3/19/2023

University of Basrah
College of Engineering
Materials Engineering Department

Mathematics II
1st Year / 2st Semester

Dr. Mohammed Mustafa

Subjects:
• Integration
• Applications of Integration
• Integration Techniques
• Numerical Integration
• Polar Coordinates
• Inverse Functions

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Definite & Indefinite Integrals

There are 2 types of integral

(i) Indefinite (‫)𝑥׬‬, in which we aren't given the limits of integration, i.e. x=a to
x=b, so we just calculate a generic, all purpose solution, and
𝑏
(ii) Definite (‫)𝑥 𝑎׬‬, in which we are told a and b and so we can calculate an
explicit value for an area.

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𝑢𝑛+1 1
1. ‫= 𝑢𝑑 𝑛𝑢 ׬‬ 𝑛 ≠ −1 2. ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬ln | 𝑥| + C
𝑛+1 𝑥

𝑎𝑥
3. ‫ 𝑥 𝑒 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝐶 4. ‫= 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑎 ׬‬ +C
ln 𝑎

5. ‫ ׬‬sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 6. ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + C

7. ‫ ׬‬sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 8. ‫ ׬‬csc 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + C

9. ‫ ׬‬sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶 10. ‫ ׬‬csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − csc 𝑥 + C

11. නsec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 12. නcsc 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 + 𝐶

Example 1 Evaluate the following integrals :

1. ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 . 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫ 𝑥(׬‬+ 5)2 . 𝑑𝑥 , 3. ‫ ׬‬1 + 𝑦 2 . 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 , 4. ‫ ׬‬4𝑡 − 1 𝑑𝑡

Sol:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥 3
Why c ? , + 5 = 𝑥2
𝑥3 𝑑𝑥 3
1- ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 3
3
+ 8 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥 3

Another way: 𝑑𝑦 𝑥 3
− 5 = 𝑥2
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 3
𝑢=𝑥, = 1 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥
𝑢 3 𝑥3
‫𝑢 ׬‬2 . 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝑐 → + 𝑐
3 3

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Example 1 Evaluate the following integrals :

1. ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 . 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫ 𝑥(׬‬+ 5)2 . 𝑑𝑥 , 3. ‫ ׬‬1 + 𝑦 2 . 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 , 4. ‫ ׬‬4𝑡 − 1 𝑑𝑡

Sol:
3. ‫ ׬‬1 + 𝑦 2 . 2𝑦𝑑𝑦
2. ‫ 𝑥(׬‬+ 5)2 . 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑢 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑦2 , = 2𝑦 → 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑢/2𝑦
𝑑𝑦
𝑢 =𝑥+5, = 1 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢 1
𝑑𝑢 1
(𝑢)3/2 2 3
𝑑𝑥 ‫𝑢 ׬‬2 . 2𝑦. 2𝑦 = 𝑢2 . 𝑑𝑢 → + 𝑐 = 𝑢2 + 𝑐
𝑢 3 (𝑥+5)3 3/2 3
‫𝑢 ׬‬2 . 𝑑𝑢 = + 𝑐 →
3
+𝑐
3 2
(1 + 𝑦 2 )3/2 +𝑐
3

Example 1 Evaluate the following integrals :

1. ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 . 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫ 𝑥(׬‬+ 5)2 . 𝑑𝑥 , 3. ‫ ׬‬1 + 𝑦 2 . 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 , 4. ‫ ׬‬4𝑡 − 1 𝑑𝑡

Sol:

4. ‫ ׬‬4𝑡 − 1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 4𝑡 − 1 , = 4 → 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡 4
1
𝑑𝑢 1 (𝑢)3/2 1 2 3
‫𝑢 ׬‬2 . 4 → 4 3/2 + 𝑐 = 4 . 3 𝑢2 + 𝑐
1
(4𝑡 − 1)3/2 +𝑐
6

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Example 2 Evaluate the following integrals :

