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2 ND
ASIA–PACIFIC
EDITION
CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR
HOYER
MACINNIS
PIETERS
CHAN
NORTHEY
Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
SECOND ASIA–PACIFIC EDITION
To my parents for their love; to my students and colleagues for always teaching me new things; and to my friends
from every part of the globe for their diverse perspectives.
Eugene Chan
To my mother and father for their lifelong guidance and support. To Emily, Lachlan and Emmett for challenging me
to be a better human every day!
Gavin Northey
2 ND
ASIA–PACIFIC
EDITION
CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR
HOYER
MACINNIS
PIETERS
CHAN
NORTHEY
Consumer Behaviour © 2021 Cengage Learning Australia Pty Limited
2nd Asia–Pacific Edition
Wayne D. Hoyer Copyright Notice
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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Adaptation of Consumer Behavior 7e by Hoyer/MacInnis/Pieters, Cengage, ISBN: 9780170439978
2018. ISBN: 9781305507272 A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of
Australia.
This second edition published in 2021
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 24 23 22 21 20
BRIEF CONTENTS
GUIDE TO THE TEXT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
PA R T O N E | A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O C O N S U M E R B E H AV I O U R
Chapter 1 Understanding consumer behaviour 3
APPENDIX: CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 29
PA R T T W O | T H E P S Y C H O L O G I C A L C O R E
Chapter 2 Motivation, ability and opportunity 45
Chapter 3 From exposure to comprehension 73
Chapter 4 Memory and knowledge 103
Chapter 5 Attitudes and persuasion 131
PA R T T H R E E | T H E P R O C E S S O F M A K I N G D E C I S I O N S
Chapter 6 Problem recognition and information search 161
Chapter 7 Judgement and decision making 187
Chapter 8 Post-decision processes 217
PA R T F O U R | T H E C O N S U M E R ’ S C U LT U R E
Chapter 9 Social influences on consumer behaviour 241
Chapter 10 Consumer diversity 275
Chapter 11 External and internal influences on consumer behaviour 305
PA R T F I V E | C O N S U M E R B E H AV I O U R O U T C O M E S A N D I S S U E S
Chapter 12 Innovations: adoption, resistance and diffusion 337
Chapter 13 Symbolic consumer behaviour 367
Chapter 14 Marketing, ethics and social responsibility in today’s consumer society 401
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
v
CONTENTS
GUIDE TO THE TEXT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
PA R T O N E | A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O C O N S U M E R B E H AV I O U R
CHAPTER 1 Understanding consumer behaviour 3
Opening vignette Toby’s Estate: more than coffee 3 APPENDIX: CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CONSUMER
Defining consumer behaviour 4 BEHAVIOUR 29
Consumer behaviour involves goods, services, Consumer behaviour research methods 29
activities, experiences, people and ideas 4 Surveys 30
Consumer behaviour can involve many people 6 Focus groups 31
Consumer behaviour involves many decisions 6 Interviews 31
Consumer behaviour involves emotions and coping 11 Storytelling 32
What affects consumer behaviour? 11 Photography and pictures 32
The psychological core: internal consumer processes 12 Diaries 32
The process of making decisions 12 Experiments 33
The consumer’s culture: external processes 13 Field experiments 34
Consumer behaviour outcomes and issues 14 Conjoint analysis 34
Who benefits from studying consumer behaviour? 15 Observations and ethnographic research 34
Marketing managers 15 Purchase panels 34
Public policymakers and regulators 16 Database marketing 35
Consumers and society 16 Netnography 35
Psychophysiological reactions and neuroscience 36
Marketing implications of consumer behaviour 16
Developing and implementing customer-oriented Types of consumer researchers 36
strategy 16 In-house marketing research departments 36
Selecting the target market 17 External marketing research firms 37
Developing products 17 Advertising agencies and media planning firms 37
Positioning 18 Syndicated data services 38
Making promotion and marketing communications Retailers 38
decisions 19 Research foundations and trade groups 39
Making pricing decisions 20 Government 39
Making distribution decisions 21 Academics and academic research centres 39
Summary 23 Ethical issues in consumer research 39
Reflection: Toby’s Estate 24 The positive aspects of consumer research 39
The negative aspects of consumer research 40
Questions for review and discussion 24
Summary 42
Consumer behaviour case How Unilever’s brands
connect with consumers 24 Endnotes 42
Endnotes 25
PA R T T W O | T H E P S Y C H O L O G I C A L C O R E
CHAPTER 2 Motivation, ability and opportunity 45
Opening vignette Dinner and a movie at the cineplex 45 Social and cultural resources 62
Resources are interchangeable 62
Consumer motivation and its effects 46
What affects motivation? 46 Consumer opportunity 63
Personal relevance 46 Time 63
Values 48 Distraction 64
Needs 48 Complexity, amount, repetition and control of
Involvement 53 information 65
Goals 55 Summary 66
Self-discrepancy 58 Reflection: Dinner and a movie at the cineplex 67
Consumer ability: resources to act 60 Questions for review and discussion 67
Financial resources 61
Consumer behaviour case Fitbit: the perfect fit
Cognitive resources 61
for consumer motivation 67
Emotional resources 61
Physical resources 61 Endnotes 68
vi Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
C on t en t s
CHAPTER 3 From exposure to comprehension 73

Opening vignette Is it real? Greenpeace’s ‘Dead Whale’ Cross-modal perception: a joining of the senses 83
campaign73 When do we perceive stimuli? 85
How do consumers perceive a stimulus? 87
Exposure and consumer behaviour 74
Factors influencing exposure 74 Comprehension and consumer behaviour 88
Selective exposure 75 Source identification 89
Message comprehension 89
Attention and consumer behaviour 77
Consumer inferences 91
Characteristics of attention 77
Focal and non-focal attention 77 Summary 94
Customer segments defined by attention 80 Reflection: Is it real? 95
Habituation 81 Questions for review and discussion 95
Perception and consumer behaviour 81 Consumer behaviour case How Under Armour
Perceiving through vision 81 gets noticed 95
Perceiving through hearing 82
Endnotes 96
Perceiving through taste 82
Perceiving through smell 82
Perceiving through touch 83
CHAPTER 4 Memory and knowledge 103

Opening vignette A biography of Chesty Bond 103 Memory and retrieval 119
Different types of memory 104 Retrieval failures 119
Sensory memory 104 Enhancing retrieval 120
Working memory 104 Summary 124
Long-term memory 105 Reflection: A biography of Chesty Bond 125
Explicit and implicit memory 107
Knowledge content, structure and flexibility 107
Consumer behaviour case The rebranding of
Associative networks, schemata and scripts 108
Virgin Australia 125
Knowledge categories 114
Knowledge flexibility 118 Endnotes 126
Why consumers differ in knowledge content
and structure 118
CHAPTER 5 Attitudes and persuasion 131

Opening vignette Prestige watches have timeless appeal 131 Theory of reasoned action 142
How cognitively based attitudes are influenced 145
What are attitudes? 132
The structure of attitudes 132 Changing attitudes: the role of motivation, ability
The functions of attitudes 134 and opportunity 149
The characteristics of attitudes 134 When do attitudes predict behaviour? 150
The affective (emotional) foundations of attitudes 135 Summary 152
How affectively based attitudes are influenced 136 Reflection: Prestige watches have timeless appeal 153
The cognitive foundations of attitudes 141 Questions for review and discussion 153
Direct or imagined experience 142
Consumer behaviour case Non-smoking becomes
Reasoning by analogy or category 142
top priority in Australia and worldwide 153
Values-driven attitudes 142
Social identity–based attitude generation 142 Endnotes 154
Expectancy-value models 142
vii
Con t en t s
PA R T T H R E E | T H E P R O C E S S O F M A K I N G D E C I S I O N S
CHAPTER 6 Problem recognition and information search 161
Opening vignette Quick response codes for quick How do we engage in an external search? 174
information 161 How much do we engage in information search? 175
Problem recognition 162 Motivation to process information 175
Different types of problems 164 Ability to process information 177
From problem recognition to information search 164 Opportunity to process information 178
Internal search: searching for information from Summary 180
memory 164 Reflection: Quick response codes for quick
What kind of information is retrieved from an information 181
internal search? 164
External search: searching for information from
Consumer behaviour case Searching for a
the environment 169
search engine 181
Where can we search for information? 170
What kind of information is acquired in an Endnotes 182
external search? 173
CHAPTER 7 Judgement and decision making 187

Opening vignette A simple shop at the supermarket 187 Brand loyalty 203
Brand familiarity 203
Distinguishing judgement from decisions 188
Price-related tactics 203
Judgements about likelihood 188
Variety seeking 203
Judgements about goodness/badness 189
Buying on impulse 204
Factors that influence judgement and decision
processes 190 Individual differences in judgements and
Biases and heuristics in the judgement processes 190
decision making 205
Consumer characteristics 205
Biases in decision processes 193
Characteristics of the decision 206
Making decisions 195
Making thought-based decisions 195
Summary 208
Making feeling-based decisions 198 Reflection: A simple shop at the supermarket 210
Consumer learning 201 Questions for review and discussion 210
Classical conditioning 201 Consumer behaviour case Harley-Davidson
Operant conditioning 202 wheels into India 210
Low-effort judgement and decision-making processes 202 Endnotes 211
Consumer habit 202
CHAPTER 8 Post-decision processes 217

Opening vignette Companies go social for improved Post-decision dissonance and regret 226
customer service 217 Dissonance 226
Understanding satisfaction and dissatisfaction Regret 226
judgements218 Closure 227
The importance of customer satisfaction 219 Disposition 228
The role of expectations: the disconfirmation Disposing of meaningful objects 229
paradigm 219 Recycling 231
Theories of consumer satisfaction 221 Summary 233
Attribution theory 221 Reflection: Companies go social for improved
Equity theory 222 customer service 234
Responses to dissatisfaction 223 Questions for review and discussion 234
Complaints 223
Responding by negative word of mouth 224
Consumer behaviour case Uber: turning
satisfaction into a two-way street 235
Is customer satisfaction enough? 225
Endnotes 236
viii Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
C on t en t s
PA R T F O U R | T H E C O N S U M E R ’ S C U LT U R E
CHAPTER 9 Social influences on consumer behaviour 241
Opening vignette The worldwide phenomenon of Summary 266
Pokémon Go 241 Reflection: The worldwide phenomenon of
Sources of influence 242 Pokémon Go 266
General sources of influence 243 Questions for review and discussion 267
A special source of influence: opinion leaders 246
Consumer behaviour case Celebrity endorsements
Reference group sources of influence 247
go social 267
Types of influence 255
Endnotes 268
Normative influence 255
Informational influence 261
CHAPTER 10 Consumer diversity 275

