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 CONTENTS
June 2017 Volume 22 Number 06 ISSN 1468-9340
03 Comment 49 Flare down
Lana Ginns, Fluenta, UK, discusses gas flaring in the
05 World News 21st Century and the transformational impact of
12 The fight for the Asian oil market technology.
Contributing Editor, Ng Weng Hoong, cross-examines Asia's 53 Testing tank gauging IQ
oil market over recent years and how the fight for a share
Austin Alford and Alexander Bukhman, Gauging Systems
in its future is intensifying.
Inc., USA, evaluate the advantages of mass and volume
20 Cyber security in the spotlight measurements, and how they can help to increase tank
Eric Knapp, Honeywell Industrial Cyber Security, US, gauging IQ level.
discusses the new focus on industrial cyber security 57 No half measures
programmes and their importance in advancing best
Graeme Webb, Berthold Technologies UK Ltd, explains
practices.
how engineers can achieve an indication of the level of
25 Raise the standard their product, process vessel or tank by using radiometric
Andrew Broadbent, API, USA, examines how the Process techniques.
Safety Site Assessment Program is helping to promote a 61 Measuring success
culture of process safety.
Scott Sutherland and Peter van Vuuren, SpectraSensors
29 Striving for silence Inc., USA; Susan P. Harris, Endress+Hauser, USA; and
Lee Nicholson, Wakefield Acoustics, UK, discusses the Travis Miller, Coffeyville Resources Nitrogen Fertilizers,
implementation of acoustic enclosures for blower plant USA, champion the use of process Raman spectroscopy
items at a Malaysian petrochemical site, and how this as a method for gas-phase measurements at refineries and
improved site efficiency and safety. fertilizer plants.

32 Rising to the challenge 66 A master plan

Ambrogio Ciceri, Boldrocchi, Italy, examines a case study Dr. Werner Arts, LAR Process Analysers AG, Germany,
where the company supplied tailored heat exchangers for discusses why versatile and reliable online measurements
a complex gas treatment unit project in Kazakhstan. are required to protect a plant from the impact of
oil-in-water contamination.
35 Hot topic
Vitaliy Mironov, BARTEC, Russia, describes the installation
71 Sulfur Q&A
of heat tracing systems at the Syzran refinery in Russia. Hydrocarbon Engineering questions a number of
downstream sulfur technology experts about R&D, testing
39 Hot stuff and design, efficiency improvements and the overall
Ilan Toledano, Wattco, Canada, discusses the use of market outlook.
immersion heaters for industrial applications in chemical
processing.
80 15 facts on...
This month we give you 15 facts on the Far East!
43 End-to-end emissions
John Soderstrom and Doug Allen, Zeeco Inc., USA, examine
the end-to-end emissions reduction solutions available to
the oil and gas industry.

THIS Heightened attention on cyber security at

corporate board levels is reverberating across the

MONTH'S
industrial enterprise, with implications for anyone
managing process control networks (PCNs).

FRONT
Recent legal and financial changes have increased
the pressure to reduce industrial control system
(ICS) cyber threats – not only to prevent safety or

COVER plant disruption issues, but also to protect against

lawsuits and credit rating downgrades.

2017 Member of ABC Audit Bureau of Circulations

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COMMENT
CALLUM O'REILLY
EDITOR
R
egular readers may recall that back
in March I discussed a recent study
from Ponemon Institute that warned
of the potential dangers of rapid
digital advancements. The study found that the
deployment of cyber security measures in the
oil and gas industry are failing to keep pace with the growth of digitalisation in the
sector’s operations.
Fast forward a few months and the threat of cyber attacks has been cast well
and truly into the spotlight. As I write this, a global manhunt is underway to find the
creators of the WannaCry malware, which wreaked havoc across the world in May.
Here in the UK, the National Health Service (NHS) was hit hard as services and records
were taken offline. Other high profile victims reportedly included Telefónica, Iberdrola
and Gas Natural in Spain, Renault in France, and US delivery company FedEx.
The cyber attack used a type of virus known as ransomware. Simply put, the
malicious software blocked customers from accessing their data unless they paid
a ransom. The virus is believed to exploit a flaw in Microsoft Windows that was
developed by – and stolen from – the US National Security Agency (NSA).
Microsoft has said that the cyber attack should be treated as a “wake-up call” by
governments around the world.1 And it’s time for the energy industry to sit up and
pay attention too – especially as many oil and gas facilities currently use networks
run by the very same (out-of-date) operating systems that were targeted during
this attack. A recent report by the Houston Chronicle into cyber security readiness
in the oil and gas industry along the US Gulf Coast found that facilities often use
Windows XP or earlier versions of the Windows operating system from the 1990s.2
The report also notes that while strict cyber security regulations govern power,
chemical and nuclear facilities in the US, there are currently no federal laws to impose
standards in the oil and gas industry. The US Department of Energy (DOE) may have
developed a model of best practices, but oil and gas companies are not legally obliged
to report cyber security incidents. This lack of transparency is one of the key issues that
should be addressed following the WannaCry cyber attack, according to the President
and Chief Legal Officer of Microsoft, Brad Smith, who said: “This attack provides yet
another example of why the stockpiling of vulnerabilities by governments is such a
problem […] We should take from this recent attack a renewed determination for more
urgent collective action. We need the tech sector, customers, and governments to
work together to protect against cyber security attacks.”
It is essential that oil and gas facilities act now to protect themselves against
the imminent threats that come hand-in-hand with the huge benefits offered by
digitalisation. While prevention is not cheap or easy, it is always better than cure.
The potential implications of cyber attacks in the oil and gas industry are truly
devastating, especially if hackers gain access to control systems.
This month’s cover feature from Honeywell Industrial Cyber Security (p. 20) takes
a timely look at industrial control system (ICS) cyber threats and the importance of
urgent, ongoing, proactive protection.
1. SMITH, B., 'The need for urgent collective action to keep people safe online: lessons from last
week's cyberattack', Microsoft, (14 May 2017).
2. EATON, C., 'Hacked: energy industry's controls provide an alluring target for cyberattacks',
Houston Chronicle, (March 2017).
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 WORLD NEWS
ExxonMobil completes polyethylene
USA |
lines
E xxonMobil Chemical Company
has announced the mechanical
completion of two new 650 000 tpy
high performance polyethylene
lines at its plastics plant in
Mont Belvieu, Texas. The company
expects production to begin during
3Q17.
Part of a previously announced
multi-billion dollar expansion
project in the Baytown area, the
polyethylene lines will process
ethylene feedstock from the new
steam cracker currently under
construction at the Baytown
complex.
Chart commissions NGV fuelling
France |
station
C hart has announced the
successful commissioning of its
in-house engineered and built natural
gas vehicle (NGV) fuelling station at
Fos-sur-Mer, France.
Located within close proximity of
Marseille’s port district, the fuelling
station is equipped with two LNG
dispensers, as well as a CNG
dispenser.
The station is owned by Proviridis
and operated by V-GAS, part of the
Proviridis Group.
China | Elliott wins new contract for Hengli Petrochemical complex
E lliott Group has been awarded a
contract to supply compression
equipment for Hengli Petrochemical
Refinery’s integrated refining and
petrochemical complex under
construction in Dalian, China.
The new refinery is the largest
project of its kind approved to date
in China.
The order encompasses 22
compression trains and 28 casings for
This project enables ExxonMobil
Chemical to economically supply a
rapidly growing demand for high
value polyethylene products. These
products deliver sustainability
benefits such as lighter packaging
weight, lower energy consumption
and reduced emissions.
The Baytown expansion project is
one of 11 ExxonMobil announced as
part of its 10 year, US$20 billion
'Growing the Gulf' initiative. Projects
planned or under way are expected
to create more than 35 000
construction jobs and over 12 000
full-time jobs.
The station incorporates a
number of Chart proprietary
features, including ‘Saturation on
the Fly’ for optimal heat
management, culminating in a
facility that is safe, reliable and
available year-round.
Although the station is designed
to be unmanned, V-GAS is initially
providing supervision during the
early stages to familiarise people
with the facility’s layout and
operation.
14 different services including
pressure swing adsorption,
continuous catalyst regeneration
(CCR), naphtha hydrotreating,
aromatics, propane/isobutane
dehydrogenation, coal-to-H2, and
sulfuric acid alkylation.
The units will be built at Elliott’s
manufacturing facilities in Sodegaura,
Chiba, Japan and Jeannette,
Pennsylvania, US.
Saudi
Saudi Arabia |
Aramco inks deals
with major US
companies
S audi Aramco has signed
agreements totalling
approximately US$50 billion with a
number of major companies in the
US.
The agreements were signed in
Riyadh in the presence of The
Custodian of The Two Holy Mosques
King Salman Bin Abdulaziz Al Saud
and US President Donald Trump.
Saudi Aramco’s President and
CEO, Amin H. Nasser, said: “The
agreements signed today by Saudi
Aramco with major American
companies underscore the
purposeful collaboration between
Saudi Arabia and the United States
in areas of strategic importance
linking Saudi Vision 2030 and
America’s own economic depth and
strength.”
Among the deals signed or
updated, Saudi Aramco agreed to
establish joint ventures with Jacobs
Engineering Group Inc., as well as
National Oilwell Varco (NOV).
Memoranda of Understanding (MoU)
were also signed with companies
including GE, Honeywell, Rowan,
Nabors, McDermott, Schlumberger,
Halliburton, Weatherford and
Emerson.
When it comes online in 2019,
the complex will provide high
purity paraxylene as feedstock for
Hengli’s existing purified
terephthalic acid (PTA) plants.
The new complex will also
produce gasoline and diesel fuels
that meet China 5 clean fuel
specifications, as well as jet fuel,
base lubrication oils, aromatics, and
LPG.
HYDROCARBON 5 June 2017
ENGINEERING
 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF

Clariant and Huntsman Corp. have
announced that their Boards of
Directors unanimously approved a
definitive agreement to combine in a
merger of equals through an all-stock
transaction. The merged company, named
HuntsmanClariant, will have a combined
enterprise value of approximately
US$20 billion at announcement.

Burckhardt Compression has
been selected to modernise MOL
Petrochemicals' third-party Hyper
Compressor at its low density
polyethylene (LDPE) plant in Tiszaújváros.
The project scope includes the
Burckhardt HypropacTM cartridge system,
plungers and central valves for two
second-stage cylinders, which will be
installed using special tools.

TechnipFMC has received an engineering,
procurement and construction contract
(EPC3 project) from Zakum Development
Co. for a sulfate reduction plant on
West Island, located offshore Abu Dhabi.
The project will install a sulfate
reduction plant (SRP) module, along with
new installations and tie-in to existing
facilities on West Island. The SRP module
will incorporate cutting-edge water
treatment technologies with advanced
filtration and nano-filtration systems.

WorleyParsons has been awarded a
five-year Framework Agreement by
Shell Global Solutions International
B.V.. The agreement is for the provision
of engineering, procurement and
construction management (EPCM)
services for Shell downstream projects
worldwide.
June 2017 6 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Lucid Energy starts up cryogenic
USA |
processing plant
L ucid Energy Group has announced
the startup of the Red Hills II
cryogenic natural gas processing
plant in Lea County, New Mexico.
With the expansion, the Red Hills
Natural Gas Processing Complex has
the capacity to process
310 million ft3/d, which brings the
total processing capacity of Lucid’s
South Carlsbad System in Lea and
Eddy counties to 345 million ft3/d,
tripling processing capacity since
Lucid's acquisition of Agave Energy
Company. The South Carlsbad
Saudi Aramco-Norinco project
China |
agreement signed
S audi Aramco, China North
Industries Corp. (Norinco), and
Panjin Xincheng Industrial Group Co.
Ltd recently signed the joint
development agreement for the
Saudi Aramco-Norinco Refining,
Petrochemical and Retail Project in
Panjin, in northeast China’s Liaoning
province.
The Saudi Aramco-Norinco
Refining, Petrochemical and Retail
Project forms part of China’s
petrochemical industry forward
planning. It is a major step in
Norinco’s aim to develop the
industrial value chain, facilitating
overseas oil exploration and trade, as
Meridian expands relationship with
USA |
Vepica
M
eridian Energy Group Inc. has
expanded and further defined
the role of Vepica USA in the
engineering of the Davis Refinery in
Belfield, North Dakota. This decision
was made by the two firms as
Meridian prepares to initiate detailed
engineering and equipment
fabrication for the initial 27 500 bpd
System serves producers developing
the prolific Wolfcamp, Bone Springs
and Avalon formations of the
northern Delaware Basin.
Lucid also announced that it
remains on schedule with its
previously announced Roadrunner
cryogenic processing plant.
Roadrunner I, the first plant at the
Roadrunner Complex in Eddy County,
is a 200 million ft3/d plant, which
will bring the total capacity of the
South Carlsbad System to
545 million ft3/d in January 2018.
well as growth in the petrochemical,
final chemicals and speciality
chemical sectors.
Having completed the
environmental impact assessment
and secured numerous project
supporting documents, final approval
has also been obtained from Liaoning
Provincial Development and Reform
Commission.
The project will significantly
expand Saudi Aramco’s footprint in
China’s downstream industry and
will potentially become a key
building block in both companies’
portfolios and a new landmark in
the industry.
hydro-skimming facility called
'Davis Light' – the first phase of the
Davis Refinery project.
The role of Vepica USA in the
Davis Light refinery project has
been further refined to include,
among other things, the continued
engineering support to the
Meridian permitting effort.
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 WORLD NEWS
IN BRIEF

Jacobs Engineering Group Inc. has
expanded its systems integrator agreement
with Cisco, to include Canada. The
expansion enables Jacobs to utilise Cisco
technology and services to deliver its
integrated connectivity solutions to
support operations and cost optimisation
in oil and gas, mining and chemical
facilities.

Chevron Phillips Chemical Co. LLC
has expanded its Tessenderlo plant
by debottlenecking its production
unit for ethyl mercaptan (EM) and
tetrahydrothiophene (THT). The expansion,
which commenced operations in May 2017,
has increased production capacity for
these products by 65%.

Contract Resources has signed Woodside
as the first client for its LNG Waste
Processing Facility in Karratha. Woodside
has signed a seven year deal to use the
plant to process spent catalyst and
hazardous waste byproducts that are
removed from the oil and gas production
stream process. The secure storage,
processing and purification facility will
be the first of its kind in the country.
Construction of the plant is anticipated
to be completed in early 2018 and plant
operations will begin immediately after.

Total has inaugurated its revamped Carling
– Saint-Avold petrochemical complex.
The inauguration follows three years
of transformational work, which was
originally announced in September 2013.
Total has invested nearly €200 million to
upgrade existing facilities and build new,
higher value-added units to improve the
site’s competitiveness. The petrochemical
complex has been turned into a leading
polymer production site in Europe.
June 2017 8 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Honeywell UOP receives Zarqa
Jordan |
refinery contract
J ordan Petroleum Refinery Co.
(JPRC) has awarded a
technology supply contract to
Honeywell UOP, for the planned
expansion of the kingdom’s sole
refinery at Zarqa, close to Amman.
The expansion project is aimed
at almost doubling capacity from
70 000 bpd to 120 000 bpd while
Mechanical construction begins at
USA |
Texas ethylene derivative facility
F luor Corp. has begun the
mechanical construction for the
Dow Chemical Co.’s new ethylene
derivative facility in Freeport,
Texas.
The mechanical construction
work includes setting precast and
steel structures, piping, equipment,
painting and insulation for the unit.
Mechanical completion is expected
to be in 2018.
The unit is designed for the
production of High Melt Index
ExxonMobil inks agreement with
USA |
SABIC
A
ffiliates of ExxonMobil Corp.
and Saudi Basic Industries Corp.
(SABIC) have signed an agreement
to conduct a detailed study of the
proposed Gulf Coast Growth
Ventures project in Texas and begin
planning for front-end engineering
and design (FEED) work.
In April 2017, ExxonMobil and
SABIC selected a site in San
Patricio County, Texas, for the
proposed petrochemical complex
bringing output up to Euro V fuel
standards at the ageing plant.
The deal covers technology
licensing, front-end engineering
and design (FEED) consultancy,
basic engineering design and
equipment supply for the facility,
located 24 km northeast of
Amman.
polymers such as AFFINITYTM GA
polyolefin elastomers for hot melt
adhesives, along with broad
capability to produce conventional
ENGAGETM polyolefin elastomers
and AFFINITY polyolefin
plastomers for applications in
packaging, transportation,
infrastructure and consumer
markets. Dow’s Freeport complex is
the largest integrated chemical
manufacturing complex in the
Western hemisphere.
that would include an ethane
steam cracker capable of
producing 1.8 million tpy of
ethylene, a monoethylene glycol
unit and two polyethylene units.
The project is one of 11 major
chemical, refining, lubricant and
LNG projects associated with
ExxonMobil’s 'Growing the Gulf'
initiative in the US that have been
made possible by the abundance of
low-cost US natural gas.
At the end of the day, you
want a technology supplier
who works with you.
You’re committed to progress and success. We’re committed to you. And we demonstrate
our commitment through licensing world-class refining, gas, chemical technologies and
specialty catalysts that drive exceptional performance. You can count on our proven
technology and long-term collaboration to help you keep pace with the increasingly
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www.catalysts-licensing.com

© 2016 Exxon Mobil Corporation. All rights reserved. ExxonMobil, the ExxonMobil logo, the interlocking “X” device and all product names herein are trademarks of Exxon Mobil Corporation.
 WORLD NEWS
DIARY DATES EIA | OPEC oil revenues at 13 year low

20 - 21 June
ERTC: Ask the Experts
M embers of the Organisation of
the Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) earned about
rise to approximately US$539 billion
(nominal) in 2017, based on the
forecast of global oil prices and
Cologne, Germany US$433 billion in net oil export OPEC production levels in the EIA's
asktheexperts.wraconferences.com revenues in 2016, the lowest since May 2017 'Short-Term Energy
2004. In real dollar terms, the 2016 Outlook' (STEO). The expected
9 - 13 July revenue represents a 15% decline increase in OPEC's net export
22nd World Petroleum Congress from the US$509 billion earned in earnings is attributed to slightly
Istanbul, Turkey
www.22wpc.com
2015, mainly because of the fall in higher forecast annual crude oil
average annual crude oil prices and, prices in 2017, as well as slightly
12- 14 September to a lesser extent, because of higher OPEC output during the
Turbomachinery & Pump Symposia
decreases in OPEC net oil exports. year.
Houston, Texas, USA The US Energy Information For 2018, OPEC net oil export
tps.tamu.edu Administration (EIA) projects that revenues are forecast to be
OPEC net oil export revenues will US$595 billion (nominal).
17 - 19 September
Abu Dhabi International Downstream Summit
Abu Dhabi, UAE Workplace safety and health regulation
DIR |
adid.wraconferences.com
approved for refineries
27 - 28 September
Tank Storage Asia
Singapore
www.tankstorageasia.com
T he Department of Industrial
Relations’ (DIR) Occupational
Safety and Health Standards Board in
communities […] This new regulation
will ensure California’s oil refineries
are operated with the highest levels
California, US, has approved a of safety possible and with injury and
28 September regulation to strengthen workplace illness prevention in mind.”
Tank Storage Conference safety and health at oil refineries The approved regulation
Coventry, UK across the state. introduces a new refinery safety
www.tankstorage.org.uk The new regulation provides a order enforced by Cal/OSHA’s
framework for anticipating, Process Safety Management (PSM)
2 - 4 October preventing and responding to hazards Unit, adding section 5189.1 to Title 8
AFPM Operations & Process Technology Summit at refineries. of the California Code of
Austin, Texas, US
www.afpm.org/conferences
DIR Director, Christine Baker, said: Regulations. The regulation
“This is the most protective regulation represents a comprehensive safety
10 - 11 October in the nation for the safety and health performance standard for California’s
ASIA-TECH of refinery workers and surrounding refinery sector.
Bali
www.europetro.com
API | US petroleum demand up in April
11 - 12 October
ASIA-CAT
Bali
www.europetro.com
T he American Petroleum Institute
(API) has reported that the US’
total petroleum deliveries climbed
average nearly 9.3 million bpd – the
highest April deliveries on record.
Crude oil production in April
1.7% in April 2017 from the previous stood at 9.2 million bpd (up 3.4%
6 - 9 November month to average 19.6 million bpd. from April 2016). NGL production in
Sulphur 2017 These were the highest April April averaged nearly 3.5 million bpd,
Atlanta, Georgia, US
deliveries in nine years, since 2008. down 1.5% from last year.
www.sulphurconference.com
Gasoline deliveries in April were US total petroleum imports in the
up from the prior month and the prior month of April averaged nearly
year, but down from the prior year to 10.2 million bpd, up 1.6% from the
date. Total motor gasoline deliveries prior month and 3.3% from the prior
moved up 0.6% from April 2016, to year.

June 2017 10 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 Contributing Editor, Ng Weng Hoong,
cross-examines Asia's oil market over
recent years and how the fight for a
share in its future is intensifying.

