 Using specific examples describe the process of respiration in living things.
Two Objective Questions
1. Which of these is not a characteristic of living things?

A. Respiration
B. Nutrition
C. Locomotion
D. Reproduction
E. Duplication
2. ----- is a characteristic of living things.
SAE 2 -- Questions at the knowledge level
1 Discuss the two types of nutrition in living things

2 What are the different modes of nutrition in living things?
1.2. Evaluation of Theory (Objectives and Essay Questions:

Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation)
1.2.1. Testing at Higher Cognitive Levels

4.2.1.1 Application
4.2.1.2 Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation
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1.2.2. Conclusion
1.2.3. Summary
1.2.4. References/ Further Readings/Web Sources
1.2.1. Testing at Higher Cognitive Levels
4.2.1.1 Application
Testing/Evaluating for application requires asking students’ questions that will make them use
biological information in different ways other than the ways in which they were taught in class.
Some examples are given: Given a biological principle and appropriate environmental
condition (natural or experimental), the students may be required to predict the result. Given
the environmental condition and their effect on the biological system in question, the students
may be requested to deduce the underlying biological principle.
Given the biological principle or principles and the results, the students may be requested to
deduce what environmental conditions may have given rise to the results.
The following three examples will be given to guide you. All three are centered around the
principle of Osmosis. (The principle of Osmosis holds that if two solutions of different
concentrations are separated by a semi- permeable membrane, there will be a movement of
solvent from the weaker solution to the stronger solution as long as the difference in
concentration persists.)
Example 1: To the end of a thistle funnel, a piece of sheep’s bladder was securely tied. Strong
salt was poured into it and it was stood upright in a beaker of water. What will happen to the
level of water in the funnel a few hours later?
In this question, the conditions of the experiment have been given and the student is expected
to use the information to predict the results. The principle of Osmosis is implied, rather than
stated.
Example 2: To the end of a thistle funnel, a piece of sheep’s bladder was securely tied. Strong
salt was poured into it and it was stood in a beaker of salt solution. After an hour, it was found
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that the level of liquid in the beaker had dropped. What can you conclude about the
concentrations of the salt solutions used in this experiment? The principle of Osmosis is again
implied and the result given. The student is expected to deduce the most probable experimental
condition that would produce the given results.
Example 3: A fresh water protozoan animal was dropped into a beaker of seawater. Three
minutes later, it was examined under the microscope and was found to have shriveled. How
would you explain this? The experimental conditions and the results are given and the student
is required to cite the appropriate principle involved and use it in explaining the results. The
principle is Osmosis.
It is necessary in Examples 1 and 2 to ensure that if the principle is not stated, it is sufficiently
implied, otherwise, there will be no answer to the question or there will be no unique answer
to the question. In developing application questions, therefore, care must be taken to avoid
some mistakes that could render the questions invalid. Some of these situations are:
The situation used in the question must be real, that is, not fictitious. You must resist the
temptation of building items in which the concepts involved are not real. An example of a
question that is using a situation that is not real and therefore unacceptable is: Suppose that for
an unknown reason, all the plants of the earth died. What would be the source of food for the
animals left on earth? The question might be acceptable if one is testing for reasoning ability,
but it is definitely not acceptable in a biology class. The second thing is to ensure that the
question asked is testing reasoning in a biological principle and not student's intelligence.
Look at the two examples below and pick the one that is testing reasoning in a biological
situation.
Example 1: A gardener acquired a new plot of land where he planted onions, tomatoes, and
lettuce. For several years, the yield from the onions was very poor, so he stopped gardening
the soil. A year later, he resumed with the same three plants. Which of these would produce
the poorest crop?
Example 2: What would be the effect on a mammal, if the hepatic portal vein were ligatured?
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Example 2 is a better question because it requires that the student know the functions of a
hepatic portal vein. If he/she does not know this, he/she will be unable to reason that though
the animal may eat and digest food, the digested food does not get to the liver for storage, and
that the liver will run s hort of food, etc.
The next thing to note is that the situation used in asking the question must be new to the
students. This means that the situation being described is not one that was used for the students
before; otherwise, it will be an ordinary knowledge question since all the students' need will be
to remember what has been said earlier. This poses a big problem. How can the biology teacher
continue to construct such questions for each time an application question is given, it loses its
novelty and upon subsequent administration, the teacher cannot know whether the responses
given are products of reasoning or of memory? There does not appear to be much that the
biology teacher can do other than to keep thinking up new scenarios each time he/she wants to
ask application questions.
Using the three principles guiding setting questions at the application level, set two questions
that can be used to assess application.
4.2.1.2 Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation
The components of reasoning known as analysis, synthesis and evaluation are usually not
exhibited singly. In a classroom situation, it is extremely difficult to look at a student and say
that he/she is operating at either the analysis, synthesis or the evaluation level. These processes
are therefore referred to as higher cognitive skills. The typical biological or
scientific problem requires mental activity in all the six categories of cognition. Yet, it is easy
to isolate the first three and test them. That is why the last three are lumped together and test
items developed to test them.
We will now give some examples of items that can be used for the higher cognitive skills.
Example 1
An SS 1 student wanted to demonstrate to her parents that air is necessary for germination. She
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did not have the usual biology apparatus at home for this experiment, so she improvised with
some materials from her home. She first soaked some cotton wool in water, put it on a
saucer, and placed a handful of beans on it. Then she put a similar quantity of beans in a small
milk jug, and poured palm vegetable oil over it. The beans in the saucer and the jug were all
healthy. Both saucer and jug were placed together on a sheet of glass covered with a large glass
bowl, the edges of which were smeared with Vaseline. Results: A few days later, most of the
beans in the saucer germinated while none of the beans in the jug germinated. Two days after
germination, all the germinated seed withered and died.
1. Answer the questions 1-4 based on the report of the experiment. What conclusion can
you reach from the experiment?
a) It clearly demonstrates that air is necessary for germination