1
1. ‫ ׬‬cos(7𝜃 + 5). dθ , 2. ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)3 . 𝑑𝑥 , 3. ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬22𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ,
Sol:

1. ‫ ׬‬cos(7𝜃 + 5)𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 7𝜃 + 5, = 7 → 𝑑𝜃 =
𝑑𝜃 7
𝑑𝑢 1 1
‫ ׬‬cos 𝑢 . 7 → 7 sin 𝑢 + 𝑐 = 7 . sin(7𝜃 + 5) + 𝑐

Example 2 Evaluate the following integrals :

1
1. ‫ ׬‬cos(7𝜃 + 5). dθ , 2. ‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)3 . 𝑑𝑥 , 3. ‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬22𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ,
Sol:

2.‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 3 ). 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑥3, = 3𝑥 2 → 𝑑𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥 3𝑥
𝑑𝑢 1 1
‫ 𝑥 ׬‬2 sin 𝑢 . 2 → −cos 𝑢 + 𝑐 = − . cos(𝑥 3 ) + 𝑐
3𝑥 3 3

1
3.‫׬‬ = ‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 2𝑥, = 2 → 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑢 1 1
‫ 𝑐𝑒𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑢. → tan 𝑢 + 𝑐 = . tan(2𝑥) + 𝑐
2 2 2

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Example 4 Evaluate the following integrals :

1. ‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 , 2., ‫׬‬cos 2 𝑥. d𝑥
Sol:
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
1.‫𝑛𝑖𝑠 ׬‬2 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= න 𝑑𝑥 − න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 sin 2𝑥 𝑥 sin 2𝑥
= 𝑥− +𝐶 → − +𝐶
2 2 2 2 4

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥
2.‫ 𝑠𝑜𝑐 ׬‬2𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= න 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1 1 sin 2𝑥 𝑥 sin 2𝑥
= 𝑥+ +𝐶 → + +𝐶
2 2 2 2 4

Definite Integrals:

Rules satisfied by definite integrals:

𝑏 𝑏
1. ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬ 𝑘 = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓𝑘 𝑎׬‬
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
2. ‫ 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬± 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬± ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑔 𝑎׬‬
𝑎 𝑏
3. ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑏׬‬− ‫𝑥𝑑)𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬
𝑎
4. ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 )𝑥(𝑓 𝑎׬‬0
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
5. ‫ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬+ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬ = 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑏׬‬
𝑏 𝑏
6. 𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 𝑔 𝑥 𝑜𝑛[𝑎, 𝑏] ⇒ ‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑔 𝑎׬ ≥ 𝑥𝑑 𝑥 𝑓 𝑎׬‬

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Example 5 Evaluate the following integrals :

2 𝜋 2
1. ‫׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 3. ‫׬‬−2(4 − 𝑥 2 )
Sol:

2
2 𝑥3 23 03 8
1. ‫׬‬0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ฬ = − =
3 0 3 3 3

𝜋
𝜋
2. ‫׬‬0 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin อ = sin 𝜋 − sin 0 = 0
0
2
2 𝑥3 (2)3 −2 3 8 8
3. ‫׬‬−2(4 − 𝑥 2 ) = (4𝑥 − )ฬ = 4(2) − − 4 −2 − = 8− − −8 +
3 −2 3 3 3 3

8 8 16 16 ∗ 3 − 16) 48 − 16 32
8 − +8 − = 16 − = = =
3 3 3 3 3 3

Area under the Curve:

𝑦1

𝑦1

← ∆𝑥 →

→ ∆𝑥 ←

𝐴 ≈ ෍ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑛
𝑘=1 𝐴 ≈ ෍ 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 … … . +𝑎𝑛
𝑎1 = 𝑦1 ∗ ∆𝑥, 𝑎2 = 𝑦2 ∗ ∆𝑥
𝑛 𝑘=1
𝑛 𝑏
𝐴 ≈ ෍ 𝑓 𝑥𝑘 . ∆𝑥𝑘 𝐴 = lim ෍ 𝑓 𝑘 . ∆𝑥𝑘 = න 𝑓 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑘=1 ∆𝑥→0 𝑎
𝑘=1