June 2017 12 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Kuala Lumpur skyline, Malaysia.
hy did Saudi Arabia recently despatch its 81 year old King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al
Saud, accompanied by an entourage of 1500 staff including 10 government
ministers, on a three-week-long official tour of five Asian countries?
This was the longest and biggest overseas trip undertaken by a Saudi monarch,
underlining not just the Kingdom’s, but the Arab world’s statement of intent to make a dramatic
pivot towards Asia. It was also an attempt by the world’s most important oil supplier to better
align its political, economic and security interests with those of its biggest customers who are
also among the world’s largest energy consumers.
Almost three years into the global oil market crash that has more than halved the crude price
to US$50/bbl, the mighty Saudi economy has been sufficiently wounded for the Kingdom to
take drastic measures, such as King Salman's arduous trip to sell both the Kingdom’s oil and
political interests to Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Japan, and China. The last scheduled stop of the
King’s Asia tour to the Maldives was cancelled.
The tour started in Malaysia with a surprise decision to invest in a struggling
refinery-petrochemical complex. In Indonesia, King Salman surprised on the downside by not
delivering a much-expected decision for state firm Saudi Aramco to invest US$6 billion in
another struggling refinery project. The Saudi firm and Indonesia’s Pertamina had signed an
agreement last December to expand and upgrade the ageing 350 000 bpd refinery at Cilacap on
Java island. Jakarta waited in vain for the King’s seal of approval.

HYDROCARBON 13 June 2017

ENGINEERING
 Instead, the most important deals are likely to come from the
visits to China and Japan, where Saudi Aramco needs to secure
investments from the two Asian giants for its proposed share
offering scheduled for 2018, as well as other projects in
Saudi Arabia. Saudi Aramco is also expected to tie up a proposed
joint investment with China National Petroleum Corp. (CNPC) to
build a 200 000 bpd refinery in Yunnan province that was first
discussed in 2011. There are also some unconfirmed reports of
Saudi Aramco’s interest in storing oil in the Maldives.
While Asia’s oil consumption is expected to continue growing,
Saudi Aramco faces a long battle to defend its weakening market
share against competition from rising output in Russia, Iran and the
US. For the short-term at least, Asia’s oil consumers will be spoilt
for choice of suppliers and the prospects of prices remaining low.
Not even a King can reverse those trends.
Malaysia secures Saudi investment
Saudi Arabia handed Malaysia a major diplomatic and economic
prize by agreeing to pump a total of US$7 billion into a
US$27 billion oil refinery-petrochemical complex that had been
struggling to attract investors.
Saudi Aramco will become the largest foreign investor in the
Refinery and Petrochemical Integrated Development (RAPID)
project, which is being developed by Malaysia’s state-owned energy
firm Petronas in Pengerang in the southern state of Johor. The
project has been dogged by delays, cost overruns, grassroots
opposition and doubts over its viability since its unveiling by
Prime Minister Najib Abdul Razak in May 2011.
The Saudi’s decision to take a 50% stake in a 300 000 bpd
refinery and main petrochemical plant came as a surprise to the
industry, as some analysts had recently predicted that
Saudi Aramco was going to withdraw from the project. Najib
revealed the decision on 27 February 2017 after hosting a luncheon
for the visiting Saudi King Salman.
The following day, Saudi Aramco President and CEO,
Amin H. Nasser, and Petronas President and Group CEO,
Wan Zulkiflee Wan Ariffin, signed the share purchase agreement on
behalf of their companies in the presence of King Salman and Najib.
Nasser said the agreement will strengthen his company’s
position as the leading supplier of petroleum feedstock to
Southeast Asia, and help enhance Asia’s energy security. The Saudi
firm will meet most of the refinery’s crude feedstock while Petronas
will supply natural gas, power and utility services to the complex.
According to Petronas, the refinery will produce a range of
refined petroleum products including gasoline and diesel of Euro-V
fuel specifications, as well as feedstock for its integrated
3.5 million tpy petrochemical complex. The refinery is scheduled to
start up in 2019. Located north of Singapore, Asia’s leading oil
refining and trading hub, Petronas said the integrated complex is
almost 60% complete.
Apart from RAPID, which comprises the refinery, cracker and
the downstream petrochemical complex, Petronas is also
developing an adjoining complex to supply utility services and an
LNG regasification plant on a 6242 acre site. The Pengerang
Integrated Complex (PIC) will also be served by a deepwater
terminal, as well as oil and chemical storage tanks as part of
Malaysia’s plan to develop Pengerang into an energy trading hub to
challenge Singapore.
The Saudi Arabian investment is timely for the Malaysian
economy, which has been hit by capital flight in recent years owing
June 2017 14 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
to worsening political instability. The Prime Minister has been
accused of stealing hundreds of millions of dollars from a state
fund at the same time that so-called Islamic State (ISIS) terrorists
are preparing to attack the country. The local currency, the ringgit,
has lost 50% of its value since 2012 to trade at just under RM4.5
against the US dollar (at the time of writing).
The World Bank expects the Malaysian economy to grow by
4.3% in 2017, slightly up from last year’s 4.2%, but some way off from
6% in 2014.
Saudi Arabia has good reason for its late dramatic entry into the
RAPID project. Saudi Aramco’s plan to raise US$100 billion, by selling
off a 5% stake based on its own US$2 trillion valuation, has been
setback by news reports citing analysts valuing the company at
much less. According to a Bloomberg report, Saudi Aramco may
only be worth US$400 billion.1 Therefore, the hurried addition of a
sizeable stake in a new oil-petrochemical complex in Asia will go
some way to increasing the company’s asset base ahead of the
share offer.
However, Saudi Aramco is taking a long-term view as it wants
to expand its share of Asia’s 33 million bpd oil market. Last year, it
lost out to Russia’s Rosneft in the race to acquire India’s Essar
refinery and downstream assets.
The Malaysian refinery and petrochemical complex will provide
a secure outlet for Saudi Arabian crude in the face of rising supplies
from other parts of the world, including shale-based oil from the
US. The project will add to Saudi Aramco’s growing downstream
stake in Asia through refinery ventures in South Korea, Japan, and
China.
India proposes to create new
state-owned giants
The Indian government plans to merge some, or all, of its 13 largest
state-owned oil and gas companies with the objective of boosting
the country’s long-term energy security. After previous failed
attempts at creating a giant state-owned firm, Finance Minister
Arun Jaitley announced in early February that the government soon
plans to consolidate its stable of oil companies to enable India to
compete on the world energy markets.
The new firm would have the "capacity to bear higher risks, avail
economies of scale, take higher investment decisions and create
more value for stakeholders", Jaitley stated.
While Jaitley did not name them, analysts say the country’s two
largest oil companies, India’s Oil & Natural Gas Corp. (ONGC) and
Indian Oil Corp. (IOC) Group, will head the merger list. Also on the
hit list are Bharat Petroleum Corp., Hindustan Petroleum,
Gas Authority of India Ltd (GAIL), Mangalore Refinery and
Petrochemicals (MRPL), Chennai Petroleum, and Numaligarh
Refinery and Oil India.
“Possibilities of such restructuring are visible in the oil and gas
sector [...] We propose to create an integrated public sector ‘oil
major’ which will be able to match the performance of international
and domestic private sector oil and gas companies”, Jaitley said.
An enlarged, integrated company would have the backing to
negotiate with governments and other companies for better terms
and access to hydrocarbon resources to feed India’s energy appetite
for its fast growing economy. However, Jaitley did not provide
details on how many companies would merge and what timeline
this was operating on.
India has been struggling to increase its energy reserves and
production, while its primary energy consumption has been
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 Table 1. Singapore’s maritime performance
Year Vessel arrival Container Cargo Bunker
(billion gross t) throughput throughput sales
(million (million t) (million t)
TEUs)
2015 2.50 30.9 575.8 45.2
2016 2.66 30.9 593.3 48.6
Source: Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore
growing by nearly 6%/y over the past decade. According to BP,
India’s oil reserves fell from 5.9 billion bbls in 2005 to 5.7 billion bbls
at the end of 2015 to offset the growth in its natural gas reserves
from 1.1 trillion m3 to 1.5 trillion m3 over the same period.
The government of Prime Minister Narendra Modi has set a
goal to reduce the country’s oil import dependence from 80% in
2015 to 67% by 2020. According to the Petroleum Ministry’s
planning department, India’s oil products consumption surged by
8.8% to 192.8 million t last year, making it the fastest growing
among the world’s major countries. Between 2005 and 2015, its oil
consumption grew by an annual average rate of 4.8%. India’s bright
economic outlook means its energy consumption growth will
remain strong.
Citing the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Jaitley said India’s
GDP is expected to grow by 7.2% this year and 7.7% in 2018. The
World Bank is even more bullish, with forecasts for the Indian
economy to grow 7.6% in 2017 and 7.8% in 2018.
The oil industry has taken note, and has started to venture into
India’s once-heavily protected downstream markets. Last October,
Russia’s Rosneft and Switzerland-based Trafigura paid nearly
US$13 billion to acquire Essar’s 20 million t oil refinery and port
facilities in Vadinar, and nationwide chain of 2700 retail stations. BP
and Shell are also planning to expand into India’s downstream
retail industry.
New terminals to boost national oil storage
capacity
The Indian government has announced plans to build two oil
storage terminals with a combined 10 million t capacity that will
boost the national total to 15.33 million t.
Arun Jaitley told Parliament that the government will build a
4.4 million t terminal in Chandikhole in the northeastern state of
Odisha and a 5.6 million t terminal in Bikaner, Rajasthan state, in
the country’s northwest. Jaitley did not mention the projects’
estimated cost and completion deadline but did say that the
government will offer tax incentives for oil traders to use the
terminals.
The new projects will form part of the second phase build-up
of India’s strategic crude oil reserves following the recent
completion of the first phase of underground storage caverns at
Visakhapatnam in the east coast state of Andhra Pradesh, and at
Mangalore and Padur in Karnataka on the west coast.
Padur has the largest capacity of 2.5 million t, followed by
Mangalore (1.5 million t) and Visakhapatnam (1.33 million t). Their
combined capacity will hold enough crude oil to meet 10 days of
India’s consumption.
Abu Dhabi to store oil at Mangalore
Abu Dhabi is expected to begin shipping some of its crude oil for
stockpiling in India’s Mangalore strategic petroleum terminal on
the western coastal state of Karnataka.
June 2017 16 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
The two countries sealed the stockpiling agreement for
5.86 million bbls as part of a larger 14 point deal to expand bilateral
ties concluded in January when Prime Minister Narendra Modi
received a visiting delegation led by Abu Dhabi’s Crown Prince
Sheikh Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan.
The Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd (ISPRL) will store
and manage crude oil owned by state-owned Abu Dhabi National
Oil Company (ADNOC) at its recently completed underground
cavern in Mangalore. Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, the UAE’s Minister of
State, described the deal as marking a "new strategic energy
partnership" between the two countries. He said, “This partnership
will create opportunities for ADNOC to increase its market share
in delivering high quality crude to India's expanding refining
industry, while also helping India meet its growing energy demand
and safeguard its security.”
Al Jaber, who is also CEO of ADNOC Group, said his company
will use the Mangalore terminal to explore opportunities for
expanding sales and marketing of refined and petrochemical
products in India. The company said it has similar crude stockpiling
arrangements with state-owned KNOC in South Korea and with
the Kiire Oil Terminal in Kagoshima City in Japan.
ADNOC said it will also consider supplying crude oil to
West Bengal’s Haldia Petrochemicals Ltd’s (HPL) new 300 000 bpd
refinery in Kolkata.
India’s Petroleum Minister Dharmendra Pradhan said the
additional stockpile and supply of Abu Dhabi crude will strengthen
his country’s energy security. Abu Dhabi accounts for 8% of India’s
oil imports. Iran, the first Middle Eastern country to sign up to
stockpile crude oil in India, is storing 6 million bbls at the
Mangalore terminal.
Singapore: record volume of bunker fuel
sold
Helped by increased shipping traffic, Singapore said its sale of
bunker fuel surged by nearly 7.7% to a record 48.61 million t last
year from 45.16 million t in 2015.
Marine fuel oil of 380 CST viscosity accounted for nearly
three-quarters of the fuel sold, while the cheaper heavier 500 CST
grade was the next most popular with more than 9.8 million t
traded. Combined, these two grades accounted for more than 94%
of the bunker fuel sold in Singapore. The most expensive fuel oil
bunker, 180 CST, was also the least popular, with just 562 300 t sold.
According to the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore
(MPA), the port’s cargo throughput rose by more than 3% to a
record 593.3 million t while the combined weight of vessels
arriving in the country grew by 6.4% to 2.66 billion t. Both were
all-time high figures.
MPA Chief Executive Andrew Tan expects Singapore’s maritime
sector to face another difficult year ahead, after overcoming the
tough conditions of 2016 brought on by depressed rates and
excess capacity.
Singapore aims to boost its role as the world’s leading
bunkering port with its plans to offer LNG as a shipping fuel. The
MPA and state-owned Singapore LNG Corp. Pte Ltd (SLNG) are
jointly developing an interim truck loading facility to help deliver
LNG fuel to ships. The MPA is also leading efforts to develop
technical standards for the safe and efficient operations of LNG
bunker operations.
To encourage LNG use in place of fuel oil and diesel, the MPA
will exempt owners and operators of harbour craft registered
 Table 2. China: link between GDP and oil demand "continuation of the fuel quality programmes targeting fewer
growth emissions, as well as ongoing fuel substitution with natural gas".
Year GDP growth (%) Oil demand Ratio: GDP-to-oil As a sign that consumer spending will have a bigger role in
growth (%) (%) growth driving the Chinese economy, OPEC expects the country’s
2017 6.2 2.35 2.64 demand for gasoline and LPG to continue leading oil products
forecast consumption growth in 2017. Some 24 million passenger cars
2016 6.7 2.74 2.44
were sold in China last year, up more than 15% from 2015. In total,
China reported the sale of 28 million vehicles to underpin the
2015 6.9 3.15 2.19
future growth in demand for gasoline and diesel.
2014 7.4 3.94 1.88 Adding to OPEC’s observation, the International Energy
2010 10.3 8.44 1.22 Agency (IEA) said China’s move to lift its vehicle fuel standards in
Source: OPEC 2012 has had a ‘profound’ impact on the country’s oil
consumption. It said: "The efficiency of the Chinese fleet
Table 3. Australia’s downstream oil performance improved by an average of 2.3%/y from 2013 – 2015, a marked
- refinery input increase over the 0.3%/y average improvement between 2005
2016* 2015 % change 2014 2010 and 2013 [...] Mandatory fuel economy standards now cover more
than 74% of global passenger vehicle sales and are having a
Million l 25 541.7 26 609.5 -4.01 32 782.1 37 574.7
significant impact on oil consumption.”
'000 bpd* 438.9 458.5 -4.27 564.9 647.5
Annual percentage growth 2010 – 2016: -6.28% Australia: oil refining capacity at lowest
* 366 days as 2016 is a leap year. for over 50 years
This decade, Australia has been importing petroleum products at
Table 4. Petroleum sales a faster rate than its oil companies have been able to shut down
refining capacity, an analysis of official data has shown.
2016* 2015 % change 2014 2010
From just over 39% in 2010, the country’s dependence on
Million l 55 122.4 55 240.2 -0.21 55 170.3 51 070.1
imports to meet its domestic fuels demand surged to a record
'000 bpd* 947.3 951.9 -0.48 950.7 880.1 58.7% last year, with the 60% mark likely to be breached
Annual percentage growth 2010 – 2016: 1.23% sometime this year.
* 366 days as 2016 is a leap year According to the Department of the Environment and
Energy, Australia imported a record 555 840 bpd of petroleum
between 1 October 2017 and 31 December 2019 from paying products last year to help meet domestic demand of nearly
five years of port dues. The companies will also be granted an 947 300 bpd. In 2010, imports accounted for just 346 465 bpd of
additional 10% port dues concession under the Green Port 880 058 bpd of total product sales.
Programme that rewards operators for using cleaner-burning Between 2010 and 2016, Australia’s product imports grew at
LNG. an annual rate of nearly 8.2%, or nearly eight times its annual
consumption growth of just over 1.2%. Over the same period, the
China: oil demand growth to lag behind country’s oil refining capacity fell by an annual rate of nearly 7.9%
rate of GDP increase from 740 000 bpd to 452 000 bpd. The rapid decline of Australia’s
Is China’s US$10.5 trillion economy becoming less dependent on oil refining industry coincides with the massive expansion and
oil and polluting industries for growth? Taken at face value, the upgrade of export-oriented plants in Asia and the Middle East.
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) suggests Unlike in the past, the government and the public have not
this trend is underway, with the country’s oil demand and reacted with alarm that the country’s energy security is
economic growth to further decouple in coming years. increasingly out of its hands. In 2013, lawmakers were sufficiently
According to OPEC’s latest monthly oil report, China’s GDP alarmed to order an investigation into whether the country’s
expanded by 6.7% last year while its oil consumption grew by just energy security would be threatened as oil companies
2.74%, yielding a GDP-to-oil growth ratio of 2.44. This is double progressively reduced their downstream manufacturing activities.
the 2010 ratio of 1.22 when China needed an 8.44% rise in oil “The refineries have grown old, with no longer an ability to
consumption to boost the GDP by 10.3%. The ratio increased to reach globally competitive economies of scale due to the low
1.88 in 2014 and to 2.19 in 2015. growth in local demand and an inability to compete in the major
For 2017, OPEC expects it to rise to a new high of 2.64, based product export markets,” concluded a special report ordered by
on projections for China’s GDP to grow by 6.2% and oil the House of Representatives.
consumption to rise by 2.35%. The ratio has been rising rapidly Following that report, Caltex ceased operations at its
since President Xi Jinping took office in 2013, with the promise to 125 000 bpd Kurnell refinery in New South Wales in 2014,
reform the economy by reducing dependence on heavy converting the site to a fuels import, storage and distribution
industries in favour of services. terminal. A year later, BP closed its 102 000 bpd refinery on
Xi is also campaigning to clean-up China’s notoriously Bulwer Island in Brisbane.
polluted cities by increasing the use of cleaner burning fuels and According to BP, Australia’s refining capacity is now at its
improving energy-efficiency and conservation standards. lowest level in over 50 years. From 455 000 bpd in 1965, it rose to
While oil consumption is expected to hit a new high of a record 822 000 bpd in 2002, before starting on its current
11.64 million bpd in 2017, OPEC made a note of China’s decline.

June 2017 18 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 HAVER & BOECKER

Table 5. Petroleum sales: share of main products

2016 2015 2014 2010
Diesel 43.0% 42.8% 41.8% 38.3%
Gasoline 32.8% 32.8% 32.8% 35.7% CHEMICALS

Jet fuel 15.4% 14.8% 14.8% 13.5%

LPG 5.8% 6.4% 7.0% 8.0%

Table 6. Petroleum product imports

2016* 2015 % change 2014 2010
Million l 32 344.0 31 759.7 1.84 24 773.5 20 105.5
000 bpd* 555.8 547.3 1.55 426.9 346.5
Annual percentage growth 2010 – 2016: 8.19%
* 366 days as 2016 is a leap year

Table 7. Product imports-to-sales ratio

2016* 2015 2014 2010
Import/sales % 58.7 57.5 44.9 39.4

Table 8. World’s oil supply and demand outlook

2016 2017 % change 2018 % change
Total world 97.17 98.24 1.10 99.91 1.70
supply
Total world 96.64 98.15 1.56 99.74 1.62
consumption
Asia 25.19 25.99 3.18 26.78 3.04
Source: US EIA

Vitol’s purchase of Shell’s Geelong refinery in 2014 and a

local company’s announcement last year to build a new refinery
CLEAN.
in Queensland, have sparked hopes that the industry may
perhaps have seen its worst. According to media reports, Caspar INTELLIGENT.
PROFITABLE.
Energy is planning to build an 80 000 bpd refinery in Gladstone
to meet the region’s growing fuel demand arising mostly from
the two LNG plants.

Conclusion What if you could own and control the perfect

Oil producers will have to work harder to sell into Asia over the flow within your complete process without
next two years, judging not just from the extravagant tour of
making any compromises?
Asia by Saudi Arabia’s King Salman, but also from the latest
supply-demand forecast issued by the US Energy Information
Administration (EIA) (Table 8). The agency expects the world’s oil Now you can.
production to rise by 1.1% to 98.24 million bpd in 2017, and by a
further 1.7% to reach 99.91 million bpd next year.
For 2017, the EIA projects world oil demand growth of
nearly 1.6% to outpace the supply increase of 1.1%. However, for
next year, the projected demand growth of 1.62% will fall behind
the expected supply increase of 1.7%.
Asia will be responsible for the bulk of the demand growth, HAVER & BOECKER OHG
rising by nearly 3.2% in 2017 and by more than 3% in 2018. Oil Phone: +49 (0) 25 22-30 0
producers will have to offer plenty of incentives to hold onto chemicals@haverboecker.com
their customers in Asia.