b) It does not show whether or not air is necessary for germination.
c) It does not in any way demonstrate that air is necessary for germination
2. What is your reason for choosing the answer to question?
a) Some of the seeds in the saucer did not germinate.

b) None of the seeds in the cooking oil germinated.
c) The cooking oil contains no water.
d) All the germinated seeds died two days after germination.
e) The apparatus does not come from the biology laboratory, and so the experiment is
not scientific enough.
3. What could have caused the death of the germinated seeds?
a) Lack of oxygen in the bowl chamber.
We will now give some examples of items that can be used for the higher cognitive
skills.
Example 1
An SS 1 student wanted to demonstrate to her parents that air is necessary for germination. She
did not have the usual biology apparatus at home for this experiment, so she improvised with
some materials from her home. She first soaked some cotton wool in water, put it on a
saucer, and placed a handful of beans on it. Then she put a similar quantity of beans in a small
105
milk jug, and poured palm vegetable oil over it. The beans in the saucer and the jug were all
healthy. Both saucer and jug were placed together on a sheet of glass covered with a large glass
bowl, the edges of which were smeared with Vaseline.
Results: A few days later, most of the beans in the saucer germinated while none of the beans
in the jug germinated. Two days after germination, all the germinated seed withered and died.
Answer the questions 1-4 based on the report of the experiment.
1 What conclusion can you reach from the experiment?

a. It clearly demonstrates that air is necessary for germination
b. It does not show whether or not air is necessary for germination.
c. It does not in any way demonstrate that air is necessary for germination
2 What is your reason for choosing the answer to question?
a. Some of the seeds in the saucer did not germinate.

b. None of the seeds in the cooking oil germinated.
c. The cooking oil contains no water.
d. All the germinated seeds died two days after germination.
e. The apparatus does not come from the biology laboratory, and so the
experiment is not scientific enough.
3 What could have caused the death of the germinated seeds?
a. Lack of oxygen in the bowl chamber.
b. Increase in temperature of the bowl chamber.
c. Absence of sand in the saucer.
d. Exhaustion of reserved food in the cotyledons.
e. Both (a) and (d).
4 Suppose the Vaseline seal was leaking, how right would it be to say that all the
beans in the saucer would have germinated?
a. Definitely right
b. Probably right
c. Uncertain
d. Probably wrong
e. Definitely wrong.
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Example 2
In a class project, the following experiment was set up: A test tube each of a freshly
prepared lime water was put into five bell jars A,B,C,D and E. Into A, a potted
mushroom was put; Into B, a young garden plant was put; Into C, a frog was put;
Nothing was put into D. C and E were put away in the dark, while the others A, B, and
D were left in bright sunlight. The experiment was allowed to stand for many hours.
Represent what has been described in a diagram/sketch. Study it carefully and use it to
answer questions 1-3.
1. To illustrate that animals respire both in daylight and night, it will be sufficient to
use the results of the following test tubes:
a) C and D
b) C and E
c) A and C
d) B and C
e) None of the above.
2. In which of the bell jars was oxygen content increased at the end
of the experiment?
a) E
b) B
c) C
d) A and D
e) None of the above.
3. To illustrate that respiration takes place in green plants in both
daylight and night, it will be sufficient to use the results of the
following test tubes:
a) D and E
b) B and E
c) E only
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d) B only
e) A and E.
1.2.6. Summary
In this unit, we have studied that Testing/Evaluating for application requires asking students’
questions that will make them use biological information in different ways other than the ways
in which they were taught in class. The typical biological or scientific problem requires mental
activity in all the six categories of cognition. Yet, it is easy to isolate the first three
and test them. It is not so easy to isolate Analysis, Synthesis and Application, that is why they
are lumped together and test items developed to test them.
1.2.7. References/ Further Readings/Web Sources
Aliyu Abdullahi (2016). Science Teaching in Nigeria: Atoto Press, Ilorin.