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Example 6 Find the area between the x-axis and the given curve for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2:

𝑦
1. 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 , 2. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4
Sol:
𝑥
1. 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2
−2 2
since 𝑦 = 4 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 on [-2,2], the area between the curve and x-axis from -2 to 2 is:
2
2
𝑥3 32 𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = න 4 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 = = (4𝑥 − )อ = −2 2
−2 3 3
−2
2. 𝑦 = 𝑥2 −4

since 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4 ≤ 0 on [-2,2], the area between the curve and x-axis from -2 to 2 is: 𝑦
2
2
𝑥3 2 3 −2 3 8 8
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = න 𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = = ( − 4𝑥)อ = −4 2 − − 4 −2 = −8 − − +8
−2 3 3 3 3 3
−2
8 8 16 16 − 16 ∗ 3 16 − 48 32
= −8+ −8 = − 16 = = =−
3 3 3 3 3 3

Example 7 Find the area between the x-axis and the curve of 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 for −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2:
Sol:
In this case, the graph has two parts, one up and second down the X- axis. So, better test the graph before start to solve at any
time.

To test the graph, let 𝑓 𝑥 = 0, If 𝑓 𝑥 = 0 has more than two times, need divide the graph interval. 𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 → 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 = 0 → 𝑥 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1 0 2 𝑥
−1

2 0 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−1 −1 0
0
𝑥 4 𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 0 04 03 2 0 2 −1 4 −1 3 2 −1 2 1 1 5
න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − − ቤ = − − − − − =0− − +1=
−1 4 3 2 −1 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 12
2
𝑥 4 𝑥 3 2𝑥 2 2 2 4 2 3 2 2 2 04 03 2 0 2 16 8 8
න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − − ቤ = − − − − − = − −4=4− −4
0 4 3 2 0 4 3 2 4 3 2 4 3 3
8
=−
3

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2 0 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + න (𝑥 3 −𝑥 2 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−1 −1 0
5 8 37
+ − =
12 3 12

Logarithmic 1
𝑦 = (1 + ) 𝑥
𝑥
102 = 100 → log10 100 = 2 𝑥 = 100, 𝑦 = 2.70481

26 = 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 = 64 → log 2 64 = 6 𝑥 = 100,000, 𝑦 = 2.71827

𝑥 = 1,000,000, 𝑦 = 2.71828

log 𝑒 148.41315 ≈ 5 →→→→→→ ln 148.41315 ≈ 5 𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟖𝟏𝟖 … . .

log 𝑒 1.4918247 ≈ 0.4 →→→→→→ ln 1.4918246 ≈ 0.4

𝐥𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒙
_
𝐥𝐧 𝟏 𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙
𝐥𝐧(𝒆) = 𝟏

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1- Natural Logarithm

Example 1 Find the derivative of 2. ln(𝑥 2 + 3)

1. ln 2𝑥 , 2. ln(𝑥 2 + 3)
𝑑𝑢
Sol: 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 3, = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
1. 𝑢 = 2𝑥, =2 𝑑 1
𝑑𝑥 ln(𝑥 2 + 3) = 2 ∗ 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 +3
𝑑 1 1
ln 2𝑥 = ∗2= 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥 =
𝑥2 + 3

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Example 2 Find the Integral of