Reference
1. BLAS, J. and MAHDI, W., ' Saudi Arabia's Oil Wealth Is About to Get a
Reality Check', Bloomberg, (23 February 2017), available at: https://
www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-02-23/saudi-arabia-2-
trillion-aramco-vision-runs-into-market-reality

HAVER & BOECKER

June 2017 20 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
 Eric Knapp, Honeywell Industrial Cyber Security, US, discusses
the new focus on industrial cyber security programmes and their
importance in advancing best practices.
T
he attention placed on cyber security at corporate
board levels has reached a fever pitch, which has
implications for any company managing process
control networks (PCNs). These changes have increased
the urgency and pressure on leadership teams to address
industrial control system (ICS) cyber threats – not only to prevent
plant disruptions or safety issues, but also to protect the
company against new legal and financial issues. With more than
US$12.2 trillion in world trade in manufactured goods, according
to the World Trade Organization, a lot is at stake.1 This heightened
visibility on industrial cyber security reverberates across the
entirety of the industrial organisation, impacting both corporate
and plant roles.
Dynamics have changed at the business and operational levels
regarding ICS cyber security, because of multiple factors. One of
these factors is the Cybersecurity Disclosure Act of 2017, which is
currently proposed at the US Senate level, and would require
companies not only to report the expertise of their board of
directors to the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC),
but also what steps the company is taking to improve cyber
security. The company would report these items to the SEC as
part of its annual filings under the bill.
Directors on boards surveyed in 2016 reported more
involvement with cyber security than the prior 12 months – and
for three years in a row – increasing both the time and money
spent on cyber security, according to the 2016 BDO Survey,
conducted annually by the Corporate Governance Practice of
BDO USA.2 While they want to know how the company is
protecting itself from downtime, they are increasingly worried
about legal issues – who is accountable if an ICS cyber attack is
successful, and do they have enough measures in place to show
they have been responsible in trying to avoid an attack in the first
place? What data is available to prove their case?
Most industrial companies are not aware, for example, that a
company’s financial credit rating could be impacted by its cyber
security resilience status. Standard & Poor’s has already
downgraded companies in the financial services sector because
they ‘looked ill prepared’ for a cyber-attack.3 Legal teams are also
monitoring related ‘cyber resilience’ cases, as are risk managers
and those responsible for negotiating cyber insurance policies.
Once these cases run through their respective judicial systems, a
precedent will start to set in and make it difficult for industrial
companies to lobby for their own desired approach.
These are burgeoning business issues that have pushed cyber
security to an urgent state, and now is the time to get ahead of
these issues. Yet these are only half the story.
The plant manager perspective
On the operational side, cyber security in industrial environments
is experiencing new momentum because of the rise in ICS
HYDROCARBON 21 June 2017
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Heightened attention on cyber security at
corporate board levels is reverberating across the
industrial enterprise, with implications for anyone
managing PCNs.
Figure 2. Secure deployment of IIoT and digital
transformation add to the challenges faced by
operational leaders while they need to continue to
deliver on quality and stay compliant.
Figure 3. By aligning security to an organisation’s
specific priorities and technical maturity levels,
companies with ICS cyber security programmes are
better able to measure and improve risk levels.
incidents, up by over 20% from 2014 to 2015 (ICS-CERT). A
German steel mill explosion in late 2014 first visualised the
consequences of cyber hackers changing a plant’s thermostat
controls. Ars Technica reported that 10 turbine control
workstations were taken down by USB-borne malware, and that
a power plant needed three weeks to restart services after a
similar infection. Multiple attacks have been made on the
Ukrainian power grid, and recurrences of Shamoon, Dark Energy
and other industrial attack campaigns continue.
June 2017 22 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
For operational leaders, there is always the challenge of delivering
on production commitments while handling resource-intensive security
compliance procedures. They are also under pressure from business
leaders to describe infrastructure in newer terms such as the Industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) and digital transformation – but nothing
changes the need to deliver on time, and to quality standards. Security
has to fit within an already-demanding workload. Add to that a lack of
ICS cyber security skills and an average of 7+ different types of control
systems in the environment, and it is obvious the plant manager is a
busy individual.
What is most important to understand at the C-suite level is that
together, these business and operational dynamics are forcing the need
to get ahead of ICS cyber security, or face serious fines or impact to the
business. This is different than traditional concerns regarding
interruptions or downtime. While these are still prevalent and
important, the business factors weave in even more reasons to get on
top of ICS risk reduction programmes.
Ready?
Just five or six years ago, it was common for refineries to hold onto the
myth that their operational networks were air gapped. In 2017, the most
cyber-aware industrial leaders recognise that digital transformation,
remote working, managed services and other trends have changed that
reality. Over 50 million industrial devices are now considered
‘connected’, according to IHS Markit research.4
One can see leading-edge industrial companies taking advantage of
expertise, technical innovations, and change management
methodologies to improve their risk reduction measures. Some of the
techniques that they use are outlined below.
Viewing ICS cyber security as a programme
ICS security programmes include an executive sponsor, defined risk
milestones and timelines, budget, and an identified set of resources and
processes. By aligning security to their organisation’s specific priorities
and technical maturity levels, companies with ICS cyber security
programmes are better able to measure and improve risk levels. They
are also more likely to be able to implement ICS cyber security
standards' requirements, such as IEC 62443. Such programmes can help
leadership teams prioritise and schedule the implementation of new
technologies, such as control system upgrades or USB protection
systems, which increase cyber resilience. In many critical manufacturing
areas, where older systems are still abound, many were designed before
the Internet age. As such, they have fatal software vulnerability flaws. As
much as safety has been embedded as an important issue, these
programmes also raise awareness throughout the organisation for
protecting against cyber threats.
Redistribution of ICS cyber security work
Considering the lack of consistent in-house cyber security support, as
well as newer ICS security automation technologies that are now safer
to use across operational networks, some organisations are choosing to
outsource ICS cyber security work. There are multiple approaches
depending on the company’s geographic locations, legal limitations,
internal resourcing levels, and technology types, among other factors.
Complete managed security services move all ICS security
responsibility to external vendors, including day-to-day management,
threat intelligence monitoring and reporting. Hybrid services may allow
for deep ICS security technical experts to perform assessments, leaving
remediation to internal teams. In whichever combination, these
approaches are addressing the cyber security skills gap, while also
making it more efficient to implement more threat countermeasures.
 Honeywell offers a systemic approach
to help mitigate the risks of the evolving
cyber threat landscape. Industrial Cyber
Security Solutions is a complete portfolio

Secure Plan(t) of software and services that employ best

practices in process control and cyber
Proactive Cyber Security for Your security. These solutions preserve key assets
Process Control Systems. and ensure data availability, integrity and
confidentiality. Honeywell’s Industrial Cyber
Security Solutions deliver a more predictable
and secure environment — regardless
of control system vendor or location.

© 2017 Honeywell International Inc. All rights reserved. www.becybersecure.com


Figure 4. Complete managed security services are
addressing the cyber security skills gap, while also
making it more efficient to implement more threat
countermeasures.
Increasing visibility across all networks
In the past, operational networks have been ‘dark’ and difficult
to measure in terms of security risk. With less oversight of cyber
security and the understanding that any disruption is
unacceptable, this blind side was an acceptable risk. Today,
amidst the board pressures, both IT and OT networks must
deliver increased resilience. New technologies in risk monitoring
and management are able to bring safer visibility into the asset
inventories and devices in OT networks. In addition, these
systems allow for the implementation of comprehensive
security policies, together with monitoring risk status in real
time. Opportune for seasoned operational managers, these
technologies also enable continual improvement by providing
baseline and threshold metrics, as well as reporting to prove the
incremental risk reduction measures.
Your Specialist for
PRESSURE RELIEF
SOLUTIONS
Inc.
3809 Beam Road Suite K | Charlotte, NC 28217, USA Gallbergweg 21 | 59929 Brilon, Germany
F +1 704 716 7025 | info@rembe.us | www.rembe.us F +49 2961 50714 | www.rembe.de
Defense-in-depth methodologies
No single technology or process will address all ICS risk.
However, establishing a security programme can help layer in
countermeasures that, over time, will greatly reduce the highest
priority risks. This includes taking a defense-in-depth approach
when it comes to people, process and technologies. For
example, identifying what systems across the PCN require
security patches and on what schedule is a first step, enabling
the second step of keeping them up-to-date on time –
outdated software and equipment are a common problem in
industrial environments and are an obvious risk for any attacker
seeking rapid entry into a PCN. Measuring and monitoring such
software is an effective countermeasure.
Conclusion
Even for industrial plants that have initiated an ICS cyber
security programme, the risks are ever-evolving, and attacks are
increasingly targeted. Minimising threats and layering in the
latest ICS security innovations, however, represent major steps
forward. These are best taken as proactive steps, rather than
pressured actions while a cyber-attack is underway. Just ask any
plant manager that has had to answer the dreaded question “are
we at risk of a cyber security incident?”
References
1. 'Top 20 Facts About Manufacturing', National Association of
Manufacturers, available: http://www.nam.org/Newsroom/Top-20-
Facts-About-Manufacturing/, (last accessed 8th May 2017).
2. '2016 Board Survey', BDO USA LLP, (October 2016), available: https://
www.bdo.com/insights/assurance/client-advisories/2016-board-survey
3. SCHWARTZ, M. J., 'S&P's Cybersecurity Warning: Late to the Game',
(30 September 2015), available: http://www.bankinfosecurity.com/
standard-poor-issues-bank-cybersecurity-warning-a-8556
4. WEST, A., 'Supervisory Control & Data Acquisition Report (SCADA)
- 2015 SCADA Global Market Analysis', (9 June 2015), available:
https://technology.ihs.com/467239/scada-2015
T +1 704 716 7022
T +49 2961 7405-0
Consulting. Engineering. Products. Service.
© REMBE | All rights reserved
Andrew Broadbent, API, USA,
examines how the Process
Safety Site Assessment
Program is helping to promote
a culture of process safety.

S
ince 2010, the American Petroleum Institute (API) has helped improve
industry safety by offering a programme called the Process Safety Site
Assessment Program (PSSAP). PSSAP is a hands-on programme that
involves a team of highly experienced assessors being onsite at a
refinery or petrochemical plant for an entire Monday through Friday
workweek to provide an independent report of the site’s performance under
eight detailed safety protocols. The report is designed to help site operators
improve their operations and better protect health, safety, and the
environment (HSE).
API created PSSAP in consultation with a broad consensus group,
representing the oil and gas and petrochemical industries, and
representatives from the American Fuel & Petrochemical Manufacturers
(AFPM). The broader industry came together to address process safety
performance with the goal of preventing process safety events at refineries
and petrochemical plants. All stakeholders wanted this effort, known as
Advancing Process Safety, to be voluntary, focused on high-risk process safety
activities, and an avenue to share industry knowledge.

Developed by industry, for industry

The programme operates through independent and qualified assessors who
have specific expertise in one or more of the eight areas being assessed, using
a set of protocols applicable to both refineries and petrochemical plants.
Each protocol was developed by industry, for industry, through a
collaborative effort that utilised 54 subject matter experts from a wide range
of companies. Protocols were developed, balloted using the API standards

HYDROCARBON 25 June 2017

ENGINEERING

Protocols
The eight protocols address:
„ Process safety leadership.
„ Operating practices.
„ Mechanical integrity – fixed equipment.
„ Safe work practices.
„ Management of change.
„ Process hazards analysis.
„ Facility siting.
„ Hydrofluoric (HF) alkylation/API Recommended
Practice (RP) 751.
The first seven protocols are referred to as a
‘general assessment’. HF alkylation is only performed at
sites with a HF acid unit.
development process, and then piloted at three sites. They
were then reviewed and modified based on results from
the pilot assessments, and included input from the
assessors.
PSSAP assessments are not process safety
management compliance audits. The programme
addresses process safety, rather than process safety
management, so companies should understand that
assessments are not intended to serve as three year
process safety management compliance audits as listed in
29 CFR 1910.119. Instead, PSSAP assessments provide
information on how sites are performing relative to
optimal performance, as defined by the industry subject
matter experts.
Keys to the programme
Through comprehensive assessments, PSSAP is able to
provide sites with feedback regarding what they are doing
well and what improvements can be made to their
process safety programmes. Additionally, PSSAP provides
facilities with benchmarking data so that sites can
compare how they are doing vis-à-vis industry peers.
The three main keys to the PSSAP programme are:
„ Benchmarking.
„ Protocol feedback.
„ Expertise of assessors.
Benchmarking
PSSAP helps refineries and petrochemical plants with
benchmarking by providing a score for each protocol and
each protocol question addressed during the visit. The
seven general assessment protocols have a total of 577
questions and the HF in-depth protocol has 394
questions.
Questions are weighted relative to their importance in
providing information to help the site to minimise the
potential of a process safety event. During the
assessment, the assessor rates each question based on the
information and evidence the site provides. The question’s
score is then the weighting multiplied by the rating. By
scoring the questions and protocols, PSSAP can then
June 2017 26 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
provide the sites with a considerable amount of
benchmarking data. Currently, this is done by providing
the site with a spreadsheet that has 36 interactive charts
and 13 tables of data, in addition to the assessment
report.
As more sites are assessed, previously assessed sites
are provided with benchmarking updates. Assessment
data is also analysed to determine a need for new
programmes or standards that may help the industry
further improve process safety programmes.
Protocol feedback
Sites that participate in the PSSAP programme benefit
from the effort in a number of ways. Prior to the onsite
portion of the assessment, sites review the protocols to
determine what programmes, procedures, documents,
records, personnel, etc., will be needed to address the
questions in the protocol. This is essentially a
self-evaluation. Then, through the onsite portion of the
assessment, staff members can gain further insights as to
how the information in the protocols may enhance their
process safety programmes.
Assessors and assessments
As mentioned, the assessors are a major part of the PSSAP
programme. They are carefully selected based on their
expertise and industry knowledge, and teams usually have
an average of 40 years of experience per assessor.
Typically, assessors are retired professionals or work for
consulting firms. An assessor candidate with appropriate
qualifications and references is selected to attend a
training course, which explains the API Process Safety Site
Assessment Program to them. The candidate must then
undergo an interview with a three-person panel – not all
candidates that attend training are selected. Assessors are
also assigned to specific protocols that meet their areas
of expertise (i.e., mechanical integrity assessors are not
expected to be operating practices experts and vice
versa), and then observed in the field to ensure they are
providing expert and useful assessments. Currently, there
are approximately 20 individuals in the assessor pool.
Assessments are scheduled with the PSSAP programme
manager, along with a pre-assessment visit, which allows
the site management team to learn more about the
programme, ask questions before the assessment, and lay
out all the logistics. The assessors then spend at least
one day prior to being onsite reviewing documents so
that they can ‘hit-the ground running’ on arrival.
The week-long assessment involves interviews,
document reviews, and the observation of work
processes, such as operator shift handovers and lock out
and tag out jobs. On Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday,
the assessment team meets with site staff for daily
debriefs, providing an opportunity for site management
personnel to ask questions. A close-out meeting is held
on Friday morning and consists of a roll-up presentation
of good practices observed and areas of opportunity.
Additionally, the site is provided with some
preliminary benchmarking data so they can see where
they fit in amongst other industry players. The individual

Benchmarking data is shown by:
„ Protocol.
„ Sub-protocol (some protocols have multiple areas
of review – shift handover, operator rounds, etc.).
„ Specific protocol sections (groupings of questions
for specific areas).
„ Management systems vs implementation
(procedure vs how it is being done in the field).
„ Size of site.
„ Size of company.
„ Quartile performance by each protocol.
protocol data contains the assessor’s observation and
score for each question. A site is typically given two to
three weeks to comment on the draft report. This review
period is not a discussion of the scores – it allows for
feedback on whether or not the wording of the
observations and good practices is clear. A final report is
then issued for the site along with the benchmarking
documents.
Good practices and key takeaways
As of year-end 2016, API has conducted 53 general site
assessments, 27 HF alkylation/API RP 751 in-depth
assessments, and five partial assessments (sites that
choose some of the protocols for assessment is referred
to as a partial assessment). PSSAP has visited 28 different
companies at 60 different locations in the US, Canada,
and one in South Africa – several companies have chosen
to have more than one site assessed.
Onsite assessments began in April 2012 and PSSAP has
identified many areas of good practice and opportunities
for improvement over the past five years. The sharing of
these practices is done through various avenues, including
other programmes in the Advancing Process Safety effort,
e.g., during the regional network meetings. On some
occasions the data trend analysis has indicated that an
opportunity exists to develop guidance on an
industry-wide basis.
In these cases, API addresses the opportunity through
the formation of a task group, the modification of an API
standard, the development of an informational document,
or by hosting industry events. The formation of a
mechanical integrity workgroup is one example where
professionals were gathered to develop content
pertaining to small bore piping in use in refineries and
petrochemical plants.
Conclusion
Feedback from API assessments has been overwhelmingly
positive. Companies have expressed how valuable the
assessment process and interaction with assessors is. They
also recognise that PSSAP benchmarking data has helped
teams find solutions to, often, complex operational
challenges.
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Lee Nicholson, Wakefield Acoustics, UK, discusses the implementation of acoustic
enclosures for blower plant items at a Malaysian petrochemical site, and how this
improved site efficiency and safety.
C
ontrolling noise from petrochemical plants can
prove problematic for any plant operator, due
to the sheer size of such facilities and the large
number of potential noise sources in-situ.
Petrochemical facilities bring unique and complex
noise and acoustical challenges. The processes and
operations required to produce petrochemicals will
necessarily utilise a large array of mechanical
equipment, the majority of which emits excessive
noise. Equipment such as heavy duty gas turbines, high
pressure pumps, compressors, generators and blowers,
as well as the associated pipework, can all combine to
cause noise levels that are potentially detrimental to
the health of employees and the nearby community.
Whilst it is particularly difficult to provide a
complete solution to address all petrochemical
equipment noises, identifying the key major
contributors to the excesses within the plant labyrinth
can be fundamental to reducing the noise impact on
site and the environmental impact of the plant on the
surrounding community. For a major petrochemical
operator with a complex plant operation in Malaysia,
the process of early identification and noise mitigation
proved central to the drive for reduced on-site noise.
The company characterised the problems it, and
many of the world’s leading petrochemical enterprises,
faced with a large expanse of wide ranging noise
sources located on a single site, leading to high noise
HYDROCARBON 29 June 2017
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. An acoustic enclosure for blower plant items
at a large petrochemical site in Malaysia.
Figure 2. At the Malaysian petrochemical plant,
noise levels were reduced to 85 dB(A) due to the
implementation of acoustic enclosures across all
six blowers.
levels. As with many similar corporations, the potential
issues caused by excessive noise levels remained a
cause for concern, prompting the provider to seek an
innovative solution to reduce noise, protect the
workforce, as well as provide easy access for
maintenance.
Excessive noise levels
Following an in-depth site survey to analyse the noise
emissions produced by plant equipment, the operator
was able to identify six blowers as one of the major
sources of noise.
The company was aware that if left untreated, the
noise levels from such blowers could reach
100 – 105 dB(A) due to the breakout from the casing
alone. This was further compounded by the fact that
multiple plant items were installed in close proximity
on the site, meaning it was quite conceivable that
overall noise levels in the plant areas could reach
110 dB(A), which would pose a significant risk of hearing
damage for operators and maintenance personnel.
As with most large petrochemical plants and
refineries, the noise emissions from processes and
equipment are highly regulated due to the potential
June 2017 30 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
impact they can have on employees, the nearby
community and the environment.
Additionally, the company was seeking a system
that was easy to install, simple to access (should
maintenance be required on the blowers), and
compliant with the health and safety requirements of
the plant.
Noise mitigation
Noise control measures for industrial plant items can
be particularly complex to design from an acoustic
perspective, given the large number of noise transfer
paths. In addition, any housings fitted around the
equipment can present significant challenges for the
ventilation of the equipment.
Following an initial consultation with a leading
industrial and environmental noise control
manufacturer, the company opted to control the noise
by installing some close-fitting acoustic enclosures for
the blower plant items. The enclosures were designed
to be close fitting around the blower body itself, and
incorporated a sealing plate around the drive shaft to
the motor – enabling the equipment to be naturally
cooled. The careful consideration of ventilation
ensured that only the main blower casing required
ventilation, which would not only improve safety but
also reduce operation costs for cooling. A bespoke
acoustic enclosure design was required as the plant
operator required an acoustic lined tunnel section and
guard for motor coupling, low level quick release
access panels for viewing of the oil sight, integrated
cable entry, and internal lighting for Atex Zone 2.
Due to the high heat loads from the enclosed
blower casing, enclosures were fitted with a forced
ventilation system comprising of an axial flow fan, with
a suitably sized attenuator unit to limit noise emissions.
In this instance, the petrochemical site had the
ventilation fans supplied with Atex-rated motors in a
‘run-and-standby’ arrangement.
A number of other factors were considered
throughout the design process and during
implementation of the acoustic enclosures. As the
main drive motor was not enclosed, this ‘half’
enclosure approach meant that noise emissions from
the exposed mechanism would need to be considered
in the overall acoustic requirement. To overcome this
issue, and meet the required noise level of 85 dBA, the
industrial and environmental noise control
manufacturer over attenuated the noise emissions from
the main enclosure unit in order to guarantee the
resultant levels met the limits set by the petrochemical
company.
Where applicable, breakout noise from associated
pipework was treated by means of in-line reactive
silencers, along with external acoustic lagging or
insulation, depending upon the specification.
Corrosion safety standards
In potentially corrosive areas such as a petrochemical
site, the treatment of exposed metal surfaces is a vital
consideration. Taking into consideration the highly
toxic and acidic raw chemicals used throughout
petrochemical processes, best practice in corrosion
protection must be taken for any structural steel
construction including acoustic enclosures to avoid
any risk to employees.
Together facing a
Paint systems, specified to ISO 12944 C5I or C5M brighter tomorrow
classifications, are sometimes required to protect
from corrosion. Whilst this can be achieved on the At Yokogawa, we believe the sky’s the limit.
external solid steel surfaces of an acoustic enclosure And to reach beyond today’s horizons,
or silencer, treatment of the internal perforated skin we work step-by-step with you to make
of an acoustically absorbent surface is not as easy.
the unimagined a reality. That’s how we
Removing the internal perforated layer from the
move forward, through the synergy of
inside of an enclosure is not a viable option, as a solid
internal lining in an enclosure can lead to an increase co-innovation partnership. Join hands with
in internal noise levels of 8 – 10 dB(A). In these us, and together we can sustain a brighter
instances, a two-coat powder painted system or even future. Yokogawa: Building a better
stainless steel for the internal perforated lined tomorrow with you today.
surfaces may be considered.