Ali Anthony, (2018). Strategic Issues and Trends in Science Education, Onitsha: Africa Cape
Publisher International Limited.
Zimmerman, Corinne; Croker, Steve (2014) Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology.
A prospective Cognition Analysis of Scientific Thinking and the Implications for Teaching
and Learning Vol 13,No 2, 2014 pp. Springer Publishing Company.
Edward W. Sarath (2013) Improvisation, Creativity and Consciousness:
Sunny Press p. 487.
SAE 1
Example 2 is a better question for testing reasoning in the situation given above.
SAE 2
Two questions assessing application level-
1 If you were to add pure water to a plant, what type of situation would you create?
2 Insulin is a hormone that serves as a signal to tell cells to absorb glucose. What would
happen if the receptor for insulin is damaged?
4.3. Other Teacher Made Evaluation Procedures
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i. Evaluating the Psychomotor Domain
4.3.1.1. Procedures and Products
4.3.1.2.Performance Tests
4.3.1.3.Procedures
4.3.1.4.How to Evaluate Procedures and Products
4.3.2. Affective Domain
4.3.2.1. Type of Affective Measure
4.3.3. Evaluation of Practical Biology
4.3.3.1. Manipulative Skills
4.3.3.2.Skills in Observation and Accurate Recording of
4.3.3.3.Ability to Interpret Results
4.3.3.4.Ability to Plan and Execute a Project
4.3.4. Evaluation through Projects
4.3.5. Summary
4.3.6. References/Further Reading/Web Sources
1.3.1. Evaluating the Psychomotor Domain
4.3.1.1. Procedures and Products
In biology teaching, we are not always interested in evaluating what a person knows. Our
interest sometimes goes beyond this to measuring what the person can do. What a person can
do requires both an instrument (Performance test) and a procedure.
1.3.1.2. Performance Tests
These techniques try to establish what a person can do as distinct from what he knows. Work
samples and skill samples can tell us this. We are also interested in the tasks involved in
making, producing or creating the product so that we will be able to diagnose weaknesses in
the instructional system, the learning process, or both.
1.3.1.3. Procedures
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This refers to the steps followed in doing some task. The biology student is expected to be able
to manipulate a microscope or observe something placed under the microscope, depending on
his level. He should be able to draw and label a given specimen, and he should be able to set
up a simple experiment, example one to demonstrate the conditions necessary for germination.
Although procedures and products are inter-related, they are generally separate entities that can
be observed, measured, and evaluated independently. In some areas, it might be more desirable
to rate procedures during the early phases of learning, and products later, after the basic skills
have been learnt. Example in a biology class, as soon as a student starts assembling the
materials he/she will use to set up an experiment, it is possible to evaluate whether she is
assembling the right materials. From here, you can check whether she is setting them up in the
right way. It is only at the end that you can look at the' whole set-up and the student's write
up. Yet all the processes that go before are as important as the finished work.
Process evaluation is also very important in the affective domain. Observation of a student
while he is performing a task can provide useful information concerning his attitude.
All evaluation requires that some criterion of correctness be established beforehand by the
evaluator. For procedural evaluation, our concern should be with efficiency and accuracy.
For example, to ascertain whether students can operate a microscope, the teacher would first
list out the steps involved and then observe every one student to see how well these steps were
followed. For accuracy, the teacher might use as a criterion, the precision with which the slide
is focused.
1.3.1.4. How to Evaluate Procedures and Products
To evaluate a procedure or product, we must first observe the procedure being used or the
product made by the student. Then using some form of scale, we determine the degree to
which the steps were followed or the product made is acceptable. The scales that we can use
include:
 Check lists
 Rating scales, and
 Ranking method.
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After identifying the criteria to be used, the teacher must be satisfied that the criteria are related
to the instructional objectives. For example, if your objective states that at the end of the lesson,
the students should be able to set up an experiment to show the conditions necessary for
germination, the criteria should not include asking students to draw and
label, but should concentrate on the dexterity with which the students are able to set up the
experiment.
The weight assigned to each step or characteristic should reflect the instructional emphasis
placed on each criterion. The teacher will then assign some numerical value to each component
so that at the end, he/she will be able to determine who performed better than the other.
Self-Assessment Exercise
1. Distinguish between procedure and process in assessment.