Opening vignette Serving shrimp burgers in Beijing How regional influences affect consumer behaviour 287
and potato tacos in Bangalore 275 Regions within Australia 287
How age affects consumer behaviour 276 Regions across the world 289
Age trends in Australia 276 How ethnic influences affect consumer behaviour 290
Teens 277 Ethnic groups within Australia 290
Generation Z 279 Ethnic groups around the world 292
Millennials 279 The influence of religion 294
Generation X 280
Summary 296
Baby boomers 281
Seniors 282 Reflection: Serving shrimp burgers in Beijing
and potato tacos in Bangalore 297
How gender and sexuality affect consumer
behaviour 284 Questions for review and discussion 297
Sex roles 284 Consumer behaviour case Marketing to teens
Differences in acquisition and consumption behaviours 285 worldwide via music 298
Sex, gender and sexual orientation 287 Endnotes 299
CHAPTER 11 External and internal influences on consumer behaviour 305

Opening vignette Reaching rural customers in Personality 322
emerging markets 305 Research approaches to personality 322
Determining how personality characteristics affect
External influences on consumer behaviour 306
consumer behaviour 324
Social class 306
Lifestyles 326
How social class is determined 307
How social class changes over time 308 Summary 329
How does social class affect consumption? 310 Reflection: Reaching rural customers in emerging
The consumption patterns of specific social classes 310 markets 330
Household influences on consumer behaviour 313 Questions for review and discussion 330
Changing trends in household structure 314
Consumer behaviour case IKEA’S household appeal 330
Roles that household members play 316
Endnotes 332
Internal influences on consumer behaviour 318
Values 318
Influences on values 320
ix
Con t en t s
PA R T F I V E | C O N S U M E R B E H AV I O U R O U T C O M E S A N D I S S U E S
CHAPTER 12 Innovations: adoption, resistance and diffusion 337
Opening vignette Will consumers pay with their phones? 337 Influences on adoption, resistance and diffusion 351
Innovations 338 Characteristics of the innovation 351
Defining an innovation 338 Uncertainty 353
Innovations and co-creation 340 Consumer learning requirements 353
Legitimacy and adaptability 358
Resistance vs adoption 342
Characteristics of the social system 359
Whether consumers adopt an innovation 342
How consumers adopt an innovation 342 Summary 360
When consumers adopt innovations 344 Reflection: Will consumers pay with their phones? 361
Diffusion 348 Questions for review and discussion 361
How offerings diffuse through a market 348 Consumer behaviour case RedBalloon:
Factors affecting the shape of the diffusion curve 350 revolutionising digital marketing with artificial
How diffusion relates to the product life cycle 350 intelligence 362
Endnotes 363
CHAPTER 13 Symbolic consumer behaviour 367

Opening vignette Spin it again: the vinyl LP is back 367 The characteristics that describe special possessions 382
Why some products are special 383
Sources and functions of symbolic meaning 368
Consumer characteristics affect what is special 384
Meaning derived from culture 368
Rituals used with special possessions 385
Meaning derived from the consumer 370
Disposing of special possessions 385
The emblematic function 370
The role acquisition function 373 Sacred meaning 386
The connectedness function 376 The transfer of symbolic meaning through gift giving 387
The expressiveness function 377 Three stages of gift giving 388
Multiple functions 377 Summary 393
Special possessions and brands 379 Reflection: Spin it again 394
The meaning of money 379
Special brands 380
Brand anthropomorphism 380 Consumer behaviour case Bicycles: more than
Brand relationships 381 pedal power 394
Types of special possessions 381 Endnotes 395
CHAPTER 14 Marketing, ethics and social responsibility in today’s consumer society 401
Opening vignette Dove Self-Esteem Project: Social responsibility issues in marketing 416
taking body confidence to new heights 401 Environmentally conscious behaviour 416
In search of balance 402 Charitable behaviour 417
Self-interest vs the interests of others 402 Community involvement 418
Immediate vs long-term interests 403 How can consumers resist marketing practices? 419
‘Dark side’ vs ‘bright side’ outcomes 403 Summary 420
Marketing ethics, consumer ethics and deviant Reflection: Dove Self-Esteem Project 420
consumer behaviour 404
Acquisition controversies 404
Consumption controversies 410 Consumer behaviour case The Odd Bunch:
Disposition controversies 415 joining the fight against food waste 421
Endnotes 422
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
INDEX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
x Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
Guide to the text
As you read this text you will find a number of features in every
chapter to enhance your study of consumer behaviour and help you
understand how the theory is applied in the real world.
PART- AND CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES
Understand how key concepts are connected across all parts and chapters by viewing the concept maps.
PART
ONE
PART 2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE
2 Motivation, ability and opportunity

3 From exposure to comprehension
4 Memory and knowledge
5 Attitudes and persuasion
AN INTRODUCTION TO PART 3 THE PROCESS OF MAKING DECISIONS
CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
6 Problem recognition and information search
7 Judgement and decision making
8 Post-decision processes
PART 4 THE CONSUMER’S CULTURE
9 Social influences on consumer behaviour

10 Consumer diversity
PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 11 External and internal influences on consumer behaviour
1 Understanding consumer behaviour

PART 5 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR OUTCOMES AND ISSUES
12 Innovations: adoption, resistance and diffusion

13 Symbolic consumer behaviour
2 Motivation, ability and opportunity 14 Marketing, ethics and social responsibility in today’s
3 From exposure to comprehension consumer society
PART 3 THE PROCESS OF MAKING DECISIONS

Motivation Ability Opportunity
6 Problem recognition and information search Influenced by: Influenced by: Influenced by:
7 Judgement and decision making • personal relevance (to self-concept, • financial, cognitive, emotional, • time
8 Post-decision processes values, needs, goals and self-control) physical, and social and cultural • distractions
• perceived risk resources
• complexity, amount, repetition
• moderate inconsistency with attitudes • education and age
and control of information

• high-effort behaviour
11 External and internal influences on consumer behaviour
• high-effort information processing and decision making
• felt involvement

14 Marketing, ethics and social responsibility in today’s
consumer society
FIGURE 2.1 » CHAPTER OVERVIEW: MOTIVATION, ABILITY AND OPPORTUNITY

CHAPTER In Part 1, you will learn that consumer behaviour involves much more than purchasing
products. In addition, you will find out that marketers continuously study consumer Motivation, ability and opportunity (MAO) to engage in various consumer behaviours are affected by many factors. Outcomes of high MAO include: (1) goal-
Understanding consumer relevant behaviour, (2) high-effort information processing and decision making, and (3) felt involvement.
behaviour for clues as to who buys, uses and disposes of what goods and services, as
1 behaviour 3 well as clues as to when, where, why and how they make decisions.
Appendix: Conducting Chapter 1 defines consumer behaviour and examines its importance to marketers,
research in consumer
CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES
advocacy groups, public policymakers and consumers. The chapter also presents
behaviour 29
the overall model that guides the organisation of this book. As this model indicates,
consumer behaviour covers four basic domains: (1) the psychological core, (2) the
process of making decisions, (3) the consumer’s culture, and (4) consumer behaviour
outcomes and issues. In addition, you will read about the implications of consumer BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp02.indd 44 11/06/20 5:01 PM
behaviour for marketing activities.
2
1
BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp01.indd 1 10/06/20 9:46 PM Motivation, ability and

opportunity
Identify the key concepts that the chapter will cover LEARNING OBJECTIVES
with the learning objectives at the start of each AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:
chapter. LO1 discuss the six types of influences that affect the consumer’s motivation to process information, make a
decision or take an action
LO2 explain how financial, cognitive, emotional, physical, social and cultural resources, plus age and education, can
affect the individual’s ability to engage in consumer behaviours
LO3 consider how the availability of time, distraction, complexity and control of information can affect consumers’
opportunity to engage in consumer behaviours.
Gain an insight into how consumer behaviour

Dinner and a movie at the cineplex
theories relate to the real world through the Dinner and a movie? Yes – together! Going to the movies customers in auditorium seats and away from home
chapter-opening vignette at the beginning of each 46 P A RT isn’t

TWOlike> Twhat it used to
HE PSYCHOL be.
OGI CAPreviously,
L COR E it was just a cinema:
you went into the auditorium, grabbed your seat, enjoyed
buy products and services. Having drinks and food delivered
watching TV or streaming movies online.
All of these chains understand that consumers’
Whether motivated consumers actually pursue a
a flick, maybe with a tub of popcorn, and then headed motivation, ability and opportunity exert a powerful
chapter. to their seats while they are watching the latest Hollywood flick
home afterwards. But today, cinemas aren’t just cinemas –
is all part of the experience that consumers cannot reproduce
goal depends on whether they have the ability and the
influence on consumers’ acquisition, usage and
opportunity to achieve it. Ability depends on various
they are complete entertainment centres that focus on disposition decisions. The luxury packages at Events,
anywhere else. At a more fundamental level, selling ‘all-in-one’ categories of resources as well as age and education.
‘experience’, and in particular, the ‘experience of luxury’. Hoyts and other chains globally allow consumers to
experiences for a single price also makes consumers more Opportunity is determined by time, distractions and the
Event Cinemas have their Gold Class, while Hoyts Cinemas attain two goals at the same time (eat and watch). But
able and willing to buy such packages, since they do not need complexity, amount, repetition and control of information
refer to their luxury product as Lux (see Figure 2.2). the positioning of cinemas as upscale places to watch
to pay for dinners, drinks and movies separately. to which consumers are exposed.
Whatever the branding, they offer the same experience. movies is also consistent with consumers’ motivations to
R E F L EC T I V EEnjoy
Q U EaSmovie
T I O N in leather or nicely upholstered seats in an socialise and ‘consume’ experiences, rather than simply
Test your understanding by answering the

auditorium that fits only 20 seats or so, and you can also
imagefolk/Llu?Real
enjoy margaritas and eat full-course dinners with dessert

➜ How do consumers differ in what they are looking for when it comes to a night out at the movies?
while you are watching the movie – sometimes, the food
reflective question after you read the vignette. and drinks are delivered to your seat!
Such luxury ‘movie and dinner’ experiences have
LO1 CONSUMER MOTIVATION AND ITS EFFECTS

been a growing trend in the cinema industry, not only
in Australia, but also abroad. In the United States,
Motivation Motivation
cinema chains such as comes
Moviefrom the Latin
Tavern, AMCword
and‘movere’,
Regal which means ‘to move’. Motivation is what moves people. It
xii
An inner state of arousal that
Cinemas is
provides the energy needed
defined
offer as ‘an
similar innerpackages.
luxury state of arousal’, with the aroused energy directed to achieving a goal.1 The motivated
Movie Tavern’s
to achieve a goal. CEO saysconsumer
one appeal is energised, readyand
is that ‘dinner andawilling
movieto is engage
a in a goal-relevant activity. For example, simply think of
Sydney’s New Year’s Eve celebrations, for which Sydneysiders and tourists queue (and camp!) days in advance,
two-and-a-half hour experience, rather than a four-
as they are
hour experience’ thatmotivated
was the to bring intrend,
previous the new year with spectacular fireworks. Likewise, consumers can also be
where
motivated,
cinemas would suchwith
partner as queuing up days in advance
local restaurants to offerfor the latest smartphone release or for tickets to a concert by
their
discounted favourite
movie musical
tickets with aartist.
mealIn all these and
purchase. many other cases, consumers’ motivations make them ready to
Movie
306 P A RT F OUR > T HE CON SUME R ’ S CUL T UR E
interest in many topics like beauty, fashion or cosmetics,