Conclusion
The intrinsic dangers of petrochemical processes are
far reaching. Countless studies carried out by both Please visit www.yokogawa.com/eu
health and safety professionals and organisations have
shown that the petrochemical industry exposes
personnel to a number of health, safety and
environmental hazards. Whilst these hazards are
mainly due to the highly toxic chemicals and
associated gases in the working environment –
including sulfur oxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxide – the health impacts of excessive on-site noise
have increasingly been recognised by plants around
the world.
Faced with these challenges, most petrochemical
operators have, over the course of recent years, been
taking a proactive approach to implementing noise
management and mitigation measures within
petrochemical plants. Continuous and systematic
safety management is a fundamental requirement for
the petrochemical industry.
Implementing noise control practices enables the
efficient mitigation of excessive noise in the high risk
environment of a petrochemical plant. To ensure the
safety of personnel and the local environment, it is
imperative that an effective noise control strategy is
put in place to reduce excessive noise levels
discharged by plant equipment to safe levels.
At the Malaysian petrochemical plant, initial noise
reductions exceeded all expectations by reducing the
noise levels by around 25 to 85 dB(A) across the plant
due to the implementation of acoustic enclosures,
and other effective noise control measures, across all
six blowers.
Equally fundamental to the petrochemical
company was the long-term savings and efficiencies
that could be achieved through the effective
maintenance of attenuated equipment. Due to the
integrated access panels in the enclosure housing, the
plant operator was also able to reduce downtime for
maintenance.
 Ambrogio Ciceri, Boldrocchi, Italy,
examines a case study where the
company supplied tailored heat
exchangers for a complex gas
treatment unit project
in Kazakhstan.

RISING
TO THE
CHALLENGE
June 2017 32 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
N
ostrum Oil & Gas (formerly Zhaikmunai), an independent
oil and gas exploration and production company, is on
schedule to complete its third gas treatment unit
(GTU3) this year in the Chinarevskoye field, Kazakhstan.
Situated in north Kazakhstan, Chinarevskoye is 75 km northwest
of the super-giant Karachaganak field. Although Nostrum was
granted the exploration and production license of the
Chinarevskoye field under a production sharing agreement (PSA)
in 1997, commercial crude oil production started in 2007 and the
commercial production of gas treatment facility (GTF) products
(stabilised condensate, LPG and dry gas) began later, in 2011.
Operations have been ramping up ever since. Nostrum's third GTU
is considered essential to the company’s strategy of increasing
operating capacity and the production of liquid hydrocarbons.
Boldrocchi Group was awarded a contract – through the
engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) contractor – to
engineer, purchase raw materials, manufacture, inspect, test and
deliver nine process heat exchangers for the complex GTU3
project. In addition to the air-cooled heat exchangers, Boldrocchi
was also contracted to design and manufacture the steel support
structures, motors, fans, louvres, actuators, floors and complete
cabinets for the coolers.
The project
The nine heat exchangers were installed to cool natural gas as
part of the downstream process. There are special demands on
heat exchangers in oil and gas processing. To ensure high
performance under all conditions, reliability and longevity, the
thermal and hydraulic design portion is complex yet crucial. It is
also imperative to properly evaluate the life-cycle cost, footprint
and weight of the system. The coolers must not only withstand
corrosive media, but extreme pressure and temperatures. In this
case, they also had to conform to a specific layout and be light
enough to be placed atop pipe racks.
Although each of the nine heat exchangers was similar, they
did vary in design, dimensions and construction material. The
smallest was 3 m x 12 m x 10 m high, while the largest had four
bays and measured 35 m x 12 m x 10 m high. All air coolers were
built to the relevant codes and standards: API 661, ASME VIII div. 1
(with ASME U-stamp and National Board registration), as well as
local Kazakhstan laws and regulations (e.g. GOST requirements).
Boldrocchi used both extruded finned tubes and embedded
finned tubes.
Thermal challenges
Boldrocchi has had several contracts in Kazahkstan, Russia, and
other countries in the region, over the years. It has a local
manager in Russia, so the team was familiar with some of the
challenges of this climate. This contract, similar to some of the
others, presented complexities, mostly due to the weather.
Kazakhstan is known for its bitterly cold temperatures, but also
for its warm – if not considerably hot – summers. Arctic air
masses can lead to -50˚C in winter, whereas summer months can
see temperatures of up to +40˚C. During the design of the
external air-cooled heat exchangers, in this contract, the ambient
temperature fluctuations were a major challenge.
The company’s engineers used data received from the
customer to design the thermal requirements of the heat
exchangers. This included flow rates, heat duties (the amount of
heat needed to transfer from a hot side to the cold side over a
HYDROCARBON 33 June 2017
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Thermal transitory (step 3 of 12).
Figure 2. Stabiliser product cooler.
unit of time), physical properties of the gas, condensate curves
for two-phase mixtures, environmental conditions, pressure
drop and layout limitations. They used Xace®, by HTRI, to
perform the thermal design. Boldrocchi’s in-house testing
facilities allowed the company to verify its thermal efficiency
calculations, guaranteeing peak performance and reliability.
The client had requested that the recirculation was external
– a more complex type of recirculation, especially considering
the enormous temperature fluctuations. However, external
recirculation in this case would better protect the equipment
during start-up and shutdown. The heat exchangers also
included hot oil coils, allowing the equipment to be pre-heated
during start-up while also offering greater flexibility to control
the ambient temperature during winter. Problem solving skills
were necessary to find the optimal thermal design with this
recirculation system, given the weather conditions.
In the end, the team based the heat exchangers’ thermal
design on spring/summer conditions, but enclosed them in
cabinets (steel casings), as discussed further below, to allow for
increased ambient heat capture during colder periods. It was
also crucial to establish the minimum exchange tube wall
temperature during significant temperature changes, to avoid
hydrate formation. To avoid fouling, the team made thermal
calculations that resulted in the reduction of the exchange
coefficient (Figure 1). Practically speaking, it meant increasing the
surface area. Boldrocchi engineers studied this at length, giving
the customer specific instructions as to how to correctly
control the inlet, exhaust and recirculation louvres, as these
louvres control the ambient air temperature and, therefore, the
tube wall temperature as well.
June 2017 34 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Mechanical challenges
Pressure parts (headers and connecting tubes) were calculated
and designed based on ASME VIII Div. 1 code and, where
applicable, the rules of the GOST code. However, these codes
did not cover all details, and finite element analysis (FEA) was
performed to check the stability of the nozzle openings on the
headers, as well as the stress due to the piping loads on the
nozzle attachments.
It was also important to verify that the connection between
the headers and the bundle frames did not have a major effect
on the stress distribution and the fatigue resistance. The fatigue
potential due to the sinusoidal variation of the temperature had
to be analysed, which was carried out at constant pressure.
Engineers also used FEA to find the cyclic stress on the headers
due to the strain generated by the tube bundle.
Steel structures and cabinets
The steel structures supporting the heat exchangers also
required particular attention. It was imperative to carefully
calculate the static and dynamic loads as the heat exchangers
were to be mounted on the top of the pipe racks. In addition,
they also had to be designed to withstand earthquakes, as
Kazakhstan is in an active seismic zone.
Another challenge to the heat exchangers being on top of
the pipe racks was accessibility. Boldrocchi’s team had to ensure
that all instruments on these coolers were fully accessible at
any time. Each automatic louvre is actuated with a pneumatic
piston that receives an electric signal to close and/or open it.
All these actuators, along with all the instruments and valves
assembled on the machines, had to be easily reachable for
general operating purposes and for maintenance. To create an
appropriate accessibility design, the requirements were analysed
with a 3D model, allowing for an easy and more confident
approach to designing the layout of the cable trays. The answer
lay in carefully positioned platforms and ladders on each of the
steel structures, for the respective air coolers.
The company also designed and manufactured the cabinets
in which the heat exchangers are located (Figure 2). Due to the
extreme temperature fluctuations, it was imperative to place
the coolers in a ‘cabinet’ or steel structure that could be fully
closed in winter, and opened partially or completely, due to
louvres, at other times of the year.
Timing
Boldrocchi was contracted to execute the entire project within
11 months – a time frame that was respected. Indeed, all nine
heat exchangers, the steel structures, motors, fans, etc. were
delivered to the site in September 2016, on standby for when
the site crew was ready for them.
Conclusion
Heat exchangers in oil and gas downstream processing must be
designed for heavy duty, complex parameters. This was a
project that required extra analysis, consideration and testing to
ensure the solution’s high performance under all conditions,
reliability and longevity. The thermal and mechanical design of
the heat exchangers was complex due to extreme
environmental conditions, whereas the footprint and weight
were crucial elements due to the coolers’ placement atop pipe
racks.
 Vitaliy Mironov, BARTEC,
Russia, describes the
installation of heat
tracing systems at the
Syzran refinery in Russia.
H
eat tracing systems are a crucial element of
refineries. By keeping the process liquids at a
certain temperature, they prevent process
failures and harm to personnel, equipment and
the environment. For its comprehensive modernisation,
the OJSC Syzran refinery chose BARTEC to perform
both the engineering and installation.
Refinery overview
Located in the Samara region of Russia, the Syzran
refinery processes West Siberian crude oil produced by
Yuganskneftegaz, as well as crude oil produced by
Samaraneftegaz. As part of the Samara group of
refineries, the Syzran facility was acquired by Rosneft in
May 2007. With a capacity designed for up to
8.5 million tpy of oil, the production output ranges
from petroleum products such as high quality motor
fuels (including gasoline and diesel fuel manufactured
to Euro IV and V standards) to jet fuel and bitumen. The
conversion facilities include catalytic reforming, fuel
hydrotreatment, light hydrocracking, catalytic and
thermal cracking, isomerisation, and bitumen
production, as well as gas fractioning units.
In 2014, 7.14 million t of oil were processed at the
Syzran refinery, which was an increase of 3.8% compared
to the same period in 2013, enabling 6.8 million t of
marketable commodities to be produced. The refining
depth was 65.99%. In the same year, investments at the
refinery totalled 13 billion rubles net of VAT. At the
moment, the company is continuing to implement
HYDROCARBON 35 June 2017
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Heat tracing systems are a crucial element
of refineries to prevent process failures.
Figure 2. The BARTEC HSB self-limiting heating tape
is designed to meet all frost protecting needs in
industrial areas.
Figure 3. The BARTEC PSB heating tape has been
designed to protect vessels and pipelines from the
damage inflicted by frost.
June 2017 36 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
activities that are aimed at the reduction of
non-recoverable losses. As a result, non-recoverable
losses have been reduced to 0.66% of the total
processing volume.
Furthermore, a new fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
facility is underway in order to enable the enterprise
to fully transition to manufacturing fuels according to
the Euro V standards.
Full-scope engineering
In order to modernise older facilities, as well as bring
new refinery units to production, the owners of the
Syzran refinery chose BARTEC as their partner for
establishing an up-to-date electrical heating system
that is capable of meeting all necessary regulations.
The assignment included design, surveying and
engineering, as well as the installation of 17 facilities
and the associated pre-commissioning work.
The electrical heat tracing systems installed in
Syzran consist of four sub-systems. The heating
sub-system includes the heating tape or cable, which
has been designed to be self-adjustable, resistive and
mineral-insulated. Some of the additional
components are cable termination (sealing) kits,
splicing boxes and terminal feed boxes. The power
feed sub-system consists of power feeding cables,
distribution boxes and cabinets. Constituents of the
securing sub-system are clamps, fastening bands,
brackets, and other elements that are intended for
securing heating cable and terminal boxes. Finally, the
control sub-system facilitates the control and data
cables, as well as thermostats and the temperature
controller and control cabinets in hazardous zones.
14 000 m of heating cable
Playing a crucial part towards the success of every
electrical heat tracing system, the BARTEC heating
tapes and cables focus on an effective thermal
insulation. In that way, heat losses, as well as the
capacity of the heat tracing system, can be minimised.
The best choice for impulse lines and instrumentation
cabinets are self-limiting parallel heating tapes.
During the modernisation project at Syzran refinery,
BARTEC and its sub-contractors installed 3200 m of
HSB parallel heating tape, as well as 500 m of PSB
parallel heating tape, which was installed to protect
the impulse lines and instrumentation cabinets. In
addition, 10 000 m of EKL medium flexible single-core
plastic-insulated heating cable was installed on a long
pipeline.
Self-limiting parallel heating tape
The HSB self-limiting heating tape is designed to meet
all frost protecting needs in industrial areas. Due to
its protective outer jacket of fluoropolymer, it is
corrosion-proof and resistant to chemical attack.
With a maximum limit on possible heating output, the
HSB allows the Syzran refinery to maintain even high
process temperatures. This is achieved through the
installation of a temperature-dependent resistive
 HIGH STANDARD
VALVES FOR
NON-STANDARD
CONDITIONS.

TRI-CON TRI-CHECK TRI-BLOCK

WWW.ZWICK-ARMATUREN.DE

Figure 4. BARTEC electrical heating technology
solutions, consisting of different heating cables and
tapes as well as controllers, are certified for use in
hazardous areas.
element between two parallel copper conductors,
which regulates and limits the power output of the
heating tape. This output regulation is carried out
automatically along the entire length of the heating
tape, as according to the prevailing ambient
temperature. If the ambient temperature rises, the
power output of the tape is subsequently reduced.
Thus, the self-limiting property prevents overheating
even when the tapes are crossed. As a result of the
parallel design, the heating tape can be cut to any
required length on the construction site. This helped
to considerably simplify the project planning and
installation. Furthermore, the heating tape can be
terminated at any point according to the
circumstances.
Frost protection of pipelines and
vessels
The BARTEC PSB heating tape has been designed to
protect pipelines and vessels from the damage
inflicted by frost. While the polyolefin protective
jacket is used where there are aqueous, inorganic
chemicals, the fluoropolymer outer jacket is suitable
for use with organic chemicals. In order to regulate
and limit the heat output of the heating tape,
according to the ambient temperature, the PSB cable
type features a temperature-dependent resistive
element between two parallel copper conductors. If
the ambient temperature rises, the power output of
the heating tape is reduced. This means that there is
no need for an additional temperature limiter, even in
hazardous areas.
The self-limiting heating tape is available with
different power outputs and protective jackets. The
June 2017 38 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
protective outer jacket of either fluoropolymer or
polyolefin protects the copper braiding from
corrosion and chemical impact. Two jackets under the
protective braiding provide electrical insulation. The
inner one of the two jackets is thermally fused to the
heating element (bonded jacket). Allowing planning
and installation to be executed easily, the PSB parallel
heating tape can also be cut and installed to any
required length.
Extremely flexible
In order to prevent a long pipeline from freezing,
BARTEC installed 10 000 m of the single-core heating
cable EKL medium, type 27-5822. This extremely
flexible and steam purging resistant solution has a
fixed specific resistance and ensures a constant
power output per meter. Due to its small outer
dimensions, it can be easily installed on even the
most irregular objects such as pumps, valves and
flanges.
Further benefits of this solution include its easy
tailoring on-site according to actual needs, supported
by imprinted meter markings. Meeting the explosive
atmospheres (ATEX) regulations, as according to
EN 60079, it is also suitable for use in hazardous areas
with a shock resistance of 4 J with the operating
temperature ranging from -60 to +260°C.
Electrical heating control
In order to control the electrical heating, BARTEC
installed two systems. The system that was installed
to monitor the self-heating tapes features the digital
temperature controller DPC III, which meets the
TC RU C-DE.ML03.B.00063 certification. The digital
controller monitors the measuring circuits for sensor
failures, interruptions or short circuits, as well as
under-range and over-range measurements, in order
to ensure process reliability. It can be implemented
universally as an ON/OFF or proportional-integral-
derivative (PID) controller. The integrated, wide range
voltage input allows the devices to be used
practically anywhere in the world. Mounted on the
control cabinet’s door is the DCP III monitor, which
allows the staff both good access and ease of use.
Through a dispatcher console, signals can be
transmitted to the high level control system.
Competence proven
One year on – from the declaration of intent right up
to the signing of the final work delivery statement –
BARTEC had managed to address all challenges and
delivered the project in due time.
Conclusion
The OJSC Syzran refinery is now able to ensure a
trouble-free operation of the facilities by maintaining
the process liquids at a certain temperature. The
full-scope engineered solution prevents process
failures and damage to the staff and equipment of the
refinery and the environment.
 Hot
stuff
Ilan Toledano, Wattco,
Canada, discusses the
use of immersion heaters
for industrial applications
in chemical processing.
I
mmersion heaters can provide many applications in
industrial chemical processing. Knowing which is most
cost-efficient for a particular project can help to
reduce costs.
Furthermore, knowing the basic functions of each
heater – the flange, screw plug, circulation (sometimes
referred to as an in-line heater), and the over-the-side
immersion heaters – ensures that an informed decision
can be made regarding which heater to use for maximum
performance.
Immersion heaters can be used to heat oil, water,
solvent, acid, refined solutions, and various gases. Since
immersion heaters are in constant contact with the fluid
being heated, they are 100% efficient (i.e. no electricity is
wasted in the heating process). Whereas, with natural gas,
although the gas itself is less expensive, up to two-thirds
of the gas is lost in the heating process. In addition, more
maintenance is required due to clean-up. Electrical
immersion heaters are more easily regulated with sensors,
thus making them safer to use as the sensors can be used
for automatic shutdown.
Electric immersion heaters also come in a wider
variety of kilowatt ratings, sizes, voltages, sheath
materials, terminating points, and accessories. They can
HYDROCARBON 39 June 2017
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. WATTCO all-in-one skid circulation heater
and controls.
Figure 2. WATTCO explosion proof tank immersion
heater.
often be customised to the exact requirements of an
application, and engineers can generally produce the
right heater required with the right termination and
sheath material for long-life and lower costs. Electric
immersion heaters are more easily custom engineered
because sensors, wiring, and sheathing can be applied
without the restrictions found in natural gas heaters.
Additionally, immersion heaters are further grouped
into two divisions, closed (pressurised) and open
(non-pressurised) tank configurations.
Closed (pressurised) tank
configuration for immersion heaters
Flange immersion heater
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) flange
heater is installed through the side of a tank, when high
watt heaters are needed in large tanks for a liquid or
fluid immersion application. These applications could
also use a screw plug immersion heater, but normally a
flange heater is utilised for high pressure functions, such
as compressed gas and liquid or superheated steam. Pipe
inserts, sometimes called bayonet heaters, can be used
to heat liquids in an exceptionally large storage tank.
These heaters are installed inside the pressurised
bayonet pipes, which mates with the flange
connections. This supplies a pressure boundary, which
permits the heater’s removal without having to drain the
tank.
A square flange heater is often used for industrial
water boilers or storage tanks that hold heat transfer
fluids, caustic solutions, degreasing solvents, and fuel oils.
June 2017 40 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
These assemblies consist of flat or round tubular heaters
welded or brazed onto a four-bolt or six-bolt flange
along with a screwplug and a threaded stud terminal for
the connection of control and sensor wires. The heater is
bolted directly to the companion flange, which is welded
onto a nozzle or directly to the tank wall. Changing
assemblies only require maintenance workers to unbolt
the flange, and then replace the heater, hence extensive
downtime is minimised.
Screw plug immersion heater
A screw plug immersion heater corresponds to the
threaded opening for a half-pipe or full-pipe coupling in
the tank’s wall. These screw plug heaters serve basically
the same purpose as the flange heaters. Their applications
might include oils, liquid paraffin, purified water, caustic
cleaners, glycol solutions, chemical baths, or clean rinse
water tanks.
Circulation immersion heater
An in-line or circulation heater is an all-in-one unit,
which has a heater concealed inside an insulated tank.
This design is perfect for fast and evenly distributed
heating. The liquid or gas flows through the in-line
heater, where it is heated proportionately. Prior to the
liquid going into the tank, it is thoroughly heated. These
heaters are normally 2 in. in diameter up to 14 in., but a
48 in. custom unit has been developed. A variation in
design is the booster heater that uses low-watt, in-line
operations and engine preheating. Booster units with
steel or copper sheaths are used to heat oils and water,
respectively.
Innovative circulation heaters are convenient for
applications that require exact temperature regulation for
both liquids and gases. A rapid response heat exchanger
furnishes quick thermal response and high power across a
small length. Typically, these heaters have a low watt
requirement with single phase distribution.
Open (non-pressurised) tank
configurations for immersion heaters
Over-the-side immersion heater
An over-the-side heater can be formed into an 'L' or an 'O'
shape. These heaters are installed at the top with the
heating elements immersed at the side or on the bottom.
They are suitable for open tanks and distribute heat
evenly. These heaters are highly portable and can be
quickly removed when cleaning is necessary for the tank
or the heater.
Sheath materials are available in an assortment of
substances. The heater can be customised to
accommodate many terminal enclosures, kilowatt ratings,
or mounting methods. An over-the-side heater is
designed to heat water, solvent, oil, acid and salt, and are
feasible for freeze protection.
The vertical loop, thin-profile style heater has a
tubular design and can hang over the open tank’s side,
while a drum heater easily fits the opening of the regular
55 gal. drum. This configuration makes it convenient to
heat or melt materials that might be heat-sensitive, such as lard, grease,
paraffin wax, oil, or other viscous liquids.