2. Choose a biology activity, identify the procedure in the activity, and state how
to evaluate each.
1.3.2. Affective Domain
Affective measures are non-cognitive measures which can be used to assess the emotional
status of students in various contexts. Affective measures are important in educational
assessment because all forms of learning can only be meaningfully done in within adequate
contexts of feeling, attitudes, interests, aspirations, and so on. These feelings are generally
described as affects and the affective disposition of a student has direct relevance to his/her
attitude towards the value of an educational activity.
1.3.2.1. Type of Affective Measure
There are many types of non-cognitive tests. These include assessment tools such as:-
 anecdotes checklists
 sociometric techniques interviews
 rating scales, attitude scales questionnaire, interest inventory, Self-concept scales, etc.
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The test may be structured in a form where respondents have a limited number of alternative
responses to choose from, or it test may be unstructured in a form where they are free to respond
in the way they like.
Biology teachers can use some of the already prepared attitude and interest inventory to assess
students. These type of assessment will enable them know where to pitch their teaching.
1.3.3. Evaluation of Practical Biology
One of the distinguishing features of science, of which biology is one, is its characteristic
technique and skill for exploring nature. The abilities which enable both science teachers and
students to engage in a meaningful scientific investigation including the ability to observe,
communicate, identify problems, ask questions formulate hypothesis, design experiments,
control variables, analyze data, make inferences and predictions. The assessments of these
skills are usually based on the qualities to be tested. These are
a. manipulative skills
b. skill in observation and accurate recording of observations
c. ability to interpret results of planned experiments
d. ability to plan and carry out experiments
1.3.3.1. Manipulative Skills
Assessment of these skills should be based on direct observation of pupils when they are
doing their laboratory work and the things to look out for include:
 efficient use of working tools

 use of correct operational sequence
 ease of operation based on limited instructions correct handling of apparatus
 successful completion of an experiment orderliness
1.3.3.2. Skills in Observation and Accurate Recording of
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Emphasis here should be on the ability of students to: record observations correctly including
actual drawing as against textbook specimen, observe accurately, read instructions correctly
1.3.3.3. Ability to Interpret Results
Here the things to look out for are student’s ability to: understand the theory underlying
generalizations or principles being investigated drawing of logical conclusions from the
findings of an experiment
1.3.3.4. Ability to Plan and Execute a Project
Students will be assessed on the following attributes:
 ability to choose appropriate equipment and apparatus,

 ability to organize or assemble apparatus/equipment chosen
 suitability of experimental technique chosen.
1.3.4. Evaluation through Projects
When we use projects, we are able to measure both cognitive and affective learning as
psychomotor skills. The following guidelines have been found useful in evaluating projects
in biology.
1. Background information is how well the students have shown mastery of the concepts
and principle underlying the projects they are about to execute
2. Design of the experiment preparation of materials.
3. Manual skills and use of appropriate experiment techniques.
4. Recording and presentation of findings.
5. Discussion and explanation of findings
Each of the attributes can be scored on a five-point scale as follows:

Excellent = 5
Very Good = 4
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Good = 3
Fair = 2
Poor = 1
In that way, the maximum score per project will be 25, while the minimum will be 5.
1.3.5. Summary
In this unit, we have learnt that: -procedures and products are interrelated. They are
separate entities that can be observed, measured and evaluated independently.
Procedure or product can be evaluated by first observe the procedure being used or
product made by the earner using the following scales checklists, rating scales and
ranking method. Affective are non-cognitive measures which can be used to assess the
emotional status of students.
Assessment tools used for non-cognitive tests are anecdotes, checklists, sociometric
techniques, interviews, rating scales, attitude scales, questionnaire, interest inventing
and self-concept scale
Evaluation of practical skills in biology are based on the following except