GU IDE TO T HE T E X T
Alejandra, regional trainer and Unilever ‘Hero’ points out, the
they had little access to advice or products. With the Shakti program is a way ‘to help low-income women in Colombia
Ammas, locals had a trusted, local source of product who are vulnerable and struggle in conditions of poverty’.4
knowledge ready to help. Not only have there been profound social benefits –
Having been successful in India, Unilever extended the including female empowerment and independence – but
program throughout Asia to countries including Pakistan,
C HAPTER 6 > Prob lem recognition and inform ation search
Unilever now has a network of brand ambassadors who 165
Bangladesh, Vietnam and Sri Lanka. Building on this, 2019 can influence village-level demand, delivery and consumer
as a consideration (or evoked) set. For example, someone buying toothpaste might consider Colgate and
saw the launch of Project Shakti in Colombia.
5 As Mayda education.
Consideration
Sensodyne rather than all possible brands. With product proliferation, however, the number of offerings (or evoked) set
R E F L EC T I V E Q U E S T I O N
has increased dramatically. Colgate-Palmolive alone offers more than a dozen toothpaste brands (including The subset of top-of-mind
brands evaluated when
Colgate
➜➜ WhatTotal,effect
Colgate
mightOptic and
social Colgate
class have Sensitive),
had on the aeffectiveness
situation that increases
of Project competition for inclusion in the
Shakti? making a choice.
FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS consideration set. 6
In general, the consideration set consists of brands that are ‘top of mind’, or easy to remember, when a
consumer is making a decision. For instance, some Australians fly rather than take the train between Sydney
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
LO1 they do not consider the possibility of train travel. Conversely, in Japan, rail
and Canberra simply because
Definitions of important key terms are located in the companies are now encouraging business consumers to consider taking the train rather than flying between
Social class
major cities by upgrading the train seats and providing lounge services before the train leaves the station.7
Social class hierarchy Most societies have a social class hierarchy that confers higher status to some classes of people than to
A small consideration set is usually necessary because consumers’ ability to recall information about all
margin for quick reference. A full list of key terms is The grouping of members of
the brand
society alternatives
according to status,
others. These social classes consist of identifiable groups of individuals whose behaviours and lifestyles differ
decreases as the size of the set increases. It’s much easier to recall information about
high to low. from those of members of the other classes. Members of a particular social class tend to share similar values and
just three brands than 30. However, even if they do not recall the entire set from memory, stored information
also available in the Glossary, which can be found at Lifestyles
behaviour patterns. Note that social classes are loose collections of individuals with similar life experiences,
aids the recognition process. For example, stored information
not formal groups with a strong identity.5
can help consumers identify brands on the
shelf, with
patternsthe
of information that is retrieved biasing preference for the brand. This is one reason why L’Oréal
the back of the book.
People’s
behaviour. Many societies view these distinctions as important because they recognise that everyone has a role to play
is stepping up advertising in India,
in order wheretoitfunction
for society distributes shampoo
smoothly. and other
However, personal-care
some roles, products
such as medical through
doctor or executive, are more
600 000 stores, in competition withand
prestigious Unilever
more and Procter
valued than & Gamble.
others, suchBy
8
as increasing brand recognition
parking attendant and stored the concept of
or cleaner. Nevertheless,
information, L’Oréal hopes to strengthen
social its brand negative.
class is not inherently recognition in
Even consumers’
with consideration set. distinctions can help individuals47
C HAPTER 2 > MOTivATi ON, AB iLi TY ANd OppOrTuNi TY
the inequalities, social class
determine what their role in society is or what they would like it to be (their aspirations). Furthermore, all levels
MARKETING
statement about IMPLICATIONS
some aspect ofwho
of the social
we are –GETTING
➜class hierarchy
such CONSUMERS
make an important
as a professional, TOor aCONSIDER
contribution
a student fan. ThisYOUR
to society.
sports BRAND
also means
that self-concept is important for marketers
Types ofthebecause consumers
social class form emotional connections with what they
systems
Researchers have looked at following factors
Source: Shutterstock.cm/Mahod84
buy, strengthening brand loyalty and makinghavethem lessmajor
priceclasses:
sensitive towards that brand.5 Harley-Davidson,
that increase theMost societies
possibility three
of consumers’ recalling ahigh, middle and lower. Often, however, finer distinctions are made.
for instance, understands that its consumers see the brand as an important part of Australian
their self-concept, and took
particular brand In Australia, for example, recent research suggests that society consists of six levels,6 with around
Examine how theoretical concepts have been used in during
advantage of this by creating a60‘Harley
an internal
per centOwners
search
of the population
that brand in their consideration set.
and including
Group’ to considered
strengthenmiddle
the emotional link between
class (see Figure consumers
11.3).7 Although most societies have some
and the brand. In a similar way,kind
reality TV showsstructure,
of hierarchical can be relevant
the sizewhen viewers identify
and composition with the
of the classes lives on
depend of the
the relative prosperity of a
practice through the Marketing Implications boxes. 1 Prototypicality. When consumers engage in an
people on the show, making them particular country.
more likely to 8tune in week after week.6
internal search, they more easily recall brands that
Compared with Australia, Japan and Scandinavia have an even larger and more predominant middle class,
Consistency
are with self-construal
closest to the prototype or that most resemble
with much smaller groups above and below. This distribution means there is greater equality among people in
other
An important aspect category
of the members,
self-concept
those making
twoiscountries
one’s thanthese more
in other
self-construal likelyrefers
,societies.
which to how individuals
The Japanese see themselves
structure represents a concertedSelf-construal
government effort
to be
with respect to their includedto in
relationships the consideration
with
abolish others.
the There
social set
classare than
two
system brands
broad
and mixtypes of self-construal:
together independent
people from all levels and
of society.9 Ourvery
Yet the view competitive
of who we are based
150 PART TWO > THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE on our relationships with
that are not
interdependent. Consumers andanselective
typical
with of theJapanese
category.
independent educational system
For example,
self-construal tend still the
to see restricts entry
self as to higher-status
distinct, unique andcorporate
in and government
9
others.
positions. In developing areas such FIGURE 6.5 the
» PROTOTYPICALITY
Apple’saspects.
terms of their individual iPad created the
By contrast,category of
consumers tablet
with anasinterdependent
Latin America
computer, and India,
self-construal largest
tend toconcentrations
derive are in the lower
their sense of selfwhich

from ittheir classes (see Figure
still relationships
dominates. This 11.3).
withbrand
others,is more likely
IN primarily
CONSUMERfamily and close
Whenfriends.
you think These differences
of a ‘tablet’, Apple’s iPad probably comes to mind first,
53
it isDOES
DIGITAL MEDIA CONSIDERATIONS BEHAVIOUR
C HAPTER 2 > M OTivATiMOBILE
ON, AB iLi TYADVERTISING
ANd O ppOrTuNiTY
as➜ the prototype of the tablet category.
broadly align withthan other
cultural brands to
differences:
Social
INFLUENCE anbe in the consideration
independent
class influences
ATTITUDES?
setis most prevalent
self-construal in Western societies such
when
as Australia, Europe andproblem recognition
the United foran
theinterdependent
product existsself-construal is most prevalent in Eastern
SocialStates, while
class structures are important because they strongly affect norms and values and, therefore, behaviour.
reveal needs for esteem by interpreting the man in the cartoon as thinking, ‘My friends will think I’m really
cultures such (see Figure
as China,
Consumer 6.5).
Japan and
behaviour Korea.
in that
Given Amembers
mobilemore thorough
settings
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increasingly
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class interact culture be be
can
no effect,
with in many
found
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in
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other Chapter 10.consideration
do improve
(both formally attitudes andsets.
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intentions
people
cool for riding in this car!’ Another might reveal needs for affiliation by filling in the cartoon with ‘I could take
2
An understanding of self-construal is important are
Brand
relevant to familiarity.
are
marketers Well-known
more
and likely to brands
be
advertisers. for more
influenced
Consumers by easily in for
understanding
individuals
carry familiarity
motivation. helpsthan
Individuals
theirhigh-involvement,
own social class consumers
with
by those
utilitarian recognise
a products
in which
other classes.
(e.g., of the
Note
financial
all my friends for rides with me’.
predominant interdependent
their smartphones that
recalled during ansocial
self-construal
with them class
internal influence
search
tend ismaking
than
to choose
everywhere, not a cultural
unfamiliar
products straitjacket;
the that more it
align merely
many
services). with reflects the fact that
the preferences
Mobile devices canof people with similar
172brands in the store should be attended to and
also improve life
attitudes in
friends anddevicefamily. brands
a7 One
media because
study experiences
found
vehicle thethat
that tend
memory tolinks
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interdependent
can directly and similar
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behaviours.
reduces
likely
10
thesettings,
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non-advertising misidentification
T-shirtssuch of brands.
withas during in-store shopping,
12
Considerations boxes present examples and current Trickle-down