𝜋
2 2𝑥 4 cos 𝜃 𝜋
1. ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫׬‬2𝜋 𝑑𝜃, 3. ‫׬‬tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2.‫׬‬2𝜋
4 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
𝑥 2 −5 − 3+2 sin 𝜃
2 − 3+2 sin 𝜃
2
Sol:
𝑑𝑢
2 2𝑥 𝑢 = 3 + 2 sin 𝜃 , = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 → 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑑𝜃
1. ‫׬‬0 𝑥 2−5 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = 𝑥 2 − 5, = 2𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝜋
𝜋
2 4 cos 𝜃 2
න 𝑑𝜃 = 2ln(3 + 2 sin 𝜃)
2 2 −
𝜋 3 + 2 sin 𝜃 𝜋
2𝑥 2 −
න 𝑑𝑥 = ln 𝑥 2 − 5 ቮ → ln 22 − 5 − ln 02 − 5 2
0 𝑥2 −5 0
𝜋 𝜋
ln 1 − ln 5 = − ln 5 = 2 ln 3 + 2 sin − 2 ln 3 + 2 sin −
2 2
= 2ln 3 + 2(1) − 2 ln 3 + 2(−1)
= 2ln 5 − 2ln 1
= 2 ln 5

3. ‫׬‬tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Sol:
sin 𝑥
‫׬‬tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫ ׬‬cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
𝑢 = cos 𝑥 , = − sin 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

sin 𝑥 1
න 𝑑𝑥 = −ln cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 → ln +𝑐
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥

= ln sec 𝑥 + 𝑐

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2- The Exponential Function

The function ln x with domain (0, ∞) and range (−∞, ∞)

_
The inverse (ln 1 𝑥 ) with domain (−∞, ∞) and range (0, ∞)

Properties of exponential function (e)

1. ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑑 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2. 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 7. 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
3. 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎

4. 𝑒 𝑥1 . 𝑒 𝑥2 = 𝑒 𝑥1+𝑥2 8. ‫ 𝑢 𝑒 = 𝑢𝑑 𝑢 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝑐
𝑒 𝑥1
5. = 𝑒 𝑥1−𝑥2
𝑒 𝑥2

6. (𝑒 𝑥1 )𝑥2 = 𝑒 𝑥1. 𝑥2

Example 6 Find the derivative of

2 2
1. 𝑒 𝑥 , 2. 𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 , 3. 𝑒 sin 𝑥
Sol:

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
1. 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , = 2𝑥 3. 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑥2 2 𝑑 sin 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑥 . 2x 𝑒 = 𝑒 sin 𝑥 . cos x
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑢
2. 𝑢 = −𝑥 2 , = −2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 2 −𝑥 2 2 2
𝑥 𝑒 = 2x . 𝑒 −𝑥 + (𝑒 −𝑥 . −2𝑥). 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
2 2
= 2x 𝑒 −𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 𝑒 −𝑥
2
= 2x 𝑒 −𝑥 (1 − 𝑥 2 )

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Example 6 Find the Integral of

𝜋
ln 2 3𝑥 𝜋
1. ‫׬‬0 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫׬‬02 𝑒 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2.‫׬‬02 𝑒 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Sol:
𝑑𝑢
ln 2 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , = cos 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢/ cos 𝑥
1. ‫׬‬0 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
𝑑𝑢 2 𝑑𝑢 2
𝑢 = 3𝑥, = 3 → 𝑑𝑥 = 1/3 𝑑𝑢 න 𝑒 𝑢 cos 𝑥 = න 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥
0 0
ln 2 ln 2
1 1 ln 2
න 𝑒 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑u = න 𝑒 𝑢 𝑑u
0 0 3 3 0 π
𝜋
= 𝑒𝑢 ተ 2 = 𝑒 sin2 − 𝑒 sin 0
1 ln 2 1 ln 2 1
= 𝑒𝑢 อ = 𝑒 3𝑥 อ = (𝑒 3 ln 2 − 𝑒 3∗0 ) 0
3 0 3 0 3 𝑒1 − 𝑒 0 = 𝑒 − 1
1 ln 23 1 7
= 𝑒 − 𝑒 0 → 23 − 1 =
3 3 3

3- The General Exponential (𝒂𝒙 ) and Logarithmic Functions (𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙)

When 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 a is positive and a ≠ 1

The function 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 with domain (−∞, ∞) and

range (0, ∞)