Selecting the right size heater

System designs must take into consideration any possible heating
requirements and supply contingency factors that allow a 10% increase in
heater capacity above the calculated requirement for safety. To
accommodate other variables or unknowns, a safety factor of 20% could be
considered as well.
When selecting the size of an immersion heater, it is important to
calculate the following:
„ Heating requirements to vaporise or melt materials throughout the initial
heating.
„ Heating requirements to vaporise or melt materials throughout the
operating cycle.
„ Heating loss in standard equations.
„ Power requirements during initial heating. Using the equations for
standard heat transfers to calculate heating requirements.
„ Power requirements for heating during operating cycles.
„ Total power requirements during startup. Apply the appropriate safety
factors (generally 10%, as stated above) when adding steps one and three.
„ Total power requirements during operation. This is the application of the
result of steps 2, 4, and 5, along with the safety factor.
„ Watt density can then be calculated by using the rated watts per unit of
the surface area being heated, which is frequently expressed as w/cm2 or
w/in.2. Electric heating products have watt density features that normally
range from 5 w/in.2 (less than 1 w/in.2) to 300 w/in.2 (46 w/cm2).
A watt density that is too high can lead to heater failure and damage to
the heated material and/or equipment and components.

Immersion heater cost comparisons

Specific application attributes or preconditions can limit the choice of
heaters. The square flange or screw plug are normally the best economic
solution, while the flange heater or circulation heater are generally a more
expensive choice because of their power requirements and size, which is
usually much greater. However, one must always weigh up all of the
considerations before selecting the most suitable heater for any project.

Selecting an immersion heater

Many electrical heating issues could be resolved through a conversion of
heat requirements to the electrical power equivalent. Whichever application
will be used, the procedure to determine the power consideration must be as
follows:
„ The properties of the material to be heated must be considered. To
avoid coking, consider the following:
ƒ What type of water? Clean or contaminated?
ƒ Acids corrode the heater’s sheath material, which causes overheating
or heater failure.
ƒ Thick, viscous oils require low watt density.
ƒ Light oils tolerate a watt density between 30 and 40 w/in.2.
„ Specific heat.
„ Thermal conductivity.
„ Start-up temperatures.
„ Operating temperatures.
„ Maximum/minimum flow rates.
ƒ Consider sheath material and watt density.
„ Cycle time.
ƒ Longer start-ups allow lower kilowatt requirements.
„ Heated material mass.
ƒ Determines start-up kilowatt requirements.
 „ Container vessel characteristics.
ƒ Can affect heat loss.
ƒ Heater choice, as well as the mount configuration.
ƒ American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
code stamps for pressurised container vessels.
„ Insulation.
„ Temperature controls.
ƒ Sensors and other controls.
ƒ Thermocouple location and requirements.
High limit sensors for sheaths prevent premature
failure and overheating. These can also determine
excessive contamination build-up.
Temperature sensors should be located where
process temperatures are most critical, e.g. locating the
sensor nearest an outlet nozzle in circulation heaters. In
open tanks, sensors should be positioned at an adequate
height to prevent sludge contamination, but low enough
to sustain natural liquid convection and not obstruct any
system operations.
Electrical issues
The following independent agencies govern voltage and
phase:
„ Underwriters Laboratories (UL).
„ National Electrical Code (NEC).
„ Canadian Standards Association (CSA).
Heater dielectric properties normally limit voltage to
600 V, whereas phase might not be limited, except
possibly by heater type or heater assembly, e.g. the
number and type of elements. Resistance is limited at
extreme voltage or wattage. When there are high voltage
and low watts, the resistance of the heater coils may be
too high for standard thin-gauge heating wires. That
configuration would require such a heavy gauge wire that
it would not be feasible. UL or CSA approval should
always be considered.
Environmental conditions
It is important to consider the following:
„ Kilowatt requirements should be considered when
calculating how wind conditions and ambient
temperatures affect heat loss.
„ Corrosive conditions, hazardous factors, and
explosive conditions must be considered.
„ Electrical enclosures such as National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) 7 an
explosion-resistant enclosure must be used in
explosive atmospheres.
„ NEMA 4 moisture resistance ratings might be
necessary outdoors and during rinse-down cleansing.
„ NEMA 4 and 7 may be combined when necessary.
„ NEMA 1, a general purpose enclosure, can be used if
there are no problems with environmental
conditions.
Immersion heater installation
considerations
A megohm (MΩ), one million ohms, is an electrical unit
used to measure resistance. Prior to installation, installers
June 2017 42 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
should check the value of MΩ. A low MΩ reading can
indicate the presence of moisture, which could trip the
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). Moisture can enter
the heater’s element insulation during shipping or when
idle for seven days or more.
A 500 – 1000 V of direct current (VDC) MΩ meter
should be used to check circuits. A reading of at least
10 MΩ is expected, however, a lower value might be
sufficient (this should be checked with the vendor). It
does not necessarily mean a bad heater. A consultation
with the manufacturer will provide more information.
A 200˚C minimum wire temperature rating is
recommended for a process heater. Higher wire ratings
could be required in some applications. Once again, a
supplier should be consulted for proper details. National
Electric Code (NEC) wiring should be installed, but state
codes should be considered as well to meet
specifications.
Immersion heaters should be mounted horizontally
above the point of sludge or scale build-up near the
tank’s bottom to boost convection circulation. The
whole unit should remain immersed and situated away
from a heater in a restricted area where steam build-up
or free boiling normally occurs. Level controls should be
installed to prevent heater failure due to liquid level
declines.
Immersion heater maintenance
Heater maintenance can maximise performance, which
can increase performance and extend the life of the
heater. It is important to consider the following:
„ Power should be off prior to beginning maintenance.
„ Watt density ratings and sheath material should be
appropriate for the fluids or gases being heated.
„ Adequate liquid flow for circulation or in-line heaters
should be ensured to prevent premature failure and
overheating.
„ Flow switches and blockage alarms should be
working.
„ Corrosion on heater sheaths should be cleaned up
and sensors must be installed where high
temperatures are anticipated during operations.
„ Build-up of sludge and scales on the tank’s floor
should be cleaned.
„ Coking on the heater sheath should be cleaned.
„ Corrosion on the terminal housing should be
cleaned, and any loose connections cleaned and
tightened. The torque should also be checked, and
the housing should be dry.
„ Thermocouple or thermostat sensor probes should
be checked.
„ Flange threads and mounting bolts should be
checked; flange bolts tightened when necessary.
„ Manufacturer recommended specifications should be
checked for the intended use.
„ Proper grounding should be checked.
The bottom line
Saving money by using electric immersion heaters
depends on proper heater selection for a project, proper
installation, and proper maintenance after installation.
END-TO-END
EMISSIONS
John Soderstrom and Doug Allen, Zeeco Inc.,
USA, examine the end-to-end emissions reduction
solutions available to the oil and gas industry.
E
nd-to-end emissions include both fugitive and
intended emissions, and both pose a safety
and environmental hazard.1 If fugitive
emissions cannot be eliminated through
equipment maintenance, they may become intended
emissions through burning them in a flare or
eliminating them through the use of flare gas or
vapour recovery. Reducing an organisation’s
end-to-end emissions footprint helps meet
permitting requirements and provides a cleaner, safer
global environment. For today’s global operating
companies, end-to-end emissions solutions should
use more efficient flares. A comprehensive look at
emissions reduction should also include a review of a
variety of technologies for reduction of intended
emissions.
When processing combustible gases, a flare
provides a necessary, safe means of disposal for gas
releases. Instead of an accidental, and dangerous, gas
release into the atmosphere, potential release
sources are collected and routed to a flare, where the
gases are ignited and destroyed through controlled
combustion in a designed-for-purpose system. While
the fire visible from a flare may be alarming, the
products of combustion – carbon dioxide (CO 2) and
water – are better than a raw gas release.
Once all logical steps have been taken to reduce
sources of emissions, from locating and remediating
fugitive tank vapours and vent lines on instruments
to addressing ageing or failing assets, the potential
economic benefit of recovering a highly valuable
product cannot be ignored.
FGR systems
In recent years, some refinery owners and operators
have recovered the gas in their flare networks in lieu
HYDROCARBON 43 June 2017
ENGINEERING
 Table 1. With FGR/liquid seal/vapour recovery to the FGR. At times when the gas flowrate exceeds
(elimination of purge gas) the FGR system capacity, the device opens (the
Flare system Single 60 in. Staged Two 48 in. water seal is broken or the valve opens) to provide
high capacity multipoint VariJet flares a safe relief path to the flare. Liquid seal drums also
steam tip ground flare provide flashback protection for the flare system,
Number of pilots 4 15 6 since the flare tip provides an open source for air
Annual purge 0 0 0
infiltration and the flare pilot provides an ignition
gas consumption source. In FGR systems and traditional flare systems
(Nm3/y) alike, if the equipment downstream of the liquid
Annual emissions NOX CO2 NOX CO2 NOX CO2 seal is designed properly, a liquid seal drum can be
(kg/y) used to eliminate the continuous purge rate
Pilots 70 119 846 263 449 424 105 179 770 required for flares and the associated continuous
emissions (Table 1).
Purge 0 0 0 0 0 0
Steam generation 1074 1 832 630 0 0 0 0 Flaring
Total annual 1145 1 952 476 263 449 424 105 179 770 In general, flare application design engineers want
continuous to minimise the size and diameter of the flare while
emissions (kg/y)
combusting the gas. Using the smallest applicable
diameter converts the potential energy of the gas
Table 2. Flare type comparison (pressure) into kinetic energy (velocity). Increased
Flare system Single 60 in. Staged Two 48 in. pressure to the flare means the flow area can be
high capacity multipoint VariJet flares smaller, delivering a higher exit velocity, more erect
steam tip ground flare flame, quicker air inspiration, and less sweep gas –
Number of pilots 4 15 6 all contributing to lower emissions. The smallest
possible tip with a high destruction efficiency
Annual purge 652 412 73 924 53 038
gas consumption lowers capital costs and extends equipment
(Nm3/y) lifespan, due to less destructive flame impingement
Annual emissions NOX CO2 NOX CO2 NOX CO2 vs a larger diameter flare tip. Large, single point
(kg/y) flares also require a higher continuous purge gas
Pilots 70 119 846 263 449 424 105 179 770 flow to prevent air ingress and potential flashback.
Minimising or eliminating the need for a continuous
Purge 751 1 281 435 85 145 199 61 104 174
purge rate, by utilising smaller flare diameters,
Steam generation 1074 1 832 630 0 0 0 0 staged systems, or variable area designs, will
Total annual 1896 3 233 911 349 594 623 166 283 944 significantly reduce flare system emissions (Table 2).
continuous
emissions (kg/y)
Benefit of high pressure and staged flare
designs
of flaring. Flare gas recovery (FGR) offers real and The segmentation, or gradual increase in staged
tangible benefits, including the following: operation, of staged flare designs make such flares
„ Recovered flare gas can be reused in process heater multi-functional and deliver inherent operational
burners and boiler burners. benefits. Some benefits include design variability, high
„ Reducing the amount of natural gas purchased by the turndown capacity, low purge rates, and long
facility. equipment service life. Zeeco® Variable Jet (VariJet or
„ Extending the life of the flare system. VJ) flare tips capitalise on high exit velocities and
„ Lowering greenhouse gas emissions from a facility. effective air-fuel mixing, driven by high gas-to-air
surface area ratios to operate smokelessly and meet
Although the concept of FGR appears simple, it is a emissions requirements. Each arm of the VJ tip
critical package directly connected to the flare and the incorporates a self-actuated variable exit area assembly
two should be viewed as a single system. The improper that opens when triggered by internal pressure to
design of a compressor, recycle system, or liquid seal ensure operation at consistently high exit velocities
drum may result in air being pulled back into the flare over a wide range of flow rates. By maintaining
header through the flare tip. This can produce an operation at a high exit velocity and allowing the
explosive mixture in the flare or flare header, resulting variable pressure of the fuel coming into the flare to
in a flashback and equipment damage. determine the number of tips needed, the flare does
not require additional assist media to operate
Liquid seal or staging valve smokelessly, resulting in the elimination of assist steam
To divert the gases from the flare stack to the FGR, a production emissions. 2
liquid seal or staging valve (with a buckling pin bypass To mitigate the risk of combustible mixtures in an
device) is normally required. These isolate the flare open flare line, a continuous ‘purge flow’ of nitrogen or
system from the flare header and divert normal flows fuel gas is often maintained through the flare header.

June 2017 44 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 This continuous flow prevents backflow of oxygen into launching system mounted at grade or on-deck to
the system. Because most stages are closed until propel zirconium-filled pellets through a guide tube to
required for an emergency relief scenario, constant the flare tip. Upon exiting at high velocity, the pellets
purge is unnecessary on closed stages. Therefore, a impact a striker plate, showering the flare tip exit with
staged system minimises the amount of continuous sparks and igniting the flare gas stream. Because the high
purge flow required, lowering the purge utility costs and pressure pellets require a minimum impact velocity for
the flare system’s continuous emissions (Table 1). ignition, they will not detonate if dropped during
loading or fragment collecting. To reduce maintenance
Pilots and high pressure ballistic and provide reliable spark, all electronics and movable
ignition parts are mounted in the launching cabinet.
Reliable flare pilots and ignition systems are critical
components to maintain safety and emission standards Flare monitoring and optimisation
by ensuring flare gases are ignited and destroyed. Unlike other emission sources, combustion in an
Hurricane-proof pilots, such as the Zeeco® high stability, industrial flare occurs in open air, so it does not allow
low flow (HSLF) pilot, high pressure ballistic pellet for a practical method to directly monitor
ignition systems and state-of-the-art flare monitoring post-combustion flare gases. Current combustion
systems help minimise flare emissions challenges. High efficiency (CE) flare monitoring methods include the
pressure ballistic ignition systems, where permissible, extractive method (directly sampling post-combustion
offer a safe, reliable, and more flexible ‘on-demand’ flare gases), open path fourier transform infrared
ignition solution that minimises emissions, reduces fuel spectroscopy (FTIR), and the use of surrogate parameters
costs, and operates effectively under challenging (e.g. heating value, exit velocity). Monitoring flare
weather conditions. performance using open path FTIR and extractive
methods is impractical for continuous monitoring, as
Ballistic ignition systems confirmed by the US Environmental Protection Agency
The company’s high pressure ballistic ignition system can (EPA) in the recent refinery rule documentation,2 while
be used in conjunction with, or in place of, traditional the monitoring of indirect parameters is inadequate,
flare pilots (Table 3) utilising a compressed nitrogen complex, and costly.
Plant operators are provided with controls to
optimise flare operation by adding supplemental
Table 3. With high pressure ballistic ignition
fuel or adjusting the steam-to-vent gas or
Flare system Single 60 in. Staged Two 48 in. fuel-to-air ratios. However, actual flare emissions
high capacity multipoint VariJet flares
and CE are typically estimated after the fact based
steam tip ground flare
on input streams, combustion equations, and
Number of pilots 0 0 0
indirect measurements, such as the speciation of
Annual purge 652 412 73 924 53 038 the waste stream sent to the flare.3
gas consumption A new flare CE measurement and monitoring
(Nm3/y)
technology that can directly, autonomously, and
Annual emissions NOX CO2 NOX CO2 NOX CO2 continuously monitor flare performance in real
(kg/y)
time, has recently been developed and validated
Pilots 0 0 0 0 0 0 through a series of large scale tests.4 This new
Purge 751 1 281 435 85 145 199 61 104 174 method has been developed into the
Steam generation 1074 1 832 630 0 0 0 0 FlareGuardianTM brand multi-spectral infrared (IR)
Total annual 1826 3 114 064 85 145 199 61 104 174
imager (Figure 1).
continuous Because of the complexity inherent in indirect
emissions (kg/y) methods, and potential time lag in current
instrumentation, some users set a
constant minimum flow of enrichment
fuel to ensure CE compliance, which
increases the overall flare emissions.
Time lag can lead to under or over
steaming a flare, causing increased
emissions. By installing and using a
multi-spectral IR imager, the enrichment
fuel and steam can be more precisely
controlled, reducing overall emissions.

Vapour recovery
Figure 1. Comparison of extractive sampling combustion efficiency data Throughout the whole process,
vs FlareGuardianTM measurements and US EPA CE requirements. hydrocarbons are transported and
stored multiple times. Each time the

June 2017 46 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
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 Figure 2. Typical activated carbon adsorption system.

Table 4. With FGR/liquid seal/vapour recovery and high Combination vapour recovery/flare packages allow
pressure ballistic ignition producers to recover heavier gases as a liquid, and
Flare system Single 60 in. Staged Two 48 in. safely flare lighter hydrocarbons such as methane.
high capacity multipoint VariJet flares Combination vapour recovery thermal oxidiser
steam tip ground flare systems require two stages; the first stage is an
Number of pilots 0 0 0 activated carbon VRU, followed by a second-stage
oxidiser of either catalytic thermal oxidiser or
Annual purge 0 0 0
gas consumption regenerative thermal oxidiser design. The two-stage
(Nm3/y) approach can meet the obligation that volatile
Annual emissions NOX CO2 NOX CO2 NOX CO2 organic compound (VOC) emissions be recovered,
(kg/y) often a requirement of the emissions control
Pilots 0 0 0 0 0 0 permit, whilst meeting stringent overall emissions
limits through the second-stage oxidation of what
Purge 0 0 0 0 0 0
would otherwise be vented from the VRU.
Steam generation 1074 1 832 630 0 0 0 0
Total annual 1074 1 832 630 0 0 0 0 Conclusion
continuous End-to-end emissions reduction is a requirement
emissions (kg/y)
for global operating companies and there are many
options available to help reach the goal. Improving
feedstock/intermediate/finished product is moved, or controls and operating philosophies for existing
even when idle in storage, changes in temperature and equipment should be the first action taken, but as
pressure will generate vapours. Combustion and equipment ages and needs replacement, or as facilities
environmental control companies can design cost expand, newer and lower emissions technologies
effective methods to handle these vapours by should be considered (Table 4). Companies working
recovering all (or a portion) of the hydrocarbons as a toward an end goal of total emissions elimination
liquid that can be returned as a valuable product, during normal operating and maintenance scenarios
instead of lost as a fugitive or intended emission. have an array of technology options to assist.
Options include one or two-stage vapour recovery
units (VRUs), combination vapour recovery flare References
packages, and combination vapour recovery thermal 1. http://www.epa.gov/airtoxics/petrefine/20140515factsheet.pdf.
2. 'Parameters for properly designed and operated flares', US
oxidiser units, determined by the level of emissions Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Office of Air Quality
reduction required. Planning and Standards (OAQPS), (2012), available: http://
www. epa.gov/ttn/atw/flare/2012flaretechreport.pdf, (accessed:
Although there are several alternative vapour 24 March 2015).
recovery technologies available, activated carbon 3. ZENG, Y., MORRIS, J. and DOMBROWSKI, M., 'Multi-spectral
adsorption VRUs are often seen as the best available infrared imaging system for flare combustion efficiency
monitoring', (2012), U.S. Patent 9,258,495, issued on
technology5 for most applications (Figure 2). These 9 February 2016.
systems provide operators with maximum flexibility 4. ZENG, Y., MORRIS, J. and DOMBROWSKI, M., 'Validation
of a new method for measuring and continuously
because they handle an extensive range of products monitoring the efficiency of industrial flares', Journal of
and feature a wide turndown ratio capability, from the Air & Waste Management Association, 66:1, 76-86, DOI:
0 to 100% of the design flow and inlet concentrations. 10.1080/10962247.2015.1114045, (2016).
5. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC),
An additional benefit of vapour recovery is that there (February 2003), retrieved from http://eippcb.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
is no production of thermal NOX in the process. reference/BREF/lvo_bref_0203.pdf

June 2017 48 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
 M
easuring flare gas is important for reducing
environmental impact but is one of the most
challenging types of gas flow measurement. New
technology is helping to improve safety on-site,
refine maintenance procedures and deliver more accurate
Lana Ginns, Fluenta, UK, emissions information.

discusses gas flaring in Gas flaring in the oil and gas industry
the 21st Century and the Gas flaring is carried out around the world. Most flared and
vented gas is emitted by Russia and Nigeria, along with
transformational impact countries such as Iraq and Iran. In recent years, the US has
of technology. significantly increased its flaring operations, due to the
country's growth in the oil and gas industry.
The hot flaring and cold flaring (venting) of gas
contributes to climate change and impacts the environment
through pollutants including methane and CO2 emissions.
Based on satellite data, it is estimated that more than
150 billion m3 of natural gas is released into the atmosphere
each year through natural gas flaring operations.