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RESEARCH
these
designs
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that
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potential
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consumers have,When
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to consider
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aspects
and then are copied
of the situation
have consideredholistically
how ratherthat than analytically, such as by trying to
phones.understand the
consumers receive a discount
key information in digital media, research and There
by
contextallow
of events
are several typesraise
lower classes.
on mobile communications
and outcomes.
marketers
of projective
phones – 8which
to understandThey
their
to social
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care
very
consumers’
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brand more
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highthat
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carry
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upper
because
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phone inThey
for
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also accept
memory,
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essentially strong.what
–Ininfluence
Asian cultures,
to beadspartwith beach, 9and the activation of these categories will
One go against it means of a larger community.
very little (if any) information consumers’ towards those products increase, making them more
international consumer behaviour. and inner desires.
brandhigh-meaning
attitudes and pictures
possibility
purchase
task. When one study asked cigarette smokers why they
is a word
andintentions.
completion
words (e.g., Superman
Interestingly,
are useful to help identify their true feelings towards the
likelydetermine
to try newwhich brands
products andthey recall173during internal
services.
Australian supermarket chain before they try to correct
in many INTERNATIONAL
fencesproduct CONSIDERATIONS
withcategories,
a picture ofmobile
Superman) IN CONSUMER
display areadsveryhaveBEHAVIOUR
effective ➜ CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
searches.13 Therefore, marketersIN canRISKattempt to
smoked, most said they306enjoyed it and believed that
BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp11.indd and present their true beliefs. 11/06/20 5:48 PM
TAKING:
in increasing CHINESE,
brand-name AMERICANS
recall.10 Even inAND low- AUSTRALIANS associate products with certain goals and usage
smoking in moderation
R E F L EC E Q U E S Twas
T I V situations fine. However, when they
I OinNwhich Another method is called a thematic apperception
MAO little processing occurs, situations. For example, for an ad for a new cereal
Itwere given that
is intuitive incomplete
Americans, sentences
or such asfrom
individuals
incidental ad exposure can increase the likelihood
‘People who
Western test
As (TAT).
such, thisHere, consumers
greater risk areamong
taking shownChinese
ambiguous students
product, a marketer can show a family eating it over is
never smoke
cultures more are ___’, research
broadly, participants filled
thaninadset. pictures and are asked to A explain what’s going on, what
➜ How of alikely are would
brand’s you totake
inclusion buyingreater
athe
product risks
whose
consideration you11 seeonly in financial
on your phone contexts.
compared
breakfast in the more thorough
with seeing
morning it on
along discussion
a television?
with a tagline of touting
the blanks
Chinese with words
or This
those from othersuchnon-Western
as happier and wiser. And
cultures. the characters arecan feeling and doing. The 10.TAT allowed
explains why global brands such asThis McDonald’sculture specifically be found
its health benefits, in Chapter
such as being low in sugar and
when given
belief is perpetuated sentences such as ‘Teenagers who smoke Clearasil to understand that teenagers were concerned
C H APTE R 8 > P o s T-d e ci si on PR oce sse s 233 have high by the media
familiarity presenting
worldwide andChinese
are likely to Culturalhigh differences
in fibre. in risk taking, whether in
are ___’, respondents
individuals as more concerned answered withbeing
about words such as
conservative that acneorand
financial pimples
other domains, would
exertdisrupt their social
an impact not just lives,
crazy
and and in
fitting foolish. These
with their LO5However,
smokers
family. were one
clearly
study WHEN DO ATTITUDES PREDICT BEHAVIOUR?
more
found and
on so the company
consumers redesigned
but also theirAustralians
the economy. TV commercials
are
concerned
that about
while this maysmoking than
for their
be trueMarketers areexplicit
academic answers
interested
and socialnot only in how
risks, inattitudes
the 1980s
generally areand 1990s
formed
risk-averse andtocan
and state
seek not just and
beauthority
changed the also
but scientific
in knowing whether,
approval
behaviour by providing convenient bins for used bottles that decompose more quickly than traditional
END-OF-CHAPTER FEATURES batteries and other recyclable items. plastic containers, another step towards using packaging
indicated.
this is not so Another
25
method
for financial whenis
risks. a word
and association
whyuniversity
Chinese task.
attitudes will benefits
predict behaviour
students from of third
– the
others their facial wash
component
too much, but alsothey
evenofthough that
attitudes. pimples
Asare highlywillat the beginning
mentioned
Finally, making products and packaging as that need not be recycled.113 Trash can also be the raw Here,
are lessconsumers areon
likely to cheat
BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp06.indd 165
asked
an to chapter,
of this
exam say or more
and write down
a consumer’s the
likely to fade
affective and ‘within
cognitive
creative. 12conservatism
hours’ ofofusing
components
Such hastheir
attitudes product.
towards
meant
26
Today,
thatainnovation
brand may be favourable,
8/3/20 7:11 PM
environmentally friendly as possible – and promoting material of new products. TerraCycle, for example, first word
choose whenand
a simple presented
butwith
traditional ofathis
brand,
alldesign on aproduct
is futile if she
T-shirt or
because Clearasil
or he does not
in actuallyisact
Australia one
is onoftheir
slower thethan
leading facewash
evaluations
in the brands
and beliefs.
United States globally.
The
andTORA
othermodel comes
the benefits of doing so – can help marketers attract specialises in creating and marketing tote bags from they do not wish to stand closest
out fromto their
providing thisand
families information byparts
predicting
of thewhich factors affect
Asia-Pacific region.consumers’
11
behavioural
This motivated the intentions (BIs).
consumers who like the convenience of not having to used juice pouches, among other products. ‘Waste does R E F L EC T I V E Q U E S T I O N
However,
friends.10 Yet, because they are alsoas previously
part noted, what weformation
of large families intend to doofdoes not always
Innovation predictby
Australia what weprime
then actually will do. Therefore,
minister
At the end of each chapter you will find several tools to help and
you to review,
recycle. Heinz, PepsiCo and other companies are using
local communities, they practise
also believe that should theyand extend
not exist’, reads one slogan in the company’s offices.114
marketers also need to consider which factors
Malcolm affect toyour
the attitude–behaviour
Turnbull knowledge
boost innovation relationship.
by directlyBelow
Projective techniques are ‘subtle’ in that they do not exactly ask consumers what they want or need. Why do you think
ofsome
are listed
funding
of the
take a financial risk and lose factors
money, that
such asaffect whether
investing in a consumer’s attitudes
project ideas will influence
by creative his or her
individuals, whobehaviour.
previously had
the key learning objectives. this is so?
a risky stock that ultimately
■drops,
Levelthey
of involvement/elaboration relied on
will have financial . Attitudes arecapital fromto
more likely employers, which was
predict behaviour when hard to get.involvement
cognitive
234 P A RT T H RE E > THE PR O CE S S O F M AK IN G D E CIS IO N S and material assistance from their friends
is high and and family, elaborate In
consumers oreffect,
think this reduces about
extensively the fear of information
the failure and increases
that gives rise to their
allowing them to make more risky investment
attitudes. 174
Attitudes also tend to risk
decisions. takingand
be strong in order to help
enduring anddrive Australia’s
therefore economy.of a consumer’s
more predictive
Involvement
8
behaviour when affective involvement is high. Therefore, attitudes towards emotionally charged issues
R E F L ECofT Imotivation
One outcome V E Q U E S T is
I Obehaviour
N that takes considerable effort. When consumers are highly motivated
STUDY TOOLS
LO5
Consumers sometimes develop post-decision dissonance – a feeling of anxiety or comprehend
➜ Cangoal-relevant
you think of information,
such as owning a handgun or getting an abortion tend to be strongly held and related to behaviour. What if
to achieve a goal, they are more likely to pay careful attention to it, think about it, attempt to understand or
consumers are faced with inconsistencies about a brand and learn, for example, that it rates higher against
other types of evaluate
risks inthat information
which critically and
Chinese, Americans andtry to remember
Australians mightit for later
differ?
Distinguish between competitors on one attribute but lower on another attribute? Here, the attitude–behaviour relationship is
uncertainty regarding a purchasing decision after it has been made. On occasion, use. This takes a lot of effort. For example, if you are motivated to buy a new piano keyboard, you might scour
dissonance and the weakened if consumers do not attempt to resolve the inconsistency through elaboration.175
they may feel regret when they perceive an unfavourable comparison between the websites looking for a sale. If someone mentions an online retailer that has keyboard sales from time to time,
regret that consumers
performance of the chosen option and the performance of the unchosen options. ■ Knowledge and experience. Attitudes are more likely to be strongly held and predictive of behaviour when
S Uexperience
MMARY you might subscribe to that retailer’s promotional emails.
may
after acquisition,
These feelings of regret can directly influence the consumer’s intention to buy the Review your understanding of the key chapter
the consumer is knowledgeable about or experienced with the object of the attitude.176 When making a
However, when consumers have low motivation, they devote little effort to processing information and
consumption or same product in the future. computer-buying decision, for example, an expert is more likely to form an attitude that is based on more
making decisions. For example, your motivation to purchase the best paperclips on the market is likely to be
disposition
LO1 topics with the Summary.
detailed and integrated information than is a novice. This attitude would then be more strongly held and
low. You would devote little attention to learning about the characteristics of paperclips and you would not stop
Satisfaction is both a subjective feeling and an objective evaluation that a decision more strongly related to behaviour.
Describe consumer to think about what it would be like to use various types of paperclips (coloured or uncoloured, aluminium or
BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp02.indd 47 11/06/20 5:01 PM
has fulfilled a need or goal. Consumers areways,
satisfied when they make a positive Analysis of reasons . Research
suchshows that asking consumers
cheapesttobrand
analyse their reasons for brand preference
LO6 Consumers can dispose of products in various actions that have important steel, small or large). You may use■decision-making shortcuts, as deciding to buy the or the
satisfaction and
evaluation
for or feel happy with their decision. Dissatisfaction occurs when consumers
Describe how
dissatisfaction, implications marketing strategy and for an understanding of consumer behaviour. same brand you bought last time.27 This increases the link
is, in fact, howbetween
consumersattitude
tend toand behaviour
buy commonin situations inproducts.
supermarket which behaviour is measured soon after
have negative feelings and believe that their goals or needs have not
Recycling, one form of disposition, depends on consumers’ motivation, ability andbeen fulfilled,
consumers may the
and explain Most research on consumer behaviour attitudeshasare measured.
focused onMarketers should
consumers’ take thisto
motivation finding intoinformation
process account when planning consumer research
dispose of something, and responses
opportunity to act. include complaints and negative word of mouth. At the core of
importance of to support
researcha new product introduction. 177
customer satisfaction is the disconfirmation paradigm where consumers evaluate accurately, as just described. Recent has focused on a different type of motivation involved in
why this process
managing is
consumers’
moreexpectations
complex for the performance of the product to their expectations, which refer to: (1) equitable information processing that is called
■ Accessibility
motivated of attitudes.. Attitudes
reasoning When consumers
are moreengage in motivated
strongly reasoning,when
related to behaviour they are accessible
Motivated reasoning or ‘top
meaningful objects, performance expectations, (2) ideal performance expectations, and (3) expected they process information in a biased of
way so that
mind’.178 they can obtain the particular conclusion they want to reach.28 Processing information in a
Conversely, if an attitude cannot be easily remembered, it will have little effect on behaviour.
way that allows consumers
and what influences performance. For example, if your goal is to lose weight
Direct and you (product
experience see an adusage)
for a diet product,increases
generally you mightattitude
processaccessibility
the ad for attributes
to reach that
the conclusion that must
consumer recycling
in a biased way to convince yourselfbe
that the product
experienced willtasted,
(e.g., work for you. If we
touched), want toadvertising
whereas believe that weproduce
can are not accessible
they want to reach.
attitudes for search
LO2
behaviour
Theories of customer satisfaction include attribution and equity theories. Attribution vulnerable to the ill effects of smoking, we may be more likely to smoke if we are aware of smoking cessation
Explain how consumers theory involves consumers determining responsibility for an outcome, while products that are touted as ‘remedies’. Because remedies exist to help stop smoking, we can use motivated
make satisfaction
reasoning to convince ourselves that smoking is not so bad after all.29
C T I O N : C O M P A N I E Sequity
R E F L Eevaluations G O theory
S O C Iinvolves
A L F Oconsumers
R I M P R Oassessing
themselves and marketers.
V E D CtheU Samount
T O M EofR input
S E Rand
V I Coutput
E from
Do youLO3
think complaining on social media to a company is service that talking to a person can provide. Thus, there Return to the chapter-opening vignette to apply
useful? Why or why not? Typical responses to consumer dissatisfaction

are advantages include complaining
and disadvantages and responding
for companies in
Understand how
Complaining on social media might lead
consumers respond to
by word
to anof mouth.
immediate handling complaints via digital channels. BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp02.indd your learning through Reflection questions.
53 11/06/20 5:01 PM
response, but it might also not offer the personalised
dissatisfaction
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