A. Manipulative Skills
B. Ability to carry out experiments
C. Ability to interpret results of experiments carried out
D. Ability to draw the equipment used for the experiment
E. Skill in observation and accurate recording
1.3.6. References/Further Reading/Web Sources
Zimmerman, Corinne; Croker, Steve (2014) Journal of Cognitive Education and

Psychology. A prospective Cognition Analysis of Scientific Thinking and the
Implications for Teaching and Learning Vol 13,No 2, 2014 pp. Springer
114
Publishing Company.
Aliy Abdullah (2016). Science Teaching in Nigeria: Atoto Press, Ilorin.
Ali Anthony, (2018). Strategic Issues and Trends in Science Education, Onitsha:
Africa Cape Publisher International Limited.
SAE 1
Procedure is a set of instruction for completing a task, the order or sequence of the steps to be
followed to make something happen. While Process is a series of tasks and activities that
produce results or outcomes.
 The Chosen Activity is - Examining the parts of Flower
 The procedure in examining the parts of a Flower include-
Use a razor blade to remove the corolla tube
 Cut the style and stigma away

 Use a blade to remove the ovary
 Cut the ovary along the vertical plane
 Use hand lens to examine the cut surface
To evaluate the procedure a 5point rating scale will be used as shown below
Rating Scale –
5points (Pass) -Excellent

4points (Pass) - Very Good
3points (Pass) - Acceptable
2 points (Fail) - Weak
The total maximum score will be 25 marks.

SAE 2
Answer - D. Ability to draw the equipment used for the experiment.
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Bahir Dar University, College of Science,

Biology Subject Area Method II Module

Prepared by: Bahir Dar University

© Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Course Code: BiEd 565

Prerequisite module: Biology Subject Area

ii. Expected Learning Outcomes

 Design Lesson Plans for teaching biology lessons

iii. Module Requirements

iv. Scope of the Module

v. Duration of the Study

Module learning outcomes

Unit learning out comes

After completion of this unit, learners will be able to:

1.1 Traditional Methods of Teaching Biology (6 hrs.)

1.1. Traditional Methods of Teaching Biology

1.1.1. Lecture Method in Biology Teaching

1.1.1. Lecture Method in Biology Teaching

1.1.1.1. Advantages of Lecture Method

1.1.1.2, Disadvantages of Lecture Method

1.1.1.3 Suggestions for the Use of Lecture Method

A. Avoid coverage of too many topics.

2. State three advantages of the lecture method in teaching biology.

1.1.2. Discussion Method in Biology Teaching

1. Discussion method encourages students learning through active participation in the

1.1.2.2. Disadvantages of Discussion Method

1.1.2.3 Suggestions for the Effective Use of Discussion

1. State two disadvantages of the discussion method.

1.1.3. Project Method in Biology Teaching

Some examples of project topics in biology include:

1. Reading of Scientific Journals.

1.1.3.1 Advantages of Project Method

1.1.3.2 Disadvantages of Project Method

1.1.3.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Project Method

1. State three advantages of the project method in teaching biology.

1.1.4. Field Trip in Biology Teaching

1.1.4.2 Disadvantages of Field Trip

1. If it is not well planned, it becomes a waste of time and resources.

1.1.4.3 Suggestion for the Effective Use of Field Trip

1. Explain what you understand by field trip in biology teaching.

1.1.6 References/Further Reading/Web Resources

Maduabum, M.A (2013).Teaching Integrated Science effectively. Onitsha Space Matrix

1.1.7 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1. Answer is C. - Provide students with textbooks

1. Discussion method consumes a lot of time.

a. Giving students advance information about the topic to be discussed

1. Project method gives students opportunity to develop leadership qualities.

1. It helps the students to understand man’s relationship with the environment.

1.2.1. Demonstration in Biology Teaching

1.2.2.1. Advantages of Experimentation

1.2.4. References/Further Readings/Web Sources

1.2.5. Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.2.1. Demonstration in Biology Teaching

1. Demonstration is an inexpensive method of teaching biology since only the

1.2.1.2. Disadvantages of Demonstration

1.2.1.3. Suggestions for the Effective Use of Demonstration

Self -Assessment Exercise 1

1.2.2. Experimentation in Biology Teaching

Experimentation is a means of acquiring science process skills such as observation, measuring,

Experimentation is a means by which students acquire meaningful learning of science concepts to

Phase One–Pre–Laboratory Session

Phase Two–Laboratory Session

Phase Three–Post Laboratory Session