HYDROCARBON 49 June 2017

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Gas flaring safely disposes of excess natural gas.
Figure 2. Regular servicing ensures equipment is in
optimal condition – even in remote locations.
Figure 3. Equipment must be maintained and calibrated
to ensure accurate measurement.
Natural gas can be stored and transported instead of
flared, but it is highly flammable. Between 2008 and 2012,
there were 370 significant safety incidents at natural gas
transmission pipelines. These incidents led to 10 fatalities
and 85 injuries. Transporting natural gas from a rig to
homes and businesses is high risk, while the combination
of high infrastructure costs and low gas prices has
discouraged investment in on-site capture technology.
June 2017 50 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
Flaring has long been considered the lesser of two evils
when compared to venting methane directly into the
atmosphere.
The pledge for lowered emissions
In November 2015, the COP21 climate change
conference in Paris, France, saw a number of oil and gas
companies sign a pledge to significantly reduce routine
gas flaring. The Zero Routine Flaring by 2030 initiative,
which was introduced by the World Bank, brings
governments, oil companies, and development
institutions together so that they can recognise the
current flaring situation is unsustainable from a
resource management and environmental perspective.
The governments and oil companies endorsing the
initiative will publicly report their flaring and progress
on an annual basis – agreeing to allow the World Bank
to aggregate and report the totals. Under such
increased scrutiny, accurate flare measurement is
critical.
The IoT effect
The introduction of advanced technology, such as the
Internet of Things (IoT), means oil and gas companies
are better positioned to streamline emissions-heavy
processes and improve reporting accuracy.
Historically, recording and sharing emissions data
involved recording the volume of gas flared locally and
sharing this data on a periodic basis. However, cloud
infrastructure has enabled the constant monitoring and
storage of data on remote servers anywhere in the
world, in real time, and via the IoT. Monitoring equipment
installed on local assets transmits information to
software that is stored on central servers, rather than
physically on an oil and gas site. When real time data is
fed into software such as a continuous emission
monitoring system (CEMS), organisations can collect,
record and report data remotely.
Providing they are connected to the internet,
businesses can access CEMS data and analyse it using
any connected device. With internet connectivity
available almost anywhere, businesses can access real
time data feeds of remote assets from multiple sites
anywhere in the world.
The big data impact
The most significant use of CEMS data will be to
businesses employing remote monitoring and
measurement technology. Through access to improved
information in real time, oil and gas companies can
make more informed business decisions.
By implementing cloud technology to record gas
flaring, companies can build a better picture of trends
over time and use this insight to drive emissions
strategies. For example, on a rig where flaring only
happens after certain maintenance procedures, real
time data can provide insight to more effectively
manage the flaring process – reducing the amount of
wasted gas in the future. Over an extended period,
organisations may begin to see patterns emerging that
 enable them to more effectively predict which rigs will
flare more gas than others.
Accurate reporting to accurate
measurement
With a recent increased focus on gas flaring emissions, oil
and gas companies rely more on accurate measurement
information. Many countries have introduced regulation
that enforces accuracy requirements for gas flaring.
The Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB) in
Alberta, Canada is a founding member of the World Bank’s
Global Gas Flaring Reduction (GGFR) Steering Committee
and has set comprehensive requirements for monitoring
emissions in Canada. Directive 017 requires facilities
flaring more than 500 m3/d to record gas flaring to an
accuracy of 5% on single point meters – a measure
echoed by the regulatory bodies in the US and Russia.
Mexico has set the maximum measurement accuracy for
gas flaring at just 3%. How can oil and gas companies
ensure data is accurate to such a degree?
Measuring to monitoring
To ensure flare gas meters are providing accurate
measurement information, oil and gas companies need to
commit to servicing, monitoring and calibrating
measurement assets.
In hostile environments, where sea water or extreme
temperatures could impact performance, the regular
servicing of flare gas meters ensures equipment is in
optimal condition. This means potential issues can be
identified and dealt with before they contribute to the
misreporting of environmental statistics. A build-up of
debris, ice or condensation in the pipes, and a change in
gas composition could all drastically affect data
accuracy.
Safety first
Accurate measurement technology not only reduces the
likelihood of misreporting emissions – it reduces risk in
general. Oil and gas sites can prove to be hazardous
working environments. Monitoring areas for the presence
of flammable vapours is an important health and safety
practice and should be supported by accurate measuring
equipment.
There are many potential causes of on-site explosions,
such as the sudden release of gas under pressure (which
can often result from normal extraction operations and
other on-site activities) or the introduction of an ignition
source into an explosive or flammable environment. The
hydrocarbon releases (HCRs) that cause explosions such
as these are, in simple terms, just leaks.
A recent campaign called 'Step Change in Safety',
which was supported by all the stakeholders in the UK
offshore industry, neatly demonstrates how technology
can reduce the risk of HCRs. In 2010, the total number of
HCRs was 187. The Step Change in Safety campaign

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Figure 4. Accurate measurement technology will help to
reduce human risk.
aimed to reduce this by 50% over three years. Whilst the
campaign came up short – it reduced the number by
49% – the approach demonstrates what is possible when
more focus and attention is given to safety issues. By
combining IoT advances in remote connectivity and
innovation in monitoring technology, the success that
has already been achieved in this area can be
significantly increased.
Flaring insight and reducing risk
The combination of accurate, real time information from
remote assets and cloud technology can help to progress
oil and gas operations from a monitoring approach to a
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management approach. It enables companies to access
information on extreme events, and make strategic
decisions around safety protocol.
On an oil rig, a business can utilise its remote
management to understand how the platform performs at
different times of the year and how seasonal weather
impacts performance.
In late 2015, dozens of oil workers were killed in a fire
aboard a rig in the Caspian Sea. This was caused by a gas
pipeline damaged in high winds. By recording critical data
to the cloud, companies understand the impact of
extreme weather on oil rigs and implement procedures to
reduce the risk of a similar incident. Had the owners of
the rig been more aware of the likelihood of such an
incident happening, they could have evacuated the site
sooner.
Conclusion
Connected technologies can reduce the risk of accident
or injury in oil and gas operations, improve emissions
monitoring, and provide insightful data to advance on-site
operations through the cloud. IoT connectivity enables
organisations to accurately report emissions from gas
flaring and manage gas flaring processes more effectively
in hostile and hazardous locations. While traditional
industries have been slow to realise the potential in
technology, oil and gas companies are finally considering
its transformational role.
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Austin Alford and Alexander Bukhman, Gauging Systems Inc., USA,
evaluate the advantages of mass and volume measurements, and how
they can help to increase tank gauging IQ level.

D
espite numerous technological advantages offered by new tank gauging technologies,
there is a common misconception that accurate level measurement is all that is needed
for operational use or inventory control.
It is, however, imperative to recognise that liquid level is only one facet of accurate
hybrid tank gauging. While an installed liquid level gauge should be accurate to within 3/16 of an
inch, as required by the API 3.1B standard for custody transfer applications, it still does not provide
an accurate liquid quantity value by itself. The quantity, expressed in volumetric or mass units,
would require very accurate average liquid temperature measurements, density measurements, as
well as water measurements, including free, emulsified and entrained water. The acceptable
measurement accuracy of those parameters become increasingly difficult to obtain for stratified
products, and with the installation of multiple instruments at different tank locations, multiple
influences and metrological errors are introduced into the measurement process.
An uncertainty in average temperature measurement can easily influence the product volume
accuracy to a larger degree than level measurement uncertainty itself. The same applies to water
measurement uncertainty affecting product quantity for custody transfer accuracy.
Since the introduction of Coriolis flow meters into the market, mass measurement capabilities
in a tank gauge have become a significant advantage, even when volume alone is used for custody
transfer. Since mass is the most accurate output of the Coriolis meter, the mass balancing
between a tank gauge and a meter could provide significant advantages in total loss control and
custody transfer evaluations.

HYDROCARBON 53 June 2017

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Improvements in loss control and product
quality.
Quality over quantity
The product quantity is not the only task or challenge for
the modern tank gauging system. Product quality is of
equal importance for eventual fiscal calculations. Product
quality can be referred to as a ratio in a non-homogeneous
liquid mixture between the desired product and anything
else that is mixed in (usually water).
For petroleum products, and especially for crude, the
quality of the product is directly related to its density as
well. Quality measurements become increasingly
valuable as the cost of the product increases. For
example, if a company assumes it is purchasing a certain
quantity of crude oil, but gets a significant percentage
less due to water in the total mixture, then the chances
are high that the company has overpaid by a substantial
amount.
For tanks storing crude oil, the monitoring of density
and density stratification is an important parameter of
quality control for the ultimate purpose of benchmark
crude preparation with significant fiscal impact.
Tank gauging instruments that focus solely on level are
unable to make this distinction in quality. Even in cases
where the interface between product and free water can
be measured as a level, considerations need to be made
to account for emulsified and entrained water in the
product.
To obtain a proper product quality, density strata must
be measured, especially for a stratified product. The
density strata information can be used for optimal mixing
and operation control, such as monitoring of product
settling.
Advantages
The ability to measure product quality and quantity
simultaneously, and to obtain these measurements
continuously and in real-time, lends itself well to the
optimisation of in-tank blending. This is useful for
benchmark crude preparation, fuel oil optimisation,
chemical blending, and other applications that require
real-time feedback in order to properly control the
processes.
June 2017 54 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
The ability of some new tank gauging technologies to
provide density, temperature, and water stratification over
the entire liquid height, including multiple layers, allows
for virtual sampling of product quality in real-time.
With the introduction of API MPMS Chapter 18.2
'Custody Transfer of Crude Oil from Lease Tanks Using
Alternative Measurement Methods', such capability of
new tank gauging systems could prove important for
custody transfer operations in lease storage tanks. These
new tank gauging systems can provide information for
merchantability of the products in lease tanks.
The quality measurements are extremely important at
pipeline crude oil terminals, lubricant plants and in many
other applications. There are several other major financial
and environmental advantages that systems designed
primarily around liquid level measurement cannot
provide.
Importantly, gauges only concerned with level
cannot provide leak detection capabilities. The level of a
product, even in the simple, ideal case of a thermally
isolated, entirely rigid storage tank of any standard
height, is too highly dependent on the product’s
minuscular temperature changes, making it unsuitable
for any leak detection purposes. This extreme
dependence on temperature makes the probability of
true leak detection by means of level far too low, and
the probability of false leak detection too great for
feasible use. Advanced tank gauges, with direct mass
sensitivity, allow for the detection of leaks and
unauthorised movements by virtue of being much less
dependent on temperature and density variations inside
the product.
There are a few dedicated systems using mass
measurements, based on the usage of external
differential pressure sensors, for leak detection in tall,
above and underground storage tanks. These systems
mostly involve tank insulation and usually incur
significant expenses for the contractor’s labour, but still
do not offer a permanent solution. Only a tank gauge
with enough mass sensitivity would be able to adapt to
regular tank operations and monitor any loss of product
due to possible leaks, valve seepage, occasional
unauthorised movement, or theft. In addition to direct
leak detection capabilities, a mass tank gauging system
meeting the previously described sensitivity
requirements, working in conjunction with a mass flow
meter, provides enough data for the statistical analysis
needed to accomplish the purposes of loss control and
prevention.
Loss control and environmental protection obligations
are not only limited to leak detection; vapour emissions
are a growing environmental concern, with regulatory
agencies enacting standards to restrict pollution by region
and by individual facilities. Tank gauges that track and,
therefore, help to reduce vapour emissions can increase
the production allowance of a facility by minimising each
tank’s contribution to the overall pollution cap. Modern
tank gauging systems have the capability of comparing
the data from sensors in atmosphere and those in the
vapour space of the tank. This configuration of sensors
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constitutes a rupture protection system. Should a tank be
nearing overpressure, an alert or alarm of some variety
will notify the operators, enabling them to resolve the
issue before the occurrence of a catastrophic tank
rupture, which entails large environmental and financial
ramifications. In addition, such systems are capable of
inert gas blanketing monitoring.
Another impediment to the simple model is the fact
that vessels are never perfectly rigid. Top-referenced tank
gauges often do not take this into account. Large
quantities of product will cause the tank floor and ceiling
to flex. This, in turn, may cause bottom datum and/or
tank reference height changes, which would affect total
accuracy of the volumetric calculations for even a perfect
level gauge.
Bottom-referenced tank gauges, extending through
the entire height of the tank, follow the bottom
movement and are independent of roof flexing. Thus they
provide much more reliable quantity data than a top
referenced gauge.
Additional functions, incorporated with some modern
gauging technologies, allow for direct monitoring of the
water settling process in crude settling tanks, usage in
oil-water separators and even in so-called 'inverse'
applications with a relatively narrow layer of crude or
petroleum product floating on top of the large amount of
water.
Conclusion
Tank gauging ‘IQ’ comes down to the multiplicity of
functions of a modern system installed in a tank. The
broadened functionality of these systems includes
traditional and unconventional measurements such as level,
temperature, free water, density, entrained water, mass and
volume calculations, vapour emission parameter
calculations, unauthorised movement and leak detection
capabilities, and easy integration with modern flow meters
for total product accounting and product balancing
solutions.
Nonetheless, the potential benefits of extra
functionality in tank gauges with a high ‘IQ’ should not turn
into a tank gauging headache, with numerous instruments
fitted to the tank, high maintenance requirements, multiple
entry points, and the uncertainties inherent in combining
measurements taken at different locations on the tank roof
and wall. The expanded services of a modern tank gauge
must be combined with minimal installation requirements,
simple maintenance, and all measurements taken as close
together as physically possible to reduce the uncertainties
of their combined calculations.
Finally, the high ‘IQ’ tank gauge should require minimal
wiring, offering standard, industry-recognised
communication protocols capable of transmitting multiple
measurements, with ease of integration into any existing
distributed control system (DCS) or software systems.
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 Graeme Webb, Berthold Technologies UK Ltd,
explains how engineers can achieve an indication
of the level of their product, process vessel or
tank by using radiometric techniques.

NO HALF
MEASURES
S
ome of the more common measurement methods currently used in the
process industry include: radar, vibration, rotation paddle, ultrasonic
and radiometric.
Equally confusing to the non-initiated is the variety of types of
levels that may be needed to suit a particular application. These types of level
measurement can include point level, interface level, continuous level and
multi-phase level measurement (MPLM). For the purposes of this article, the
author will concentrate on radiometric, also known as nuclear, measurement
techniques.

Why radiometrics?
Radiometric level measurement is a widely used, non-contact method for the
measurement of both solid or liquids. It uses the Gamma radiation from a
controlled source using mostly Co-60 or Cs-137 isotopes. In this instance, the
gamma radiation acts in a similar way to ordinary X-rays, in that it penetrates
the walls of the vessel to enter a detector placed opposite the source. The
same way an X-ray distinguishes between bone and flesh, the industrial version
– using the more powerful gamma rays – can differentiate between the

HYDROCARBON 57 June 2017

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Continuous level rod detector mounted
in place. The source and shield is mounted on the
opposing side of the vessel.
Figure 2. A typical arrangement of Co-60 rod sources
for continuous level measurement.
June 2017 58 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
constant thickness vessel wall and the variable level
of the process material inside.
Radiometrics have advantages over more
conventional level measurement systems in that it
is non-contacting, non-intrusive, externally
mounted and virtually maintenance free in its use.
It is also unaffected by the chemical or physical
properties of the measured product.
By being non-contact, the radiometric
equipment is not affected by the process product
so is ideal for use where high temperature,
pressure, or other high demand factors (such as
aggressive or sticky media and toxic materials) are
used. Radiometric level measurement has a proven
record of working where other technologies can
fail to perform adequately.
The activity and type of source, along with the
size of the detector, is determined at the design
stage and is dependent on factors such as vessel
size, wall thickness and product density. The
positioning of the equipment is also important in
order to ensure accurate and repeatable
measurements.
What makes up a radiometric level
gauge?
Other than remote actuators, signal lights and
bracketry, a typical radiometric level gauge consists
of three main parts, as outlined below.
The source
This is normally Cs-137 or Co-60, depending on
application. Co-60 is normally used when more
demanding measurements are required. As Co-60
has a greater penetrating power than other
commonly used isotopes, it is ideal for vessels and
applications where thick walls, often with water
jackets and insulation, need to be penetrated. The
radioactive material is double or sometimes triple
encapsulated in stainless steel or titanium for
maximum safety. It is normally within the operators’
interest to keep the source sizes to a minimum.
The sources are normally designed as a point,
with the radiation beam shielded to a ‘fan’ shape to
direct it to the detector. In some instances, Co-60
‘rod’ sources are used when high accuracy and
repeatability is required in thick walled vessels.
The shield
The source itself is encapsulated in stainless steel
or titanium, which is manufactured to strict
international regulations. The source capsule is
mounted in the shield, which is designed to guide
the gamma beam through the process material to
the detector. The shield is normally manufactured
from steel and lead, and sometimes, in extreme
cases, tungsten. In choosing the correct shield for
the application, great care is taken to keep the
radiation levels on the surface of the shield to a
minimum. This helps operator safety – as all
 Hydrocarbon
workers have exposure limits – and can also
prevent ‘cross talk’ with other radiometric Engineering App
instruments.

The detector
Simply put, the detector receives radiation from
the source and then converts that to a suitable
electrical signal for process control. Geiger Muller
(GM) tubes are the cheapest option of detector
generally available in the industrial market,
although they are seldom used currently due to
their inefficiency. They are also considerably less
sensitive to gamma radiation than the more
modern scintillator detector. Because of this,
GM tubes generally require much larger sources
(10 to 20 times larger) for them to operate
successfully. GM tubes can be considered false
economy because of the larger sources and,
therefore, shields required.
Scintillator type detectors are the common
option for most industrial level applications, and
consist of three major parts. The actual scintillator is
normally manufactured from a polymer or a crystal.
They can vary in size from 25 mm dia. x 25 mm long
to 50 mm dia. x 8 m long. The scintillator traps the
gamma radiation and creates sparks of light, making
the gamma radiation visible. The photons from this
light are then guided to the second section of the
detector, the photomultiplier. This converts the
photons to electrons and increases the output to a
measureable level. The third part of the detector is
the electronics, which amplifies the photomultiplier
output and converts it to a useable signal.

Radiometric level measurements

Point level
Point level measurement is the simplest of the main
forms of radiometric level measurement. It is often
used as a high or low alarm depending on
requirement. In other words, it can be configured
to trip either when product is present or not. This
Read the latest
system has worked successfully for many years on
both solid and liquid applications. issue on the go
Continuous level
Continuous level measurement allows the operator
to monitor and control levels in vessels of all
shapes and sizes. The continuous level system
offers analogue outputs relative to the level. The
measuring span is limited by the size of the vessel.
Berthold Technologies has installed systems Download the free app for
measuring from 500 mm to 32 m, using a Apple and Android devices:
combination of 8 m long, individual cascaded www.hydrocarbonengineering.com/
detectors. magazine/hydrocarbon-engineering/app
Using Cs-137 or Co-60 sources, the radiation is
normally beamed through the vessel to a suitably
mounted detector. As the level of the product in
the vessel rises, more radiation is attenuated and,
therefore, less radiation is received by the detector.

Figure 3. Multi-phase level measurement system with DIP and
external detectors.
The opposite is true when the product level drops.
This variation of radiation ‘counts’ is then calibrated
to represent a continuous level measurement. For
some applications, it is good practice to use a ductile
iron pipe (DIP) or insertion pipe within the vessel,
allowing the sources to be placed closer to the wall
of the vessel, reducing the radiation path and
keeping source activity as low as practically possible.
Multi-phase level
When a vessel contains a mixture of products with
multiple densities, it is sometimes necessary for the
control of the process to measure the interface points
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between the differing products as they settle
and separate.
Depending on the application, these
phases or differing materials can vary in
density from, for example, relatively heavy
sand to light foam materials, or even gas.
The radiometric solution for multi-phase
level measurement is to insert a number of
sources into a DIP and mount a suitable
number of detectors on the outside of the
vessel. The number of source/detector
combinations required depends on the
number of interfaces and the measurement
resolution required.
The Berthold system illustrated uses a
number of externally mounted safety integrity
level (SIL) rated density gauges to determine
the interface levels in a horizontally mounted vessel.
Conclusion
Radiometric level measurement offers the user a
solution for difficult to measure process situations,
providing a simple and reliable method of controlling
important and critical processes within a plant.
Because of the non-intrusive, non-contacting nature
of radiometric gauges, retrofitting can normally be
carried out with minimum downtime and
complications. Once fitted and commissioned, a
radiometric level system requires a minimal amount
of maintenance and checks.
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L L F O R PAPERS
CA
Scott Sutherland and
Peter van Vuuren,
SpectraSensors Inc.,
USA; Susan P. Harris,
Endress+Hauser, USA; and
Travis Miller, Coffeyville
Resources Nitrogen
Fertilizers, USA, champion
the use of process Raman
spectroscopy as a method for
gas-phase measurements at
refineries and fertilizer plants.