LO4
1 WhatDiscuss
are thethe importance
three types of expectations regarding
Maintaining customers for6 theHow does
long termpost-decision dissonance
requires improving and differ from post-
maintaining
Test your knowledge and consolidate your learning
the of effectively of
performance managing
a consumer product orsatisfaction.
service? decision
doing regret and what effect
losedo thesecustomers
have on who
through the Questions for review and discussion.
customer Without so, marketers can valued
relationships with can spread positive word of consumers?
mouth to others, and thus the loss involves not just
2 How can the expectation disconfirmation paradigm
customers existing but also potential7 future customers.
produce either satisfaction or dissatisfaction? In what eight ways can consumers dispose of
3 Define attribution theory and equity theory and something? C H APTE R 8 > P o s T-d e ci si on PR oce sse s 235
explain how they relate to dissatisfaction. 8 Why is it important for marketers to consider both
4 What is the role of feelings in influencing satisfaction physical and emotional detachment aspects of
and dissatisfaction? consumer disposition?
5 WhyCisOcomplaining
N S U M E R important
B E H A V to
I Omarketers
U R C A Sand
E how
should complaints
BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp08.indd 233 be
handled? 11/06/20 3:05 PM
Analyse in-depth cases that present issues in

U B E R : T U R N I N G S AT I S FA C T I O N I N T O A T W O -WAY S T R E E T
context, encouraging you to integrate and apply the
In recent years, a new economy has emerged. It the need for cash or card processing facilities.
has been termed the ‘sharing economy’ and looks
to unlock the value of sharing resources through
Another differentiating characteristic is the increased
transparency of the Uber service. Upon requesting
concepts discussed in the chapter to the workplace.
collaborative consumption. Why not share your home and booking an Uber ride, customers are provided
while you’re away on holidays, or share your car while with the cost up-front, which is dynamic, based on
you’re not using it? The rise of these ‘peer-to-peer supply and demand of available rides. In addition,
services’ is, more often than not, facilitated by online they are given the driver’s name, contact details, car
platforms. One of the most successful names in make and model, and registration details, as well as
xiii
the sharing economy for accommodation is Airbnb. their driver’s star rating out of 5. By leveraging GPs
Specialising in ‘home sharing’, Airbnb caters to people technology and Google maps, customers can view
looking to share all or
Copyright part of Cengage
2021 in real
their homes forLearning.
short- Alltime the approach
Rights of their ride and
Reserved. May the not
route be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
term stays, as well as to people looking for lower-cost, their driver is taking.
authentic accommodation options. Those sharing When a person is looking to become a driver
their home are termed ‘hosts’. After a stay, guests are for Uber, they are encouraged to follow a set of
prompted to rate the host and their accommodation service delivery principles, including being friendly
Guide to the online resources
FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that will

help you prepare your lectures and assessments. These teaching tools
are accessible via cengage.com.au/instructors for Australia or
cengage.co.nz/instructors for New Zealand.
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MindTap for Consumer Behaviour is full of innovative resources to support critical thinking, and help your students
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL
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• Learning objectives • Case question solutions
• Chapter summaries • Suggested class discussions and activities
• Teaching notes • Chapter-specific project worksheets.
COGNERO TEST BANK

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students. Create multiple test versions in an instant and deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever
you want using Cognero. Cognero test generator is a flexible online system that allows you to import, edit, and
manipulate content from the text’s test bank or elsewhere, including your own favourite test questions.
xiv Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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xv
P R EFACE
At just about every moment of our lives, we engage in some certain things, why we use them in a certain way and how we
form of consumption activity. When we watch an ad on get rid of them.
TV, send a text message to friends about a movie we just In this book we explore the fascinating world of consumer
saw, brush our teeth, go to a sporting event or beach party, behaviour, looking at a number of interesting and exciting
visit a website on the Internet, download a new song, or topics that examine why and how we consume. Some of these
even throw away an old pair of shoes, we are behaving as a are quickly identified with our typical image of consumer
consumer. Being a consumer reaches into every part of our behaviour, such as a shopper with a trolley at the supermarket.
lives. This book is dedicated to our role as consumers and Other examples in which we are consumers may surprise you.
how our many different roles and perspectives influence We hope you will see why we became stimulated and drawn
our behaviours as consumers. Given its omnipresence, the to this topic from the very moment we had our first consumer
study of consumer behaviour has critical implications for behaviour course as students. We hope you will also appreciate
areas such as marketing, health, charity, public policy and why we choose to make this field our life’s work, and why we
ethics. It also helps us learn about ourselves – why we buy are dedicated to this textbook.
WHY THE NEW EDITION OF THIS BOOK?

There are a number of consumer behaviour books on the ■■ better connection between the topics and between chapters
market. An important question concerns what this book has to provide a holistic understanding of consumer behaviour
to offer and what distinguishes it from other texts. There ■■ coverage of the latest research from the academic field of
has been an explosion of research on a variety of consumer consumer behaviour
behaviour topics over the last 20 years. As active researchers
■■ new in-chapter boxes concerning cultural and technological
in the field of consumer behaviour, we have the overriding
considerations regarding consumer behaviour
goal to continue providing a treatment of the field that is up
to date and cutting edge, but at the same time relevant to the
■■ new end-of-chapter cases, giving students the opportunity
to discuss real-world consumer issues and to apply and use
local Asia–Pacific context. Our primary aim was to provide a
the concepts discussed in each chapter
useful summary of this material for students of marketing.
However, in drawing on cutting-edge research, we wanted to ■■ new examples of consumer behaviour using case studies,
be careful not to become too ‘academic’. Instead, our objective advertisements and brands from Australia and the Asia–
is to present cutting-edge topics in a manner that is easy for Pacific region
students to understand. ■■ new applications of consumer behaviour to a broader
Specific changes and improvements to the second international context
Australian and New Zealand edition of this text include: ■■ improved synergistic teaching and other supplemental
■■ shorter length and more streamlined prose, making the materials.
content easier for students to process
TEXTBOOK FEATURES
As award-winning teachers, we have tried to translate our behaviour is too often presented as a set of discrete and narrow
instructional abilities and experience into the writing of this topics with little or no relationship to one another. We have
text. The following features have been a natural outgrowth of therefore developed an overall conceptual model that helps
these experiences. students grasp the big picture and see how the chapters and
topics are themselves interrelated. Each chapter is linked to
Conceptual model other chapters by a specific model that fits within the larger
First, we believe that students can learn best when they model. Further, the overall model guides the organisation of
see the big picture – when they understand what concepts the book. This organising scheme makes the chapters far more
mean, how these concepts are used in business practice and integrative than most other books.
how these relate to one another. In our opinion, consumer
xvi Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
P r e f ace
Practical orientation, with an that are at the cutting edge of consumer behaviour research
emphasis on international and and are likely to be of considerable interest to students.
technological considerations Balanced treatment of micro and

Second, we believe that insights into consumer behaviour macro topics
are interesting in and of themselves, but also that they
Fourth, our book tries to provide a balanced perspective on the
should be relevant to managerial practice. The ultimate goal
field of consumer behaviour. Specifically, we give treatment
of consumer behaviour theory and research is to improve
to both psychological (micro) consumer behaviour topics
the decision-making ability of managers in profit and non-
(e.g. attitudes, decision making) and sociological (macro)
profit organisations who aim to cater to consumers’ needs. It
consumer behaviour topics (e.g. subculture, gender, social
should help you better understand yourselves as consumers
class influences). Also, although we typically teach consumer
and also give you a set of tools to succeed after you graduate,
behaviour by starting with the more micro topics and then
and far beyond that. Rather than merely translating general
moving up to more macro topics, we realise that some
psychological or sociological principles and theories to a
instructors prefer the reverse sequence.
consumer context, this book is dedicated to putting consumer
behaviour into practice and application in order to improve Broad conceptualisation of the
managerial practice. Given our notion that students enjoy subject
seeing how the concepts in consumer behaviour can apply Fifth, we present a broad conceptualisation of the topic
to business practice, a second objective of the book was to of consumer behaviour. While many books focus on what
provide a very practical orientation. We include a wealth of products or services consumers buy, consumer behaviour
contemporary real-world, local examples to illustrate key scholars have recognised that the topic of consumer behaviour
topics specifically for Australian and New Zealand students. is much broader. Specifically, rather than studying buying
We also try to broaden students’ horizons by providing a per se, we recognise that consumer behaviour includes a set
number of international examples. Given the importance of decisions (what, whether, when, where, why, how, how
of online consumer behaviour, the new edition also fully often, how much, how long) about acquisition (including,
treats the advent and implications of the new technological but not limited to, buying), usage, and disposition decisions.
applications. It provides numerous examples of how recent Focusing on more than what products or services consumers
advances in such areas as social media and smartphones are buy provides a rich set of theoretical and practical implications
changing the way marketers understand consumers. for both our understanding of consumer behaviour and the
practice of marketing.
Current and cutting-edge
Finally, we consider the relevance of consumer behaviour
coverage
to many constituents, not just marketers. Consumer behaviour
Third, we provide coverage of the field of consumer behaviour
is important to marketers, doctors, charitable organisations,
that is as current and up to date as possible (including many
public policy makers, ethicists and consumer advocacy
of the recent research advances). Every month there is new
groups, and consumers themselves (including students’ own
research that advances our understanding of why and how
lives). Understanding why people buy can shed light on why
we consume. As a result, this text includes several chapters
people exercise and why they donate (or not). Some chapters
that often do not appear in other textbooks, such as ‘Symbolic
focus exclusively on the implications of consumer behaviour
consumer behaviour’ and ‘Marketing, ethics and social
for public policy makers, ethicists and consumer advocacy
responsibility in today’s consumer society’. As active and
groups. Other chapters consider these issues as well, though
award-winning researchers, we explore topics in this textbook
in less detail.
CONTENT AND ORGANISATION OF THE BOOK