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The Derivative of 𝒂𝒙

Example 1 Find the derivative of Example 2 Find the integral of

𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑑
1. 3 , 2. 3−𝑥 , 3. 3sin 𝑥 1. ‫ ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 , 2. ‫ ׬‬2sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol: Sol:
𝑑 𝑥 2𝑥
1. 3 = 3 𝑥 ln 3 1.‫ ׬‬2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑑𝑥 ln 2

𝑑 −𝑥 𝑑
2. 3 = 3−𝑥 ln 3 . −𝑥 = −3−𝑥 ln 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2. න 2sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑢 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
3. 3sin 𝑥 = 3sin 𝑥 ln 3 . sin 𝑥 = 3sin 𝑥 ln 3 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝑢
න 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝑐
ln 2

2sin 𝑥
= +𝑐
ln 2

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Logarithms with Base a

If a is any positive number other than 1, the function 𝒂𝒙 is one-to-one and has a nonzero derivative at every
point. It therefore has a differentiable inverse. We call the inverse the logarithm of x with base a and
denote it by 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 .

For any positive number 𝑎 ≠ 1, log 𝑎 𝑥 is the inverse function of 𝑎 𝑥 .

We have 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 inverse of 𝒆𝒙 .

The graph of 𝐲 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 can be obtained by reflecting

(inverses) the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 across the 45° line
𝑦 = 𝑥.

Example 3 Applying of inverse equations

1. 102 = 100 → log10 100 = 2 → log10 102 = 2

2. 26 = 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 ∗ 2 = 64 → log 2 64 = 6 → log 2 26 = 6
3. log 2 (25 ) = 5
4. log10 (10−7 ) = −7
5. 2log2 (3) = 3
6. 10log10 (4) = 4

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Evaluation of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 Rules for base a logarithms

Derivatives and Integrals Involving 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙

𝐥𝐧 𝒖
න 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒖 𝒅𝒖 = න 𝒅𝒖
𝐥𝐧 𝒂

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Example 4 Find
𝑑
1. log10 (3𝑥 + 1) 2.‫׬‬
log2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 =‫׬‬
ln 𝑥 1
. 𝑑𝑥 =
1 ln 𝑥
‫𝑥𝑑 𝑥 ׬‬
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 ln 2 𝑥 ln 2
log2 𝑥
2.‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
log(𝑥+2)
3. ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+2
1 1 1 1
= න ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 → න 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑢 = ln 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥
Sol: ln 2 𝑥 ln 2 𝑥

𝑑 1 1 𝑢2
1. 𝑑𝑥
log10 (3𝑥 + 1) = න 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 → . +𝑐
ln 2 ln 2 2
1 1 𝑑
= . 3𝑥 + 1 1 (ln 𝑥)2
ln 10 3𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = . +𝑐
ln 2 2
3 (ln 𝑥)2
= = +𝑐
(ln 10)(3𝑥 + 1) 2 ln 2

log(𝑥+2)
3. ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+2

log(𝑥 + 2) ln 𝑥 + 2 1
න 𝑑𝑥 → න . . 𝑑𝑥
𝑥+2 ln 10 𝑥 + 2

1
𝑢 = ln 𝑥 + 2 , 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 1
1 1 𝑥+2
= න ln 𝑥 + 2 . . 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
ln 10 𝑥+2 ln 10

1 𝑢2
1 (ln 𝑥 + 2 )2 = . +𝑐
= . +𝑐 ln 10 2
ln 10 2
1 (ln 𝑥 + 2 )2
(ln 𝑥 + 2 )2 = . +𝑐
= +𝑐 ln 10 2
2 ln 10

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Sine Function

Cosine Function

Graphs of the six basic inverse trigonometric functions

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Example 1 Find the derivative of

𝑑 𝑑
1. sin−1 𝑥 2 , 2. sec −1 5𝑥4 ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Sol:

1.

2.