O
nline process measurement of the composition
of gas streams in refining, fertilizer, and other
manufacturing industries, is essential for the
optimal operation of different process units
within these facilities. Process analysers based on gas
chromatography, mass spectrometry, and electrochemical
technologies are commonly used in these facilities.
However, process conditions for certain streams present
major challenges for traditional technologies. Techniques
based on optical spectroscopy, including near-infrared
(NIR), infrared (dispersive and Fourier transform), and Raman
spectroscopy, provide analysis solutions for challenging
stream conditions. Raman spectroscopy is useful for
streams containing homonuclear diatomic gases, such as
hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2) . These gases are key
components in many chemical processes involving the
creation and use of syngas (H2, carbon monoxide [CO], and
carbon dioxide [CO2] ), such as the manufacturing of
ammonia and methanol. H2 is also an essential feedstock
for the hydrotreating, hydrocracking, and catalytic
reforming of various hydrocarbon fractions in refineries.
This article presents a case study for the application of
Raman spectroscopy to analyse syngas from the
gasification of petroleum coke (petcoke) in a fertilizer
plant. A second case study will be presented for the
analysis of H2, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and other
compounds, in the H2 recycle in a refinery
hydrotreater/hydrocracker and for H2 purity measurements
in a H2 plant. The discussion will include the overall
importance of the measurements to plant operation, and

HYDROCARBON 61 June 2017

ENGINEERING
 US. The plant began operation in 2000 and is the only
fertilizer manufacturing facility in North America using a
petcoke gasification process to produce the H2 used in
the production of nitrogenous fertilizer. The petcoke is
generated at an oil refinery adjacent to the plant, which is
also owned and operated by a subsidiary of CVR Energy.
The petcoke is gasified to produce H2-rich synthesis gas,
which is converted to anhydrous ammonia (NH3), with
over 96% being ultimately converted to the fertilizer, urea
ammonium nitrate (UAN) and diesel exhaust fluid (DEF). In
2015, the Coffeyville facility produced 385 400 t of
ammonia and 928 600 t of UAN solution. Recently, the
facility decided to install a new process analyser using
laser-based Raman spectroscopy for the measurement of
syngas, due to challenges experienced with more
conventional process analyser technologies.
The OptografTM analyser is a process spectrometer
that is based on Raman spectroscopy. It was installed
within the CO sour shift reactor and heat recovery
section of the plant. The most important and challenging
stream that the analyser is measuring is the inlet to the
Figure 1. Coffeyville Resources’ process diagram first CO sour shift reactor, which essentially represents
(courtesy of the Coffeyville facility). the composition outlet of the entrained flow slagging
gasifier quench section after the scrubbers. This stream
presents challenges for analysis as it contains the highest
Table 1. Stream compositions for four sample quantity of particulates and water vapour content (up to
points at the Coffeyville ammonia plant
60%). Currently, the composition measurement of this
Syngas First shift Second Second
stream is used for monitoring, but not control, of the
after converter shift shift
scrubber outlet converter converter operation of the gasifier. Two other sample points have
inlet outlet been installed and are operational. These are located on
Temperature 430 825 495 550 the outlet of the first shift reactor and the inlet to the
(˚F) second shift reactor, after the point where a recycle gas
Pressure 600 590 585 580
stream ties in to the main syngas piping. The fourth
(psig) sample point will measure syngas from the outlet of the
second shift. This measurement will provide the inlet
Cycle time 4 4 4 4
(min.) composition of syngas to the acid gas removal section of
the facility. As of January 2017, it was not yet online. Once
H2 (%) 33.27 54.62 50.38 55.30
the fourth sample point is operational, these four
CO (%) 53.85 3.75 13.25 1.10 measurements will provide full shift gas analysis.
CO2 (%) 12.30 40.51 33.87 40.88 The strategy for optimisation is centred on fast
Nitrogen (%) 0.53 0.37 1.59 1.74 compositional analysis. Based on the facility’s front end
H2S (%) 0.77 0.65 0.62 0.66 gasifier pressure, relatively fast flow rates occur
throughout the shift reactors in the system. As such,
Methane (%) 0.00 0.04 0.18 0.21
compositional changes can occur quickly, so fast analysis
Oxygen/ 0.00 0.06 0.11 0.11 update times are essential. The Raman analyser can
Argon (%)
measure all four sample points simultaneously, providing
Water Saturated a complete compositional update in four minutes. The
All composition values are in mol % monitoring of syngas composition on the outlet of the
gasifier allows for potential underlying control
potential cost savings for the Raman measurement opportunities for the gasification process and identifying
technology over traditional technologies. Competitive changes in feedstock composition. While the Raman
technologies will be discussed, along with lessons learned analyser installation is still relatively new in the plant and
concerning the specifics of the Raman analyser much of the data collected to date has been to establish
installations, and the unique safety features enabled in operational baselines, the analyser’s fast update time was
implementing the technology. instrumental in helping the plant identify that rapid
changes in the syngas composition after the scrubbers
Case 1: syngas analysis in a fertilizer was due to problems in the gasifier quench chamber (see
plant Figures 1 – 3 and Table 1 for the petcoke gasifier process,
Coffeyville Resources Nitrogen Fertilizers LLC owns and stream compositions for all four measuring points, and
operates a nitrogen fertilizer facility in Coffeyville, Kansas, the first sample point composition trend and spectrum).

June 2017 62 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
Case 2: H2 analysis in
a refinery
The objective of the refining
process is to convert crude oil
to gasoline, jet fuel, diesel oil,
LPG, and fuel oils. There are
many processes within the
refinery that utilise H2, including
hydrotreating, hydrocracking,
catalytic reforming, fluid
catalytic cracking (FCC),
isomerisation, and alkylation.
These processes vary depending
on the input feedstock and the
desired modification to that
Figure 2. Coffeyville Resources' stream trend data of syngas after scrubber.
feedstock, such as sulfur
removal, or need to produce
specific end products, such as diesel oil. H2
consumption in oil refineries is growing due to
increasing use of low quality heavy crude oil
feedstocks, which require more H2 to refine, and due to
low sulfur requirements in diesel fuels.
There are several different process units in an oil
refinery that are necessary to upgrade or further
refine the primary distillate fractions derived from
the atmospheric distillation unit (ADU) and the
vacuum distillation unit (VDU). In addition to crude
oil and distillate fractions, H2 is an important
consumable used to upgrade some of the distillate
fractions, primarily via hydrotreaters (removal of
sulfur components) and hydrocrackers (cracking of
high molecular weight fractions into smaller Figure 3. Coffeyville Resources' spectrum of syngas after
molecules). The H2 is either produced on site (via a H2 scrubber.
plant and catalytic reformers) or can be supplied by a
third-party from a commercial H2/CO (HYCO) plant.
Table 2. Stream compositions for the three H2 recycle
In most cases, the unused H2 and other light gases sample points
formed in these units are recycled; the recovery of
Compressor 1 Compressor 2 Start-up
the H2 is essential for efficient operation of the compressor
refinery.
Temperature (°F) 120 120 120
Recycled H2 applications Pressure (psig) 1800 2800 280
One west coast refinery is using Raman analysis in the Cycle time (min.) 2 – 4 2–4 2–4
H2 recycle processes in its hydrocracking and H2 (%) 93.0 85.78 93.0
hydrotreating process units. The typical
Methane (%) 3.69 5.71 3.69
measurements used to monitor and enhance the
operation of the hydrotreater and hydrocracker with Ethane (%) 1.10 1.34 1.10
the Raman analyser are recycle H2 and H2S content Propane (%) 0.31 1.47 0.31
measured before the acid gas removal (AGR) process Iso-butane (%) 0.07 1.85 0.07
unit. Key measurement parameters used for the N-butane (%) 0.07 0.85 0.07
operation of these processes include composition
H2S (%) 1.6 0 1.6
and specific gravity. This measurement is performed
to control the hydrocarbon to H2 ratio in the reactor, Ammonia (%) 0.01 0 0.01
which promotes optimal chemistry and prevents coke Ethylene (%) 0 0 0
formation. Nitrogen (%) 7.0 1.5 7.0
This facility is currently analysing stream Iso-pentane (%) 0.1 0.5 0.1
composition in three locations. The first measurement
N-pentane (%) 0 0.1 0
point is at the start-up compressor, which is used only
after a catalyst change out in a turnaround period. The Hexane+ (%) 0.3 0.5 0.3
goal of this measurement is to help improve process All composition values are in mol% (source: customer generated
visibility at start-up. This compressor is also used for information)

HYDROCARBON 63 June 2017

ENGINEERING
 low pressure cool down. The other
two measurement points are upstream
of recycle compressors. A typical
location for the measurement point is
illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 5 shows
the changing stream composition over
12 hours in a H2 recycle process with
output from the Raman analyser.
Prior to installation of the
analyser, this refinery monitored the H2
recycle compressors based on the
amperage usage of the compressors
and specific gravity measurements
downstream of the compressors. Now
they have process visibility of the
composition for the output of the
catalyst beds and can more efficiently
optimise the process. Process Raman
technology is able to report
Figure 4. H2 recycle process in a hydrocracker, showing a typical compositional and specific gravity
measurement point.
information with as little as two min.
cycle time.

Captive H2 production
applications
There are many refineries that produce
‘captive’ H2 for use in numerous
hydrotreating and hydrocracking
processes that are essential for refinery
operation. The majority of this H2 is
produced via steam methane
reforming (SMR) of natural gas inside
the refinery battery limits (ISBL). The
output of the SMR is syngas, which is a
mixture primarily of H2 and CO. The
CO in the syngas is combined with
Figure 5. Snapshot of the H2 recycle process in a hydrocracker. water and converted into CO2 and
additional H2 using water-shift
reactors. When recovery and
sequestration of CO2 are required,
further processing purifies the syngas
by removing CO2 via a CO2 absorber. In
many refineries, pressure swing
adsorption (PSA) units play a major
role in the final H2 purification process.
Figure 6 and Table 3 illustrate key
measurement points in a H2
production plant.
One US west coast refinery has
used a variety of technologies to
measure H2 purity at the outlet of the
PSA process unit. Initially, the plant
used a commercial specific gravity (SG)
meter for this measurement. However,
due to the non-binary nature and the
trace contaminants in the stream, the
SG meter would often produce
spurious results. In addition, the
Figure 6. A simplified process diagram for a captive H2 plant, based on SMR. process engineer needed both a
suitable H2 measurement and details

June 2017 64 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
of the contaminants, which this sensor was unable to Table 3. Description of the measurement points
provide. The site investigated alternative approaches and in the captive H2 plant (Figure 6)
settled on one based on solid state sensing technology. Measurement Process description Key measurement
This analyser was installed and was found to be very point parameters
sensitive to pressure and flow, and was ultimately deemed 1 Natural gas feed to Carbon number
insufficiently repeatable for their requirements. The site primary reformer
evaluated process gas chromatography (PGC) and optical 2 Fuel gas to reformer Btu
technologies, focusing on process Raman spectroscopy, furnaces
since other optical technologies cannot measure H2,
3 Raw syngas – primary Composition (CH4)
whereas the Raman technique can. The site chose process reformer outlet
Raman technology over the PGC systems due to the high
4 Raw syngas – secondary Composition (CO)
cost of maintenance and consumables they had reformer outlet
experienced with previous PGC installations at the site
5 High temperature shift Composition (CO)
(Table 4). converter outlet

Key benefits 6 Low temperature shift

converter outlet
Composition (CO2)

The use of optical analysers provides some installation

and safety benefits over some more conventional process
analyser technologies used for gas composition
measurements. Some of these benefits include:
„ The analytical sensor can be located at the sample
tap. This eliminates the need to transfer the sample
from a probe to the analyser along heat-traced
sample lines. This can reduce installation costs,
maintenance costs, and can significantly reduce lag
time often caused by sample transport.
„ Not transporting a process sample to the analyser can
improve safety for plant personnel, as no toxic gases
are present at or near the analyser during
maintenance activities.
„ Gas sample continuously flows past the optical
sensor during the analysis period, providing an
average composition value. Process analysers based
on separation techniques take a grab sample at a fixed
point in time and can take several minutes to provide
a result. Changes in the process stream during this
time are not captured until the next grab sample is
taken.
„ Process Raman spectrometers are able to analyse
multiple gas streams in parallel, without the need for
stream switching.
„ The analytical sensor is designed to operate at line
temperature and pressure, which provides the plant
with an opportunity to return the sample to the
process and avoid flaring.
„ There is an optical service kit available to clean,
polish, and repair the fibre optic cable. This kit
includes a fault locator tool, a power meter, and a
fibre inspection microscope, along with fibre coupling
gel and polishing discs, all included in a pelican case.
Conclusion
Process Raman spectroscopy is an analytical method for
gas-phase measurements at manufacturing facilities, such
as refineries and fertilizer plants. It is a suitable optical
technique for the analysis of syngas and H2 streams that
are found throughout these facilities. The successful
installations at the facilities described in this article
provides supporting evidence that this method provides
essential data and performance benefits to the
monitoring and control of key process units within these
plants. The speed of response is important in these
7 CO2 absorber outlet – Composition (CO2)
feed to PSA
8 PSA unit H2 stream Composition (H2)
9 CO2 recovery stream CH4 leakage
Table 4. Example stream composition for PSA
unit H2 stream
Temperature (°F) 120
Pressure (psig) 350
Cycle time (min.) 2–4
H2 (%) 99.0
Methane (%) 0.5
Nitrogen (%) 0.4
CO2 (%) 0.1
All composition values are in mol %
changing processes, as refiners look for more
feed-forward strategies to fine-tune H2 production and
lengthen catalyst life, and ammonia manufacturers look
for energy savings and higher yields as well as catalyst
savings.
Acknowledgements
SpectraSensors wishes to thank the people at the Coffeyville
Resources Nitrogen Fertilizers LLC facility, and specifically Travis
Miller, for providing the image for Figure 1, the data for Table 1, and
support information for the use of process Raman spectroscopy in
its plant. The author would also like to thank the people at the two
west coast refineries (who asked not to be specifically named) for
providing information on the use and benefits of process Raman
spectroscopy at their facilities.
References
1. VAN VUUREN, P.; SUTHERLAND, S.; SLATER, J.; ESMONDE-WHITE, F.;
FAULKNER, D.; and CORIE, P., “OptografTM Analyser and ‘Pipe
centric’ Process and Sampling Interfaces: A New Paradigm for a
Total Process Analytical Solution”, ISA AD Symposium, Galveston,
Texas, USA, (26 – 30 April 2015).
2. Chevron Refinery Modernisation Project EIR Appendix 3,
abailable: http://www.chevronmodernization.com/wp-content/
uploads/2014/03/Appendix_3_Overview.pdf.
3. MAK, J. Y.; HEAVEN, D.; KUBEK, D.; SHARP, C.; and CLARK, M.,
“Synthesis Gas Purification in Gasification to Ammonia/Urea
Complex”, Gasification Technologies Council Annual Conference,
Washington DC, USA, (4 – 6 October 2004).
4. “Fertilizer Plant Demand Driven by Low Natural Gas Prices”,
Black & Veatch, available: https://www.bv.com/Home/news/
solutions/energy/fertilizer-plant-demand-driven-by-low-natural-
gas-prices.

HYDROCARBON 65 June 2017

ENGINEERING
 Dr. Werner Arts,
LAR Process Analysers AG,
Germany, discusses why
versatile and reliable online
measurements are required
to protect a plant from
the impact of oil-in-water
contamination.

June 2017 66 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
N
umerous industries are regulated by authorities for
monitoring oil in water. Any contamination of process
or wastewater with oil can massively affect
production or treatment processes. Generally, oil is a
collective term for viscous liquids with a high hydrogen and
carbon content. It is a chemical substance that is hydrophobic
and, hence, immiscible with water (literally ‘water fearing’). On
the other side, it is lipophilic and tends to dissolve in other
lipophilic substances as fats, oils, and lipids (literally ‘fat-loving’).
Typically, oil-in-water (OIW) applications are storm water runoff,
hydrocarbon storage facilities, ground water reclamation sites,
power plants, boiler condensate and cooling water reclaiming
systems, water discharge into municipal water treatment
systems, effluent monitoring and oil reclamation systems. There
is always the possibility of leakage at industrial sites that use oil
for the production and processing of biofuels, lubricants and
edible oils. This can result in pollution of the plant, water
systems, or other places. Thus, the need of OIW monitoring is
of great importance to prevent pollution of the environment. A
great deal of the expenses that are incurred due to an oil spill
and the attempt to treat the polluted water can be saved with
the help of an online OIW analyser.
The selection of an OIW process analyser can, however, be
very problematic. Most of the available OIW methods
measure oil indirectly, resulting in the limited measurement of
only specific oil characteristics. The consistency, composition
and origin of the oil affect the analytical outcome. It becomes
challenging when the OIW composition varies over time and
contains a mix of different unknown types of oils.
TOC determination for process
optimisation
The online total organic carbon (TOC) determination is quite
common in industrial processes and there is a high variety of
technological approaches available. The main reasons for TOC
monitoring is to maintain a required water purity within
processes: steam-water-cycles require concentrations of
<0.2 ppb C/l, as organics will lead to corrosion, biofouling and
damage to installation equipment, such as heat exchangers. As
a TOC analyser measures all types of organics, it also measures
oils, fats and grease, regardless of its origin as it is a carbon
counting method.
TOC is a so-called sum parameter including any organic
hydrocarbon species (Figure 1). Being a direct measuring
method, based on the oxidation of organic carbons in an
oxidising atmosphere, its outcome is defined by a chemical
oxidation equation. For every unique hydrocarbon component,
the outcome is determined. On the other hand, the TOC
method is not, and cannot be made to be, selective for only
oily and fatty hydrocarbons. For applications concerning
process control optimisation, the OIW analyser does not
necessarily have to be ‘oil selective’ as, in general, any organic
contamination has to be detected fast and reliably in the first
place and, most likely, with no other organic components than
hydrocarbons present in the water. In addition, after meeting
the appropriate countermeasures such as re-direction of the
polluted stream to buffer tanks, this contaminated water may
still be analysed by laboratory methods for single
substances/oils/hydrocarbon compounds.
HYDROCARBON 67 June 2017
ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Carbon chemistry in water analysis.
Figure 2. Measurement principle TOC analyser with high temperature
combustion technology.
Figure 3. Total organic carbon analyser QuickTOCultra.
Generally, the TOC method is used to monitor storm
water and rainwater run-off, spill detection, shock loading,
boiler feed water, condensate return and inlet analysis of
refineries, oil terminals, oil blending facilities, etc. Some amount of TOC in the sample.
understanding of the type of process and components in that
specific water stream is needed. Presuming that the OIW
alarm level is significantly higher compared to the background sample injection took place, the needle is flushed with (hot)
June 2017 68 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
level of non-oily hydrocarbons, the TOC
method should be considered suitable
monitoring for OIW.
TOC determination –
technical approaches
There are many types of TOC analysers
available. Manufacturers claim to have a
unique design, with a sophisticated
technique and promising features.
Nevertheless, the adhesive characteristic
of oil, e.g. its tendency to stick to wetted
parts (adsorption, absorption), will lead to
a slow response and too-low analytical
measuring results. Moreover, after a period
of time, so-called memory effects will
show up, meaning that relatively clean
samples will be systematically measured
too high. Many types of TOC analysers use
a variety of components that come in
contact with the sample.
In addition, many types of TOC
analysers have a limited measuring range of
up to a maximum of 2000 ppm C/l. Higher
ranges are usually achieved by use of
sample dilution. Standards for TOC
determination such as DIN EN ISO 1484:1997,
however, recommend no pre-treatment of
a sample except homogenisation. With oil
containing samples, dilution is even harder
to achieve, as oil tends to flow on top. Even if emulsified and/or
homogenised samples are diluted, the risk that the diluted
solution is not representative is high. Generally, the bigger
amount of oil will be on top of the sample.
Analysers applying a design that goes without a substantial
amount of maintenance sensitive components, such as sliding
valves, rotating valves and solenoid valves, proved to work
well in OIW applications. Analysers with a special XY-robot,
(which sequentially positions a robust thick injection needle
into a sample overflow vessel, the injection port of the 1200˚C
reactor or a waste vessel) copy manual laboratory
methodology and have small surfaces that come into contact
with the oily sample.
For the analysis, a fresh sample rapidly fills the overflow
vessel. Water, dissolved and dispersed oil are mixed
continuously with a magnetic stirrer. The needle is then
brought to the centre of the sample vessel and the needle
takes a precise sample volume. The XY-robot immediately
positions the needle into the reactor port and an aliquot of
the sample is rapidly injected into the reactor.
The ceramic reactor and its ceramic filling is maintained at
a temperature of 1200˚C. The oil and grease in the sample are
completely oxidised to carbon dioxide (CO2). A carrier gas,
flowing at a constant rate through the reactor, transfers this
CO2 gas to a non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) CO2 detector. The
calculated CO2-peak surface is linear, proportional to the
Advantageously, only the injection needle (a few mm2) is
contaminated by the oils in the sample. Directly after the
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Figure 4. Scheme of online oil-in-water monitoring by TOC high
temperature analyser.
rinse water. The absorption, memory and carry over effects of
this analyser are minimised, offering a fast response and
accurate TOC measurements.
Case study
An industrial production facility that develops biodegradable
chemicals from renewable raw materials, such as vegetable oils
and animal fats, produces base oleochem products such as fatty
acids, fatty alcohols and glycerine, as well as oleochemical
specialties such as esters, dimmers and isostearic acid, ketones,
conjugated fatty acid and technical oils. Among other
wastewater treatment techniques, the plant uses two oil and fat
separators that operate in a parallel configuration. The influent
water is warm and contains a high load of oils and fats.
After a site survey, including the inspection of the OIW
separation installation and a visual check of the composition
of waste water samples, the following major technical topics
were identified:
„ Selection of a suitable analytical OIW method.
„ Selection of a reliable accurate online analyser with a large
measuring range.
„ Method of sample take-off and sample transfer to the
analyser.
„ Maintaining an unclogged sample transfer system.
„ Separation of big solid particles from the analysers sample.
„ Operation and maintenance of the complete analyser
systems.
In this case, the content of organic hydrocarbons that do
not belong to the oil and fat groups was marginal. A ‘selective’
OIW analyser was unnecessary and TOC analysers were decided
upon. The requirements on the technology were as follows:
„ The analyser should be capable of measuring relatively low
levels up to high oily shock loadings with levels
>20 000 ppm C/l.
„ The sample should be injected directly: no pre-treatment
should be necessary.
„ The analyser should measure rapidly and not suffer from
memory effects due to the absorption of oily and fatty
matter. Again, the surface area of the wetted parts should
be kept to a minimum.
The high temperature TOC analyser, QuickTOCultra, was
installed with the sample system in an analyser shelter near
the wastewater stream. Because several products may
contaminate the wastewater awaiting analysis, the
June 2017 70 HYDROCARBON
ENGINEERING
composition changes over time, depending on
the loading and unloading activities that take
place. The sample contains oil that is present
as an oil sheen or in a dissolved, dispersed or
mixed oil/water state. The TOC analyser used
proved to be suitable for this application, and
helped to monitor and control the process
streams. It offers a dynamic measuring range
from 10 to 50 000 ppm C/l.
Sample collection and
transfer
A well designed sample take-off and sample
transfer system is of vital importance. The
location of the analyser shelter is as close as
possible to the wastewater stream. An
industrial submersible impeller pump is installed into the
wastewater channel. The pumps capacity of 20 m3/hr is high
enough to force water flowing at a high velocity through the
1.5 in. fast sample loop towards the analyser shelter. The return
of the fast sample loop is brought underwater close to the
impellers pump inlet. This keeps the wastewater stream mixed
and turbulent, even when the discharged wastewater flow is
low. The analyser's sample is extracted from the fast sample
loop via an appendage that has been developed at the fluid
system dynamic department of the Technical University of
Berlin – called FlowSampler.
The principle is based on so-called anti-isokinetic fluid
dynamics. The analyser's sample extraction probe is pointing
downstream. At high velocity, big, heavy and solid parts tend
to stay in the main stream. The extracted sample contains only
fluids, e.g. the water with dispersed oil. With this design, no
sample conditioning is needed and it can be lead directly to
the analyser. The sample, containing free dispersed oil and
dissolved oil, flows into the sample vessel of the analyser and
is mixed with a magnetic stirrer. The analyser measures the
total oil content, meaning the sum of dissolved and dispersed
oil, hence, any oil contamination will be detected.
In the case where only the dissolved oil shall be detected,
the sample is lead through an extra overflow cup, where no
magnetic stirrer is in operation. During a pre-set retention
time, the dispersed oil will separate and start to rise onto the
sample’s surface. The sample is then taken from the centre of
the overflow cup and the analyser measures only the
dissolved oil. As free oil can, generally, be easily removed via a
slimmer or oil-water separator, the monitoring of dissolved oil
is often preferred in practice.
Conclusion
Common OIW analysers measure indirectly, basing results on
secondary oil characteristics. In contrast, a TOC analyser
measures directly. It is a carbon counter and is not influenced
by oil type or consistency. TOC analysers with a dynamic
measurement range from 10 to 50 000 ppm C/l – with no
pre-treatment, and a well-designed sample transfer system,
which minimises memory effects – proves to be very suitable
for OIW applications. Worldwide, hundreds of these analysers
are successfully in operation to monitor water streams
polluted by various oils to protect the environment, detect
product spills and save costs.
Hydrocarbon Engineering questions
a number of downstream sulfur
technology experts about R&D, testing
and design, efficiency improvements
and the overall market outlook.