One can currently identify two main approaches to the study and a ‘macro’ orientation, which focuses on group behaviours
of consumer behaviour: a ‘micro’ orientation, which focuses and the symbolic nature of consumer behaviour. This latter
on the individual psychological processes that consumers use orientation draws heavily from such fields as sociology, culture
to make acquisition, consumption and disposition decisions, theory and anthropology. Both orientations are represented
xvii
Pr e f ace
in this book. The current book and overall model have been sequential steps of the consumer decision-making process.
structured around a ‘micro to macro’ organisation based on In Chapter 6, we examine the initial steps of this process –
the way we teach this course and the feedback that we have problem recognition and information search. We next examine
received from reviewers. the consumer decision-making process and how consumers
Chapter 1 in Part 1, ‘An introduction to consumer make judgements (Chapter 7), again from both a cognitive and
behaviour’, provides students with an understanding of the an affective perspective. Finally, the process does not end after
breadth of the field, and its importance to marketers, advocacy a decision has been made. In Chapter 8, we see how consumers
groups, public policy makers and consumers themselves. determine whether they are satisfied or dissatisfied with their
It also presents the overall model that guides the organisation decisions and how they learn from choosing and consuming
of the text. An Appendix, which follows Chapter 1, introduces products and services.
methods by which consumer research is conducted. Part 4, ‘The consumer’s culture’, reflects a ‘macro’ view
Part 2, ‘The psychological core’, focuses on the inner of consumer behaviour that examines how various aspects
psychological processes that affect consumer behaviour. of culture affect consumer behaviour. As Chapter 9 explains,
We see that consumers’ acquisition, usage and disposition our behaviour and decisions can be influenced by certain
behaviours and decisions are greatly affected by the amount individuals, specific groups (such as friends and co-workers),
of effort they put into engaging in behaviours and making and both traditional and social media. Then, we see how
decisions. Chapter 2 describes three critical factors that affect consumer diversity (in terms of age, gender, sexual orientation,
effort: the (1) motivation or desire, (2) ability (knowledge and region, ethnicity and religion) can affect consumer behaviour
information) and (3) opportunity to engage in behaviours in Chapter 10. Chapter 11 looks at various types of households
and make decisions. In Chapter 3, we then examine how and families and explores how household members influence
information in consumers’ environments (ads, prices, product acquisition and consumption decisions. It also examines how
features, word-of-mouth communications, etc.) is internally social class affects consumer decisions and behaviours, and
processed by consumers – how they come in contact with how the combination of diversity, social class and household
these stimuli (exposure), notice them (attention) and perceive influences can affect our values, personality and lifestyle.
them (perception – and how we attempt to understand or Finally, Part 5, ‘Consumer behaviour outcomes and
comprehend them on a deeper level). Chapter 4 continues by issues’, examines the effects of the numerous influences
discussing how we compare new stimuli to our knowledge and decision processes discussed in the previous three parts.
of existing stimuli, in a process called categorisation. Also, Chapter 12 builds on the topics of internal decision making
because consumers often must remember the information and group behaviour by examining how consumers adopt new
they have previously stored in order to make decisions, this offerings, and how their adoption decisions affect the spread
chapter examines the important topic of consumer memory. or diffusion of an offering through a market. Because products
In Chapter 5, we see how attitudes are formed and changed and and services often reflect deep-felt and significant meanings
whether they are cognitively or affectively based. (e.g. our favourite song or restaurant), Chapter 13 focuses on
Whereas Part 2 examines some of the internal factors that the exciting topic of symbolic consumer behaviour. Finally,
influence consumers’ decisions, a critical domain of consumer Chapter 14 examines marketing, ethics and social responsibility,
behaviour involves understanding how consumers make and focuses on marketing and consumer ethics, as well
acquisition, consumption and disposition decisions. Therefore, as marketing practices that have been the focus of social
in Part 3, ‘The process of making decisions’, we examine the commentary in recent years.
xviii Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Wayne D. Hoyer the Journal of Consumer Research and the Journal of Consumer
Wayne D. Hoyer is the James L. Bayless/William S. Farish Fund Psychology. She has also served as a member of the editorial
Chair for Free Enterprise in the McCombs School of Business review boards of the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal
at the University of Texas at Austin. He received his PhD in of Marketing Research, Journal of Marketing, and Journal of
Consumer Psychology from Purdue University in 1980. He also the Academy of Marketing Sciences and has won outstanding
holds an honorary doctorate from the University of Bern in reviewer awards from these journals. She has also served on
Switzerland. His major area of study is Consumer Psychology the editorial review boards of other journals in marketing
and his research interests include consumer information and business. Debbie has served as Conference Co-Chair,
processing and decision making, customer relationship Treasurer, and President of the Association for Consumer
management and new product development, and advertising Research. She has also served as Vice President of Conferences
information processing (including miscomprehension, and Research for the Academic Council of the American
humour, and brand personality). Wayne has published over Marketing Association. She has received major awards for
100 articles in various publications including the Journal of her research, including the Alpha Kappa Psi and Maynard
Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Marketing awards, given to the best practice- and theory-based articles,
Research, Journal of Advertising Research, and Journal of respectively, published in the Journal of Marketing. Debbie’s
Retailing. A 1998 article in the Journal of Marketing Research research has also been named as a finalist for the Practice
(with Susan Broniarczyk and Leigh McAlister) won the O’Dell Prize Competition for contributions to marketing, and the
Award in 2003 for the article that had the most impact in Converse Award for significant long-term contributions to
the marketing field over that five-year period. In addition to marketing. She has been named recipient of the Marshall
Consumer Behaviour, he has co-authored two books on the Teaching Innovation Award, the Dean’s Award for Community,
topic of advertising miscomprehension. He is a current area and the Dean’s Award for Research from the Marshall School
editor for the Journal of Marketing, a former associate editor of Business. Her classes have won national awards through
for the Journal of Consumer Research and serves on eight the SAA National Advertising Competition. Debbie’s major
editorial review boards including the Journal of Marketing areas of teaching include consumer behaviour and integrated
Research, Journal of Consumer Research, and Journal of Consumer marketing communications. Debbie lives in Los Angeles with
Psychology. His major areas of teaching include consumer her husband and two children.
behaviour, customer strategy, and marketing communications.
Rik Pieters
He has also taught internationally at the University of
Rik Pieters is Professor of Marketing at the Tilburg School of
Mannheim, the University of Münster, and the Otto Beisheim
Economics and Management (TISEM) of Tilburg University,
School of Management (all in Germany), the University of
the Netherlands. He received his PhD in social psychology
Bern in Switzerland, the University of Cambridge (UK), and
from the University of Leiden in 1989. Rik believes in
Thammasat University in Thailand. He has also been the
interdisciplinary work, and that imagination, persistence
Montezemolo Visiting Research Fellow in the Judge School of
and openness to surprise are a person’s biggest assets. He
Business and is a Visiting Fellow of Sidney Sussex College at
has published over 90 articles in marketing, psychology,
the University of Cambridge (UK).
economics, and statistics. His work has appeared in Journal of
Debbie MacInnis Consumer Psychology, Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of
Debbie MacInnis (PhD, University of Pittsburgh 1986) is Marketing, Journal of Marketing Research, Marketing Science,
the Charles L. and Ramona I. Hilliard Professor of Business Management Science, and International Journal of Research
Administration and Professor of Marketing at the University in Marketing. He has published in the Journal of Personality
of Southern California in Los Angeles, CA. She has previously and Social Psychology, Organizational Behavior and Human
held positions as Chairperson of the Marketing Department Decision Processes, European Journal of Social Psychology,
and Vice Dean for Research. Debbie has published papers Emotion, Psychological Science, and Journal of Economic
in the Journal of Consumer Research, Journal of Marketing Literature. Currently, Rik is an Associate Editor of the Journal
Research, Journal of Marketing, Journal of Personality and Social of Marketing Research. His research concerns attention and
Psychology, Psychology and Marketing, and others in the memory processes in marketing communication, and the role
areas of marketing communications, information processing, of emotions in consumer decision making. He has served as
imagery, emotions, and branding. She is an Associate Editor for Co-Chair of the Association for Consumer Research annual
xix
A b o ut t h e a u t h ors
conference, and has co-organised special conferences on visual and Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
marketing, social communication, and service marketing and He teaches advertising and consumer behaviour, marketing
management. He has taught internationally at Pennsylvania research and services marketing at undergraduate, master’s
State University; University of Innsbruck, Austria; Koc and doctoral levels. He enjoys both classical opera and country
University, Turkey; and the University of Auckland, New music, prefers baseball to cricket and is an avid global traveller.
Zealand. He has won best teaching awards at the school and
Gavin Northey
university levels. He has been Strategy Director for National
Gavin Northey is a senior lecturer in marketing at Griffith
and International clients at the Prad/FCB advertising agency,
University, Australia. Having worked in both industry and
Amsterdam office. He bakes bread, rides bikes, and drinks
academia, he sees the continual transfer of evidence-based
hoppy, fermented barley beverages, all except the first in
knowledge between the two as a defining career objective. As a
moderation. In his spare time, he works.
researcher, Gavin focuses on both the causes and implications
Eugene Chan of consumer behaviour in different marketing scenarios, with
Eugene Chan is an Associate Professor in the Division of particular focus on the role of advertising. His research has
Consumer Science at Purdue University in Indiana, USA. He appeared in a range of leading journals including International
grew up in Toronto and received his PhD from the University of Journal of Research in Marketing, Journal of Advertising Research,
Toronto after receiving his undergraduate and master’s degrees Psychology & Marketing, Journal of Business Research and
in psychology from the Universities of Michigan and Chicago, Journal of International Marketing. He has received a number
respectively. He has previously taught at Monash University of awards including the 2018 Outstanding Reviewer award for
in Melbourne, UTS in Sydney, in Slovenia and Canada. His European Journal of Marketing and the 2019 ANZMAC award
research interests are in consumer, financial and political for best overall research paper. Gavin is currently Associate
decision making. His work has been published in outlets Editor of the Australasian Marketing Journal. While academia
such as Journal of Consumer Psychology, European Journal of is his calling, if he was more coordinated, more athletic and
Marketing, European Journal of Social Psychology, Evolution and didn’t fear injury, he is sure he would have been a superstar in
Human Behavior, International Journal of Research in Marketing snowboarding.
xx Copyright 2021 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Creating a textbook requires a large team of dedicated professionals ■■ Ken Hyde – Auckland University
who are able to pool their skills from a range of disciplines. In the ■■ Arnold Japutra – University of Western Australia
first instance, special thanks must go to Michelle Aarons who
■■ Dr Janet Davey –Victoria University of Wellington
was able to bring such a team together. Likewise, the effort and
commitment of James Cole at Cengage has been instrumental in
■■ Dr Sujana Adapa – University of New England
driving the project forward. His leadership, advice and empathy ■■ Billy Sung – Curtin University
was invaluable throughout. Additionally, there are a large number ■■ Dr. Rumman Hassan – University of Southern Queensland.
of people that have provided feedback and guidance along this
journey. They are too many to name, but they know who they are Additionally, we would like to extend our thanks to those who
and without their input, this textbook wouldn’t be such a success. reviewed the previous edition of this text.
The authors are eternally grateful to all.
The authors and Cengage Learning would like to thank the Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright.
following reviewers for their incisive and helpful feedback: However, if any infringement has occurred, the publishers tender
■■ Jana Bowden – Macquarie University their apologies and invite the copyright holders to contact them.
■■ Dr Joan Carlini – Griffith University
xxi
PART
ONE
AN INTRODUCTION TO
CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR




consumer society
CHAPTER In Part 1, you will learn that consumer behaviour involves much more than purchasing
products. In addition, you will find out that marketers continuously study consumer
Understanding consumer behaviour for clues as to who buys, uses and disposes of what goods and services, as
1 behaviour 3 well as clues as to when, where, why and how they make decisions.
Appendix: Conducting Chapter 1 defines consumer behaviour and examines its importance to marketers,
research in consumer
advocacy groups, public policymakers and consumers. The chapter also presents
behaviour 29
the overall model that guides the organisation of this book. As this model indicates,
consumer behaviour covers four basic domains: (1) the psychological core, (2) the
process of making decisions, (3) the consumer’s culture, and (4) consumer behaviour
outcomes and issues. In addition, you will read about the implications of consumer
behaviour for marketing activities.
1
The Appendix focuses on consumer behaviour research and how marketers can learn
more about their consumers’ habits and preferences. You will learn about various
research methods, types of data and ethical issues related to consumer research.
With this background, you will be able to understand how consumer research helps
marketers develop more effective strategies and tactics for reaching and satisfying
customers.
PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR




consumer society
FIGURE 1.1 » A MODEL OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
Consumer behaviour encompasses four domains: (1) the psychological core, (2) the process of making decisions, (3) the consumer’s culture, and (4)
consumer behaviour outcomes and issues. As the figure shows, chapters 2–14 of this textbook relate to the four parts of this overall model.
1 Understanding consumer
behaviour
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU WILL BE ABLE TO:

LO1 define consumer behaviour and explain the components that make up the definition
LO2 identify the four domains of consumer behaviour that affect acquisition, usage and disposition decisions
LO3 discuss the benefits of studying consumer behaviour
LO4 explain how companies apply consumer behaviour concepts when making marketing decisions.
Toby’s Estate: more than coffee

Historically, when people think of coffee, they typically and even a presence in the Big Apple – New York.
don’t think of Australia. Italy, France and Colombia Australian coffees are expanding abroad and some of
may come to mind, but certainly not the country the thanks for that can go to Toby’s Estate.2
that produces kangaroos and koalas! However, in What makes Toby’s Estate so successful, not just in
the past few decades, Australians have developed a Australia but also worldwide? Certainly its knowledge
coffee culture to such an extent that Australian coffee, of its customers’ tastes and preferences. But ‘tastes’
especially that which can be found in Melbourne’s and ‘preferences’ goes beyond the aroma or nuttiness
local coffee shops, is now widely regarded as among that Australians prefer in their daily cup of coffee. As
the best in the world, having won prestigious coffee part of its coffee roasting operations, Toby’s Estate also
brewing competitions globally. Coffee shops with adopts a ‘Social, Ethical and Environmental’ philosophy
Melbourne-trained baristas are increasingly common in
Los Angeles and New York.1 Australian coffee culture is
© Fairfax Syndication/Jennifer Soo

also truly a ‘culture’ with its own slang, idioms and other
sayings. Instead of an ‘espresso shot’, Australians like
to say ‘short black’. The flat white is found abroad now,
but it originated in Australia and New Zealand – even
Starbucks recently started offering flat whites in its
North American operations.
Within the Australian coffee community, Toby’s
Estate is one of the most loved coffee roasters in the
country (see Figure 1.2). It provides the coffee beans
to some of the country’s finest coffee shops, with long
queues during the morning and afternoon rush hours.
Toby’s has 11 Australian roasting sites with a total of
about 120 staff and a wholesale arm that functions
as the backbone of the business. Its renowned coffee FIGURE 1.2 » TOBY’S ESTATE IS SUCCESSFUL BECAUSE
IT UNDERSTANDS COFFEE TASTES AND PREFERENCES
roasting has also extended to other countries. For AND IS DEVOTED TO PRACTISING SOCIAL, ETHICAL AND
example, it has stores in Singapore and the Philippines, ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSIBILITY
3
4 P A RT O N E > A N IN TR ODU CTION TO CONSU MER BE HAVIOUR
that means sustainable relationships are maintained (3) who benefits from studying it, and (4) how marketers
with local coffee bean farmers that are built on trust and apply consumer behaviour concepts. Because you are a
traceability in finding the best quality coffee, as well as tea consumer, you probably have some thoughts about these
and chocolate, at fair prices for all parties involved.3 issues. However, you may be surprised at how broad the
As such, when Australians are drinking their morning domain of consumer behaviour is, how many factors help
cup of coffee, they aren’t just drinking coffee the beverage, explain it, and how important the field is to marketers,
but are also playing a role in helping a business operation ethicists and consumer advocates, public policymakers
that protects the rights of farmers as well as the natural and regulators, and consumers like yourself. You will also
environment in which the coffee beans grow. The dedication get a glimpse of the marketing implications of consumer
to superior coffee beyond taste is one reason why Toby’s behaviour, previewing how we will connect consumer
Estate has been so successful in the Australian market. behaviour concepts with practical applications throughout
This chapter provides a general overview of: (1) what this textbook.
consumer behaviour is, (2) what factors affect it,
R E F L EC T I V E Q U E S T I O N
➜ How important to the success of Toby’s Estate is understanding consumer behaviour?
LO1 DEFINING CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

Consumer behaviour If you were asked to define consumer behaviour, you might say it refers to the study of how a person buys
The totality of consumers’
decisions with respect to the products. However, consumer behaviour really involves quite a bit more, as this more complete definition
acquisition, consumption and indicates:
disposition of goods, services,
activities, experiences, people Consumer behaviour reflects the totality of consumers’ decisions with respect to the
and ideas by human decision- acquisition, consumption and disposition of goods, services, activities, experiences, people
making units (over time).
and ideas by (human) decision-making units [over time].4
This definition has some very important elements. The following sections present a closer look at each
element.
Think of some marketing strategies and tactics that try to influence one or more of the dimensions of
consumer behaviour shown in Figure 1.3.
Consumer behaviour involves goods, services, activities,

experiences, people and ideas
Consumer behaviour means more than just the way in which a person buys tangible products such as bath
soap or smartphones. It also includes consumers’ use of services, activities, experiences and ideas, such
as going to the dentist, attending a concert, taking a trip and donating to UNICEF.5 In addition, consumers
make decisions about people, such as voting for politicians, who to go on a date with, reading books by certain
authors, seeing movies or TV shows starring certain actors and attending concerts featuring favourite bands.
All of these decisions are consumption decisions since consumers ‘take in’ these products and services, whether
physiologically (e.g., food) or mentally (e.g., a movie at a cinema). Because consumer behaviour includes the
Offering consumption of so many things, we use the simple term offering to encompass these entities.
A product, service, activity,
How consumers make decisions and purchases is extremely important to marketers. However, marketers
experience or idea offered
by an organisation to are also intensely interested in consumer behaviour related to using and disposing of an offering.
consumers.
Acquiring
Acquisition Buying is one type of acquisition behaviour. As shown later in this chapter, acquisition includes other ways
The process by which a
of obtaining goods and services, such as renting, leasing, trading and sharing. It also involves decisions about
consumer comes to own an
offering. time as well as money.6 For example, when consumers make a purchase that does not work out well, they
will perceive the time period until the next purchase as being shorter because they want to remove negative
feeling.7 Consumers sometimes find themselves interrupted during a consumption experience; studies show
CHAPTER 1 > Understandin g consumer behavi o u r 5
Consumer behaviour reflects:

the totality about the by decision-
of an offering over time
of decisions consumption making units
Whether Products Information Hours

gatherer
What
Services
Acquisition Days
Why
Influencer
How Activities
Usage Weeks
When Decider
Experiences
Where
Disposition Purchaser Months
How much/ People
How often/
How long Ideas User Years
Marketing strategies and tactics
FIGURE 1.3 » WHAT IS CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR?
interruption actually makes a pleasant experience seem more enjoyable when resumed.8 Deadlines and time
pressure can also affect acquisition behaviour: consumers tend to procrastinate in redeeming coupons and gift
cards with far-future deadlines, but they move more quickly when deadlines are closer. Why? Because they do
not want to regret having missed out and they expect to have more time to enjoy and indulge themselves with
the acquisition in the future.9
Using
After consumers acquire an offering, they use it, which is why usage is at the very core of consumer behaviour.10 Usage
Whether and why we use certain products can symbolise something about who we are, what we value and what
consumer uses an offering.
we believe. The products we use on ANZAC Day (e.g., ANZAC biscuits that we bake at home or buy from stores)
may symbolise the event’s significance and how we feel about our country. The Australian music we may enjoy
(Tones and I, or Kylie Minogue) and the jewellery we wear (earrings or engagement rings) can also symbolise who
we are and how we feel. Moreover, marketers must be sensitive to when consumers are likely to use a product,11
whether they find it effective,12 whether they control their consumption of it,13 and how they react after using it –
do they spread positive or negative word-of-mouth reviews about a new film, for instance?14
Disposing
Disposition, how consumers get rid of an offering they have previously acquired, can have important Disposition
implications for marketers. Consumers can give away their used possessions, sell them on Gumtree or lend
15
consumer discards an
them to others. Vintage clothing stores now sell older clothes (disposed of by the original owners) that buyers offering.
find stylish. Eco-minded consumers often seek out biodegradable products made from recycled materials or
choose goods that do not pollute when disposed of. Governments and local councils are also interested in how
to motivate an earth-friendly disposition (see Figure 1.4).16 Marketers see profit opportunities in addressing
disposition concerns. Terra-Cycle, for example, markets tote bags, pencil cases and other products made from
used packaging and recycled materials in Australia. In North and South America, Europe and the Baltic region,
Terra-Cycle partners with firms such as PepsiCo to collect mountains of discarded packaging and turn them into
usable products for sale.17
Consumers dispose of old products they acquired in a number of ways. This

Waste Authority, Government of Western Australia
evocative ad from the Waste Authority encourages Australians to properly dispose of

recyclables on Australia Day.
Consumer behaviour is a dynamic process

The sequence of acquisition, consumption and disposition can occur over time in
a dynamic order – hours, days, weeks, months or years, as shown in Figure 1.3. To
illustrate, assume that a family has acquired and is using a new car. Usage provides
the family with information – whether the car drives well and is reliable – that affects
when, whether, how and why members will dispose of the car by selling, trading
or sending it to the wreckers. Because the family always needs transportation,
disposition is likely to affect when, whether, how and why its members acquire
another car in the future.
Entire markets are designed around linking one consumer’s disposition decision
to other consumers’ acquisition decisions. When consumers buy used cars, they
are buying cars that others have sold. From Gumtree’s online listings to secondhand
clothing stores run by Salvos, from consignment shops to used books sold online,
many businesses exist to link one consumer’s disposition behaviour with another’s
acquisition behaviour.
Broader changes in consumer behaviour occur over time as well. Fifty years
FIGURE 1.4 » DISPOSITION
ago, consumers had far fewer brand choices and were exposed to fewer marketing
messages. By contrast, today’s consumers are more connected, easily able to research
offerings online, access communications and promotions in multiple media, and check what others think
of brands with a quick search or social media post. Before the Internet, it was hard to acquire goods from
abroad; today, it’s easy to add to a cart and have products shipped to our doorstep from beyond Australia. Or
simply consider how you can interact with your favourite store without having to physically step foot inside.
You can visit its website, ‘like’ its Facebook page or even download its app on your smartphone. Social media
and digital platforms are also now the first channel of choice for marketers wishing to communicate directly
with consumers, informing them of new products and celebrity endorsements and maintaining relations.
These tactics would never have been possible with more traditional communication channels such as via the
post office.
Consumer behaviour can involve many people