Example 2 Find
3Τ2 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
(a) ‫ ׬‬2Τ2 , (b). ‫׬‬0 , (c). ‫׬‬2Τ 3 𝑥 𝑥 2 −1
1−𝑥 2 1+𝑥 2

Sol:

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Example 3 Find
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(a) ‫׬‬ , (b). ‫׬‬ , (c). ‫׬‬ , (d). ‫׬‬ , (e). ‫׬‬
9−𝑥 2 3−4𝑥 2 4𝑥−𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 +4𝑥+2 𝑒 2𝑥 −6

Sol:

Example 3 Find
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(a) ‫׬‬ , (b). ‫׬‬ , (c). ‫׬‬ , (d). ‫׬‬ , (e). ‫׬‬
9−𝑥 2 3−4𝑥 2 4𝑥−𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 +4𝑥+2 𝑒 2𝑥 −6

Sol:

(c).

4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 = − 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
= − 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 4 + 4
= −(𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4) + 4
= −(𝑥 − 2)2 + 4

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Example 3 Find
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(a) ‫׬‬ , (b). ‫׬‬ , (c). ‫׬‬ , (d). ‫׬‬ , (e). ‫׬‬
9−𝑥 2 3−4𝑥 2 4𝑥−𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 +4𝑥+2 𝑒 2𝑥 −6

Sol:

(d). 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 =
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 + 1 =

4
4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + +1=
4
1
4(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + ) + 1 =
4
1
4(𝑥 + )2 + 1 =
2
(2𝑥 + 1)2 +1 =

Example 3 Find
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(a) ‫׬‬ , (b). ‫׬‬ , (c). ‫׬‬ , (d). ‫׬‬ , (e). ‫׬‬
9−𝑥 2 3−4𝑥 2 4𝑥−𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 +4𝑥+2 𝑒 2𝑥 −6

Sol:

(e).

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Hyperbolic Functions
(𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ 𝑢, 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ 𝑢)

(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)

𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽, 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝒙 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒖, 𝒚 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒖

𝒆𝒊𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒊𝒙 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒉 𝒙 =
𝟐𝒊 𝟐
𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝒆𝒊𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒊𝒙 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒉 𝒙 =
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 = 𝟐
𝟐

Shine or Sinch
Kosh Tanch and Cotanch

Secanch Cosecanch

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Derivatives and Integrals

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Example 1 Find the derivative of

𝑑 𝑑
1. 𝑑𝑥
sin 𝑢 , 2.
𝑑𝑥
csch 𝑢,

Sol:

1.

2.

Example 2 Find the

𝑑 1 ln 2
(a) (tanℎ 1 + 𝑡2 , (𝑏) ‫ ׬‬coth 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥, (𝑐) ‫׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 (𝑑) ‫׬‬0 4𝑒 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡

Sol:

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Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

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Example 1 find dy/dx of

𝑑𝑦
Example 2: find 𝑑𝑥 of

𝑑𝑦 1 2
1. 𝑦 = sinh−1 2𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = .2 =
1+(2𝑥)2 1+4𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑒𝑥
2. 𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑒 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = . 𝑒𝑥 =
(𝑒 𝑥 )2 −1 𝑒 2𝑥 −1

1
1 𝑑𝑦 1 1 − 2 −1 1
3. 𝑦 = coth−1 𝑥 → 𝑑𝑥 = 1 2. − 2 =
𝑥
𝑥
(𝑥 2 −1)/𝑥 2
= 𝑥2 −1 = 1−𝑥2
1−
𝑥

𝑑𝑦 −1 sin 𝑥 1
4. 𝑦 = sech−1 (cos 𝑥) → 𝑑𝑥 = . (− sin 𝑥) = = cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥 1− cos 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥

= sec 𝑥

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Integrals of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Example 3: Evaluate the following integrals