Q How significant are the oil refining and gas processing

industries for global sulfur production?
Q What are the main applications for your company’s sulfur
technologies/equipment within the downstream industry, and
how do they assist in these applications?
Q What was your company’s first sulfur related equipment or
technology aimed at the downstream oil and gas industry, and
how did it function?
Q In what ways can advanced sulfur technologies help to improve
operations, energy efficiency or emissions at process plants?
Q How have research and development methods evolved over
the past 10 years in relation to sulfur technology or equipment?
Q Talk us through your company’s design process for new sulfur
technologies or equipment.
Q Explain how new sulfur related technology or equipment is
tested at your company.
Q What has been your company’s biggest achievement or
technological breakthrough in terms of sulfur?
Q How has the recent oil market volatility affected the sulfur
industry?
Q Where do you see the sulfur market in 10 years?

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 STEFAN FRÄNKLE, AIR LIQUIDE
ENGINEERING & CONSTRUCTION, GERMANY
Q What are the main applications for your company’s
sulfur technologies/equipment within the downstream
industry, and how do they assist in these applications?
Air Liquide Engineering & Construction provides complete
technology solutions to process raw natural gas, associated gas,
acid gas from sour crudes, tightened sulfur specifications for
refined products and meeting natural gas pipeline or LNG
specifications.
With increasingly stringent environmental regulations, many
operators of natural gas-based processing plants or refineries
are facing a variety of challenges: the need to upgrade existing
units to comply with new emissions restrictions, meeting
tougher product specifications, and facing the challenge of
extending special operating permits. In addition, plant and
refinery operators deal with different feedstock sources, and
the need to change feedstock compositions due to the lifetime
of the wells or changing crude oil slates, respectively.
The company provides a complete portfolio of sulfur
management technologies to help customers with the
challenges they face. Air Liquide has pioneered oxygen-based
Claus sulfur recovery units (SRUs). Tail gas treatment units
(TGTUs) enable plant operators to meet stringent
environmental regulations, while tailor-made acid gas removal
units (AGRUs) use physical, chemical or special formulated
solvents to meet specific challenges. The company offers
dehydration and mercaptan removal units with molsieve and
Lurgi proprietary Purisol technology to allow customers to
achieve sales gas specifications. It also supports operators in
meeting environmental regulations by replacing outdated
low-efficiency TGTUs with amine-based TGTUs. These increase
the sulfur recovery efficiency from less than 99.5% to 99.8%. To
improve efficiency further, and reach 99.9% and more,
Air Liquide offers special formulated solvents optimised for
energy efficiency.
The company supports its customers through all phases of
project development including services and offers such as plant
troubleshooting, upgrading, revamping or capacity increase
projects and spare parts over the plant’s entire lifecycle.
The Claus process-based SRU, with two catalytic stages, had a
design capacity of 24 tpd of liquid sulfur production. This SRU
was in operation for more than 20 years.
The company has also pioneered the development of using
pure oxygen instead of ambient air in sulfur recovery plants and
started up the first SRU operating with pure oxygen in 1982.
This development enabled Air Liquide to solve the refiners’
challenges during ‘low H2S feed gas’ operation. The second
plant of this kind was started in 1989, a revamp to increase the
capacity from 2 x 75 tpd to 2 x 112 tpd of sulfur.
Q In what ways can advanced sulfur technologies help
to improve operations, energy efficiency or
emissions at process plants?
Use of pure oxygen instead of ambient air in SRUs is the most
efficient way to process feed gases with both high and low
hydrogen sulfide contents (20 – 100% by volume), and to
increase the sulfur production capacity of existing units.
Amine-based TGTUs can contribute significantly to the
increase of sulfur recovery efficiency and, therefore, reduce SO2
emissions. Selection of the right amine-based solvent will
ensure extra energy consumption is minimised.
Q Explain how new sulfur related technology or
equipment is tested at your company.
Air Liquide is one of the few companies worldwide that builds
expertise based on in-house operational feedback. Experience
gained during construction and operation of its SRU plants
continuously improves the company's technology and design
rules for the benefit of its customers and licensees. Air Liquide’s
R&D programme supports the development of technologies
and ensures state-of-the-art products are available.
Q What has been your company’s biggest achievement
or technological breakthrough in terms of sulfur?
One of the challenges customers face today is the
management of CO2. Together with Total, Air Liquide has
developed a technology that enables customers to recover
CO2 while reducing operating and investment costs and

Q What was your company’s first sulfur related

equipment or technology aimed at the downstream
oil and gas industry, and how did it function?
improving environmental performance.
This patented innovative process scheme consists of a
Claus unit, fed with pure oxygen instead of air, which leads to
Air Liquide’s first reference dates back to 1955 when the first a tail gas stream, containing mainly CO2 and H2. A CO2
SRU was designed and built for the Mobil Oil refinery in purification unit allows a CO2 rich stream to be recovered
Bremen, Germany by Lurgi. Lurgi is now part of Air Liquide with a purity level reaching 99.9%, while producing valuable
Engineering & Construction following its acquisition in 2007. streams such as pure N2 and rich H2, both of which are
significant utilities in a gas
plant. This also reduces
emissions from the gas plant by
eliminating the continuous
operation of an incineration
system (flares).
All individual technologies
applied in the sub-units are
industrially proven. The
scheme is also advantageous
for revamping projects with the
aim to increase the throughput
Innovative scheme for CO2 recovery in natural gas plants. and to capture native CO2 at
the same time.

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Sulfur recovery
reinvented
When you choose Air Liquide’s state-of-the-art proprietary and licensed SRU technologies,
you also benefit from improvements based on our own in-house operational feedback.
Our customers reduce operating costs while boosting environmental performance
by limiting CO2 and SO2 emissions.
Our expertise:
+ 60 years designing and engineering SRU plants
+ 170 SRU references
+ 40 revamp references worldwide

www.engineering-airliquide.com/sulfur
sulphur@airliquide.com
 FRANK SCHEEL, JACOBS COMPRIMO®
SULFUR SOLUTIONS, THE NETHERLANDS
Q How significant are the oil refining and gas
processing industries for global sulfur production?
The majority of the global sulfur demand is being
that has the right know-how to perform a study to
select the right sulfur recovery technology for the
opportunity. Emission regulations, CAPEX, OPEX,
satisfied by the sulfur produced in the oil refining and plot and operational requirements might differ
gas processing industries. So, the contribution of from case-to-case and what might be the right
these industries in this respect is very significant. solution for Client A does not work for Client B. It
is important to perform these evaluation studies at

Q What are the main applications for your company’s

sulfur technologies/equipment within the
downstream industry, and how do they assist in these
applications?
Jacobs Comprimo Sulfur Solutions is a licensing
provider for gas treating (sulfur components removal)
and sulfur recovery. Jacobs’ technology portfolio covers
the full range of gas treating applications with different
kinds of solvents and their unique capabilities, e.g. H2S,
COS, CS2 and mercaptan removal in this respect.
For the sulfur recovery technology, the company
covers the full recovery range from the low end of the
sulfur recovery scale to the most stringent SO2
emission requirements. Its portfolio has the
capabilities to carry out sulfur degassing and
biological sulfur removal (Thiopaq’s process).
the right phase of the project. The current
tendency in the market is that the emission norms
for SO 2 are getting more stringent. Technologies
exist that can meet these criteria, but they come at
a cost. Very high CAPEX and OPEX to be able to
meet the SO2 criteria result in high energy cost and
high CO2 emissions. So, one wonders if there was a
little higher SO2 emission, at a lower CAPEX and
less OPEX, would related CO2 emissions not be
better?
Q How have research and development methods
evolved over the past 10 years in relation to
sulfur technology or equipment?
Within Jacobs, a lot of effort is dedicated to
research and development. After the SUPERCLAUS®
process in 1988, it introduced the EUROCLAUS®

Q What was your company’s first sulfur related

equipment or technology aimed at the downstream
oil and gas industry, and how did it function?
The company has been active in the gas treating and
sulfur recovery technology business since the 1960s.
One of its most successful technologies is the
SUPERCLAUS® technology that was launched in the
late 1980s, which is still one of the most widely used
sulfur recovery processes with the capability to
recovery roughly between 99% and 99.5% of the
incoming sulfur at relatively low CAPEX and OPEX.
process in 2004. In 2010, the company introduced
the incinerator off-gas scrubber to clean sulfur
recovery unit (SRU) waste gases from SO2 and
minimise the emission of sulfur species in that way.
Together with Shell Global Solutions, the low
temperature SCOT process was developed in 2007,
which has a large energy efficiency benefit over the
regular SCOT technology. There is now a growing
development using more selective solvents in tail
gas treating applications, which can lower CAPEX
and OPEX of SCOT units even further (Flexsorb,
SCOT-Ultra, Oase Yellow).

Q In what ways can advanced sulfur technologies help

to improve operations, energy efficiency or
emissions at process plants?
It is important to look at each and every opportunity
as an individual case and have a specialised company
Q Talk us through your company’s design process
for new sulfur technologies or equipment.
Jacobs always looks at its client’s demands and tries
to improve its technologies with respect to CAPEX
and OPEX. Research and development is carried
out by Jacobs’ own specialists and, once proven in
the laboratory, the company will either look for
pilot plant testing or find a client interested in
trying the new features in their operational units.

Q Where do you see the sulfur market in 10 years?

Jacobs EUROCLAUS® Process installed at the
Türkmengaz facility in Turkmenistan.
That is always a difficult question to answer
as there is no crystal ball. The demand for sulfur in
the fertilizer industry and in the chemical industry
will remain. Most of the growth in these two
markets will be in Asia (India, China and Indonesia)
where the population is still growing continuously.
The production of sulfur will, however, be
concentrated in the Middle East, Canada and the
former Soviet Union countries, where the sour gas
fields are located. So, that is where the
developments will take place and new sulfur
recovery plants will be required.

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Comprimo® Sulfur Solutions

Whether you are looking for sulfur recovery

technology in compliance with your local
environmental regulations, the removal of
sulfur components from a sour gas stream
through amine treating or removal of H2S and
NH3 in sour water stripping, Jacobs Comprimo®
Sulfur Solutions provides you the necessary
technology, expertise and support.

„ Global leader in Gas Treating and Sulfur Recovery

Technologies
„ More than 500 units licensed during the last 40 years
„ Customers include major refineries, gas plants, and
coal gasification units, power & chemical plants
around the world
„ Total Project Solutions: Technology Selection &
Licensing, Technical Studies, Basic Design, FEED,
Detailed Design, EP, EPCm & Modular Supply
„ Centers of Expertise in Leiden (the Netherlands)
and Calgary (Canada)

Comprimo® Sulfur Solutions is part of Jacobs, one of the world’s largest and most diverse providers of
technical professional and construction services www.jacobs.com/comprimo-sulfur-solutions
 RENATO CALAMARÀ,
SBS STEEL BELT SYSTEMS S.R.L., ITALY
Q How significant are the oil refining and gas
processing industries for global sulfur production?
Following various technological events in the last
polluting than flakes. They also use less cooling
water, which helps to improve efficiency.

century, refining processes in the oil and gas industry

are fundamental to sulfur production.
The sulfur recovery process, transforming H2S in
elemental sulfur + H2O, is well known as the Claus
process.
Q How have research and development methods
evolved over the past 10 years in relation to
sulfur technology or equipment?
Special auxiliaries have been developed and used
to obtain well-shaped and mechanically stronger
pastilles.

Q What are the main applications for your company’s

sulfur technologies/equipment within the
downstream industry, and how do they assist in these
applications?
Sulfur recovered through the Claus process comes out
as a liquid. When the facilities of sulfur users are far
away from sulfur recovery units, it is compulsory to
solidify elemental sulfur.
The pastille form is less dusty and is a more
mechanically resistant solid form with a hemispheric
shape of 3 mm dia. x 1.5 mm height.
SBS Group (SBS Steel Belt Systems Italy and SBS
Steel Belt Systems USA) designs, produces and puts
into operation turnkey packages. It provides the
filtration, conditioning, formation and solidification of
drops. It also stores and reclaims the solid pastilles,
which can be subsequently loaded and transported
where needed.
New systems have been developed and put
into production that can grant more than twice
the capacity of well-shaped pastilles.
Q Talk us through your company’s design process
for new sulfur technologies or equipment.
The most convenient form of solid sulfur seems
to be the pastille form (3 mm dia. x 1.5 mm
height). However, the capacity of the machines
producing well-shaped and uniform pastilles is
limited by the depositing speed of the forming
head. The speed limit is related to the diameter
of the forming head. As such, SBS Group has
investigated the possibility of increasing the
linear speed, while keeping the rotational spin at
the same level of the existing forming heads.
The result has been the design, construction,
installation and start-up of a big diameter
forming head, which could run at double linear

Q What was your company’s first sulfur related

equipment or technology aimed at the downstream
oil and gas industry, and how did it function?
speed, while maintaining the shape of the
pastilles.

The first machines designed and manufactured by the

company for sulfur solidification were ‘flaking units’.
However, flakes were not the best solution for solid
sulfur since their sharp edges touched each other
during storage and loading operations, thus producing
dust.
Q Explain how new sulfur related technology or
equipment is tested at your company.
All new machines are tested on a small scale in
our R&D centre, which is active in coordination
with the production facilities of SBS.
When the results of new equipment or new
technology are reliable and repeatable, the sizing

Q In what ways can advanced sulfur technologies help

to improve operations, energy efficiency or
emissions at process plants?
Pastillation technologies can reduce dust and produce
very robust and solid sulfur particles, which are less
parameters are handed over to the technical
office, which develops the project for the
industrial version of the machine/equipment.
Finally, when the first industrial
machine/equipment is started-up, the research
team supports the start-up itself and collects
the data for a final validation.

Q How has the recent oil market volatility

affected the sulfur industry?
The trend of new sulfur recovery and
solidification units has a 10% flexion; but this will
last only for a short period.

Q Where do you see the sulfur market in

Installation operations on a small sulfur
solidification unit.
10 years?
Given the special and important contribution of
sulfur to crop growth, the company foresees a
huge demand for elemental sulfur and sulfur
based fertilizers in agriculture. As such, sulfur
production for agricultural uses will increase
considerably in the next 10 years.

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Steel Belts for the Chemical Industry

We are your reliable partner for steel belts

when it comes to continuous production in
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Ad Index

Page Number | Advertiser

69 | ABC
73 | Air Liquide
60 | ASIA-TECH & ASIA-CAT
77 | Berndorf Band GmbH
27 | Merichem Company
07 | CB&I
51 | NACE International Institute
IFC | Chart Industries
15, 28, 47, 52,
| Palladian Publications
17 | Enersul 59, 78
09 | ExxonMobil 45 | Readex Research
41 | Fluid Components International, LLC 24 | Rembe® GmbH Safety + Control
55 | Gauging Systems Inc. OBC | Rosen
19 | Haver & Boecker OHG 02 | Sandvik Process Systems
IBC | Hitard Engineering 04 | Selas Linde North America
OFC & 23 | Honeywell International Inc. 56 | Siemens
11 | HTRI 47 | Tank Storage Asia
15 | Intergraph CADWorx & Analysis Solutions 78 | Tank Storage Conference & Exhibition
75 | Jacobs Comprimo® Sulfur Solutions 31 | Yokogawa
28 | LumaSense Technologies
®
37 | Zwick Armaturen GmbH

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 15 FACTS ON...
THE FAR EAST
THE NATIONAL SYMBOL SOUTH KOREA OVER 4000
of the Philippines is the relies on imports CHILDREN
Philippine to meet about IN CHINA
(or monkey-eating) eagle
98% WERE NAMED
‘Olympic Games’
of its (or ‘Aoyun’ in
Vietnam produced an estimated FOSSIL FUEL Chinese) prior to
320 000 bpd of petroleum and CONSUMPTION the Beijing Olympic
other liquids in 2016 Games in 2008
China is the
In 2016, a
street food WORLD’S
vendor second largest
in Singapore consumer of oil
was awarded a JAPAN is the
MICHELIN STAR In Korea, babies WORLD’S
are considered LARGEST
Malaysia produces LNG importer
736 000 bpd 1 year old
of PETROLEUM The at birth
AND OTHER BINH
LIQUIDS CHAU CHINA ONLY
HOT HAS ONE
SPRINGS TIME ZONE The Komodo Dragon
in Vietnam (despite spanning can only be found
are hot five geographical on five Indonesian
enough to time zones) islands: Komodo,
Rinca, Gili Montang,
The Japanese BOIL Gili Dasami and
fishing fleet – EGGS the Island of Flores
THE LARGEST IN
THE WORLD Japan was the
In 2016, Vietnam had
– catches about FOURTH LARGEST
6 million tpy
4.4 BILLION BBLS petroleum consumer IN
of crude oil reserves THE WORLD IN 2016
of fish

June 2017 80 HYDROCARBON

ENGINEERING
What we do
Complete project services for equipment such as
• Thermal / Process design • Shell and tube heat exchangers • Reactors
• Pre-engineering / Bid phase • Double pipe heat exchangers • Separators
• Setting plans & Shopping list • Plate heat exchangers • Air coolers
• Mechanical design calculations • Helixchangers • Filters and Strainers
• Fabrication drawings • Waste Heat Boilers • Tanks & Silos
• Pipe Stress engineering • Vessels & Drums • Skids & Modules
• 3D modeling • Columns & Towers • Piping
• Consulting services • Condensers • Structural

What we use
the latest internatonal the latest softwares for CAD tools for fabrication
codes and standards design calculations drawings and 3D modeling
• ASME VIII Div. 1 & 2 • HTRI • AutoCAD
• Eurocodes / EN 13445 • Compress • Inventor
• AD-2000 Regelwerk • PVElite / CodeCalc • SolidWorks
• CODAP Div. 1 & 2 • OhmTech VVD • Pro/Engineer / PTC Creo
• BS codes / PD 5500 • AutoPIPE Vessel / Microprotol • CADWorks
• AS-1210 S1 & S2 • FEPipe / NozzlePRO • OneSpace Designer Drafting
• ASME B31.3 • Finglow
• RToD / Stoomwezen • CAESEAR II
• TEMA & API Standards • AMETank
• GOST R 52857 • Hitard in-house softwares

Finite Element Analysis For FEA we use:

Hitard uses FEA and Fatigue life • Midas NFX

analysis when local stresses • Pro/MECHANICA
need to be calculated in complex • MSC Software
structures or equipment with • PRG Softwares
cyclic loading (pressure, tem- FEPipe / NozzlePro
perature, vibration) cases. P
PCLGold
G d / FEATools
E T os

Hitard Engineering Netherlands Hitard Engineering Serbia

Karel Doormanstraat 75 %XOHYDU2VORERÿHQMD$
3012 GD Rotterdam 8th floor
P.O. Box 1700 21000 Novi Sad
3000 BS Rotterdam, Netherlands Serbia
Phone: +31(0)10 4330 331 Phone: +381(0)21 427 125
)D[   Fax: +381(0)21 452 917
E-mail: info@hitard.nl E-mail: info@hitard.com
Web: www.hitard.nl Web: www.hitard.com
VERSATILE.
Always a leading innovator, ROSEN not only supplies pipeline
customers with the latest diagnostic and system integrity
technologies but also offers flexible solutions and all-round
support for plants & terminals.

www.rosen-group.com