1
1 2 𝑑𝑥 1 2 𝑑𝑥
1. ‫׬‬0 → ‫׬‬0 = sinh−1 2𝑥 ቤ = sinh−1 2 − sinh−1 0 = 1.4436
1+4𝑥 2 1+(2𝑥)2 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
2. ‫׬‬ →‫׬‬ →‫׬‬ → cosh−1 +𝐶
𝑥 2 −3 𝑥2 3
𝑥
( )2 −1) 3
3( −1) 3
3
sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥
3. ‫׬‬ → − sinh−1 cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
−1 1 3𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 3 −1 3𝑑𝑥
. . tanh−1 ( ) + 𝐶
3 5 5
4. ‫ ׬‬9𝑥 2 −25 → ‫ ׬‬−[(5)2 −(3𝑥)2 ] . 3 = 3 ‫( ׬‬5)2 −(3𝑥)2 = ቐ −1 1 =
−1 3𝑥
. . coth ( ) + 𝐶
3 5 5
−1 3𝑥
. tanh−1 ( 5 ) + 𝐶 𝑢2 < 𝑎2
15
ቐ −1 3𝑥
. coth−1 ( 5 ) + 𝐶 𝑎2 < 𝑢2
15

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Example 4 find the integral of

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Example 5: Finding Inverse Derivative of

1. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 𝑥≥0 2. 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 ≥ 0
𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥 𝑓′ 𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑓 −1 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 7
1
(𝑓 −1 )′ 𝑥 = 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) (𝑓 −1 )′ 𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑓 −1 (𝑥))
1 1
(𝑓 −1 )′ 𝑥 = → 1 1
𝑓 ′ ( 𝑥) 2 𝑥 (𝑓 −1 )′ 𝑥 = →
𝑓′( 𝑥 + 7) 2 𝑥+7

𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 𝑥
𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥

Applications of Integration

Example 1:

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Example 2: Evaluate the following integrals

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Example 3: Evaluate the following integrals

Example 4: Evaluate the following integrals

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Example 5: Evaluate the following integrals

Example 6: Evaluate the following integrals

The integrand is an improper fraction (degree of numerator greater than or equal to degree of
denominator). To integrate it, we divide first, getting a quotient plus a remainder that is a
proper fraction:

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Example 7: Evaluate the following integrals

Example 8: Evaluate the following integrals

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Integration by Parts

𝑑𝑦
𝑓 𝑥 = 2𝑥, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 2, 𝑔′ 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
න 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 2 sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + න 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
න 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − න 2 sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥

න 2𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − න 2 sin 𝑥

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑢, 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑣, 𝑓 ′ 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢, 𝑔′ 𝑥 = 𝑑𝑣

Integration by Parts Formula

Example 9: Evaluate the following integrals

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Example 10: Evaluate the following integrals

Example 11: Evaluate the following integrals

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Example 12: Evaluate the following integrals

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Using Tabular Integration

Example 13: Evaluate the following integrals

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Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

Example 1: Distinct Linear Factors Evaluate

𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 + 3

= 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 𝑥 + 3 + 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐵 𝑥 + 3 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶 𝑥 + 1
= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 3𝐴𝑥+𝐴𝑥 + 3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 3𝐵𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 − 3𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐶
= 𝐴𝑥 2 + 4𝐴𝑥+3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 2𝐵𝑥−3𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 − 𝐶

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Example 2: Distinct Linear Factors Evaluate

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Example 3: Distinct Linear Factors Evaluate

5𝑥 − 3 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 − 3
5𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴 𝑥 − 3 + 𝐵 𝑥 + 1
5𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴𝑥 − 3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐵
5𝑥 − 3 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑥 + (𝐵 − 3𝐴)
𝐴 + 𝐵 = 5,
−3𝐴 + 𝐵 = −3
4𝐴 = 8 → 𝐴 = 2, B=3

Example 4: Distinct Linear Factors Evaluate

(𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 2 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)2

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Example 5: Distinct Linear Factors Evaluate

𝐴(𝑥 2 + 1)2 = 𝐴 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐴𝑥 4 + 2𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴

𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥 𝑥 2 + 1 = 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 = 𝐵𝑥 4 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 3 + 𝐶𝑥

𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑥 2 + 𝐸𝑥

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Trigonometric Substitutions

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Example 6: Using the Substitution 𝑥 = a tan 𝜃, Evaluate

Example 7: Using the Substitution 𝑥 = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, Evaluate

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Area Between Curves

Example 1:Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦
= −𝑥

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Example 2:Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by 𝑦 = 𝑥
and below by the x-axis and the line and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2

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Integration with Respect to y

Example 3:Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by 𝑦 = 𝑥
and below by the x-axis and the line and the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 2 integrating with respect to y

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Another Solution

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Applications of Definite Integrals

Volumes by Slicing and Rotation About an Axis

97

Example 1: A pyramid 3 m high has a square base that is 3 m on a side. The cross-section of
the pyramid perpendicular to the altitude x m down from the vertex is a square x m on a side.
Find the volume of the pyramid.

98

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Solids of Revolution: The Disk Method

The solid generated by rotating a plane region about an axis in its plane is called a solid of revolution.
To find the volume of a solid, we need only observe that the cross-sectional area A(x) is the area of a
disk of radius R(x), the distance of the planar region’s boundary from the axis of revolution. The area
is then

99

Example 2: The region between the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 4, and the x-axis is revolved
about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume

100

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Example 3: The circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 is rotated about the x-axis to generate a sphere. Find its
volume

101

Example 4: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the y-
axis and the curve 𝑥 = 2/𝑦, 1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 4, about the y-axis.

102

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Example 5: Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving the region between the
parabola 𝑥 = 𝑦 2 + 1 and 𝑥 = 3 about the line 𝑥 = 3.

103

Solids of Revolution: The Washer Method

104

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Example 6: The region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1 and the line 𝑦 = −𝑥 + 3 is

revolved about the x-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.

105

106

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Example 7: The region bounded by the parabola 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and the line 𝑦 = 2𝑥 in the first
quadrant is revolved about the y-axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.

107

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Applications of Definite Integrals

Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

109

Example 1: The region enclosed by the x-axis and the parabola 𝑦 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 is revolved
about the vertical line 𝑥 = −1 to generate the shape of a solid . Find the volume of
the solid.

110

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111

Example 2: The region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥, and x axis , and the line 𝑥 = 4 is revolved about
the y-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume of the solid.

112

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Example 3: The region bounded by the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥, and x axis , and the line 𝑥 = 4 is revolved about
the x-axis to generate a solid. Find its volume of the solid.

113

Lengths of Plane Curves

Length of a Parametrically Defined Curve

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Example 1: Find the length of the circle of radius r defined parametrically by

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝑡, and 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋 .

115

Example 2: Find the length of the asteroid 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋.

116

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117

Example 3: Find the length of the curve 𝑦

4 2 3/2
= 𝑥 − 1, 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1.
3

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Areas of Surfaces of Revolution

Example 4: Find the area of the surface generated by revolving the

curve 𝑦 = 2 𝑥, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2, about the x-axis

119

120

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Areas of Surfaces of Revolution

Example 5: The line segment 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑦, 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1 is revolved about the

y-axis to generate the cone. Find its lateral surface area.

121

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Areas of Surfaces of Revolution

123

Example 6: The standard parametrization of the circle of radius 1 centered at the point (0, 1) in the xyplane is
𝑥 = cos 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 1 + sin 𝑡, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋
Use this parametrization to find the area of the surface swept out by revolving the circle about the x-axis.

124

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Numerical Integration
Trapezoidal Approximations

When we cannot find a workable antiderivative for a

function ƒ that we have to integrate, we partition the
interval of integration, replace ƒ by a closely fitting
polynomial on each subinterval, integrate the
polynomials, and add the results to approximate the
integral of ƒ.

125

126

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127

128

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129

Numerical Integration
Simpson’s Rule: Approximations Using Parabolas

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131

132

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Polar Coordinates

133

134

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Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates

135

136

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Graphing in Polar Coordinates

137

138

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Areas and Lengths in Polar Coordinates

139

140

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141

142

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