Consumer behaviour does not necessarily reflect the action of a single individual. A group of friends, a few
co-workers or an entire family may plan a birthday party or decide where to have lunch, exchanging ideas in
person, while talking on the phone, via social media or by email or text message. Moreover, the individuals
engaging in consumer behaviour can take on one or more roles. In the case of a car purchase, for example, one
or more family members might take on the role of information gatherer by researching different models. Others
might assume the role of influencer and try to affect the outcome of a decision. One or more members may
take on the role of purchaser by actually paying for the car and some or all may be users. Finally, several family
members may be involved in the disposal of the car.
Consumer behaviour involves many decisions

Consumer behaviour involves understanding whether, why, when, where, how, how much, how often and for
how long consumers will buy, use or dispose of an offering (look back at Figure 1.3).
Whether to acquire/use/dispose of an offering

Consumers must decide whether to acquire, use or dispose of an offering. They may need to decide whether to
spend or save their money when they earn extra cash.18 How much they decide to spend may be influenced by
their perceptions of how much they recall spending in the past.19
They may need to decide whether to order a pizza, clean out a closet or stream a movie on Stan. Some
consumers collect items, for example, a situation that has created a huge market for buying, selling,
transporting, storing and insuring collectible items.20 Decisions about whether to acquire, use or dispose
of an offering are often related to personal goals, safety concerns or a desire to reduce economic, social or
psychological risk.
What offering to acquire/use/dispose of

Consumers make decisions every day about what to buy; in fact, each Australian household spends an average
of $1425 per week on goods and services, including housing and transport costs.21 In some cases, we make
choices among product or service categories, such as buying food versus downloading new music. In other cases,
we choose between brands, such as whether to buy an iPhone or an Android model. Our choices multiply daily
as marketers introduce new products, sizes and packages. Figure 1.5 shows some of the spending patterns of
Australian consumers in particular age groups.
Why acquire/use/dispose of an offering

Consumption can occur for a number of reasons. Among the most important reasons, as you will see later, are
the ways in which an offering meets someone’s needs, values or goals. Some consumers acquire tattoos as a
form of self-expression, to fit into a group or to express their feelings about someone or something. In New York
City, the Social Tattoo Project provides free tattoos of Twitter hashtags to highlight social causes (#poverty, for
example).22 Taking the self-expression of tattoos into the automotive arena, Ford has offered dozens of vinyl
wrap ‘tattoos’ for buyers to use in personalising its Ford Focus cars.23
Sometimes our reasons for using an offering are filled with conflict, which leads to some difficult
consumption decisions. Teenagers may smoke, even though they know it is harmful, because they think
smoking will help them gain acceptance. Some consumers may be unable to stop acquiring, using or disposing
of products. They may be physically addicted to products such as cigarettes or they may have a compulsion to
eat, gamble or buy.
Why an offering is not acquired/used/disposed of

Marketers also try to understand why consumers do not acquire, use or dispose of an offering. For example,
consumers may delay buying a tablet computer because they believe that the product will soon be outdated or
that some firms will depart this market, leaving them without after-sale support or service. At times, consumers
who want to acquire or consume an offering are unable to do so because what they want is unavailable. Ethics
and social responsibility can also play a role, as the opening example with Toby’s Estate illustrates. Some
consumers may want to avoid products made in factories with questionable labour practices or avoid movies
downloaded, copied and shared without permission.24
Ways of acquiring an offering

How do consumers decide whether to acquire an offering in a store or shopping centre, online or at an auction?25
How do they decide whether to pay with cash, a debit card, a credit card, an electronic system such as PayPal or
a mobile wallet payment app on their smartphones?26 These examples relate to consumers’ buying decisions,
but Table 1.1 shows that consumers can acquire an offering in other ways. Sharing is a form of acquisition, such
as sharing possessions within a family or sharing videos via YouTube.27
Ways of using an offering

In addition to understanding how consumers acquire an offering, marketers want to know how consumers
use an offering.28 For obvious reasons, marketers want to ensure that their offering is used correctly.
Improper usage of offerings, such as cough medicine or alcohol, can create health and safety problems.29
Because consumers may ignore label warnings and directions on potentially dangerous products,
marketers who want to make warnings more effective have to understand how consumers process label
information.
Source: Moneysmart website, moneysmart.gov.au. Reproduced with permission of ASIC.
FIGURE 1.5 » WEEKLY SPEND BY LIFZE STAGE
TABLE 1.1 » EIGHT WAYS TO ACQUIRE AN OFFERING

Acquisition method Description
Buying Buying is a common acquisition method used for many offerings.
Trading Consumers might receive a good or service as part of a trade.
Renting or leasing Instead of buying, consumers rent or lease cars, furniture, holiday homes and
more.
Bartering Consumers (and businesses) can exchange goods or services without having
money change hands.
Gifting Each society has many gift-giving occasions as well as informal or formal rules
dictating how gifts are to be given, what is an appropriate gift and how to
respond to a gift.
Finding Consumers sometimes find goods that others have lost (hats left on a train) or
thrown away.
Stealing Because various offerings can be acquired through theft, marketers have
developed products to deter this acquisition method, such as alarms to deter
car theft.
Sharing Another method of acquisition is by sharing or borrowing. Some types of sharing
are illegal and border on theft, as when consumers copy and share movies.
Ways of disposing of an offering

Sometimes nothing but the packaging remains of an offering (such as food) after it has been consumed. This
leaves only a decision about whether to recycle or not and how. Consumers who want to dispose of a tangible
product have several options:30
■■ Find a new use for it. Using an old toothbrush to clean rust from tools or making shorts out of an old pair of
jeans shows how consumers can continue using an item instead of disposing of it.
■■ Get rid of it temporarily. Renting or lending an item is one way of getting rid of it temporarily.
■■ Get rid of it permanently. Throwing away an item, sending it to a recycling centre, trading it, giving it away
or selling it are all ways to get rid of it permanently. However, some consumers refuse to throw away things
that they regard as special, even if the items no longer serve a functional purpose.
When to acquire/use/dispose of an offering

The timing of consumer behaviour can depend on many factors, including our perceptions of and attitudes
towards time itself. Consumers may think in terms of whether it is ‘time for me’ or ‘time for others’ and whether
acquiring or using an offering is planned or spontaneous.31 In cold weather, our tendency to rent movies or shop
for clothes is greatly enhanced. At the same time, we are less likely to eat ice cream, shop for a car or look for
a new home during cold weather. Time of day influences many consumption decisions, which is why many
organisations have added drive-throughs to accommodate customers in a hurry, including drive-through bottle
shops, drive-through ATMs and of course drive-through fast food.32
Our need for variety can affect when we acquire, use or dispose of an offering. We may decide not to eat
a sandwich for lunch today if we have already had it every other day this week. Major life transitions such as
graduation, birth, retirement and death also affect when we acquire, use and dispose of offerings. For instance,
we buy wedding rings when we get married. When we consume can be affected by traditions influenced by our
families, our culture and the area in which we live.
Decisions about when to acquire or use an offering are also affected by knowing when others might or
might not be buying or using it. Therefore, we might choose to go to the gym when we know that others will
not be doing so. In addition, we may wait to buy until we know something will be on sale; even if we have to line
up to buy something popular, we are likely to continue waiting if we see many people joining the line behind
us.33 Also, waiting to consume a pleasurable product such as lollies increases our enjoyment of its consumption,
even though we may be frustrated by having to wait.34
Another decision is when to acquire a new, improved version of a product we already own. This can be a
difficult decision when the current model still works well or has sentimental value. However, marketers may
be able to affect whether and when consumers buy upgrades by providing economic incentives for replacing
older products.35
Where to acquire/use/dispose of an offering

Consumers have more choices of where to acquire, use and dispose of an offering than they have ever had before,
including making purchases in stores, by mail, by phone and over the Internet. The Internet has changed where
we acquire, use and dispose of goods. Many consumers buy online via computer or smartphone because they
like the convenience or the price or to acquire unique products.36 And as the success of Gumtree shows, the
Internet can help people dispose of goods that are then acquired by others.
In addition to acquisition decisions, consumers also make decisions about where to consume various
products. For example, the need for privacy motivates consumers to stay home when using products that
determine whether they are ovulating or pregnant. On the other hand, wireless connections allow consumers
in public places to make phone calls, post messages to social media sites, play computer games and download
photos or music even if they are on a beach, far away from home or a computer. Consumers can also make
charitable donations via text messages.37
Finally, consumers make decisions regarding where to dispose of goods. Should they toss an old magazine
in the rubbish or the recycling bin? Should they store an old photo album in a cupboard or give it to a relative?
Older consumers in particular may worry about what will happen to their special possessions after their death
and about how to divide heirlooms without creating family conflict. These consumers hope that mementos
will serve as a legacy for their heirs.38 A growing number of consumers are recycling unwanted goods through
recycling agencies or non-profit groups, or giving them directly to other consumers through websites such as
the Freecycle Network (http://www.freecycle.org) (see Figure 1.6).
© Alamy Stock Photo/NetPhotos
FIGURE 1.6 » WHERE TO DISPOSE
Consumers have a number of options regarding places to dispose of goods, such as this recycling website.
How much, how often and how long to acquire/use/dispose of

an offering
Consumers must make decisions about how much of a good or service they need, how often they need it,
and how much time they will spend in acquisition, usage and disposition.39 Usage decisions can vary widely
from person to person and from culture to culture. For example, consumers in Switzerland eat twice as much
chocolate as consumers in Russia.40
Sales of a product can be increased when the consumer: (1) uses larger amounts of the product, (2) uses
the product more frequently, or (3) uses it for longer periods of time. Bonus packages may motivate consumers
to buy more of a product, but does this stockpiling lead to higher consumption? In the case of food products,
consumers are more likely to increase consumption when the stockpiled item requires no preparation.41 Usage
may also increase when consumers sign up for flat-fee pricing covering unlimited consumption of telephone
services or other offerings. However, because many consumers who choose flat-fee programs overestimate
their likely consumption, they often pay more than if they had chosen per-usage pricing.42
Some consumers experience problems because they engage in more acquisition, usage or disposition than
they should. For example, they may have a compulsion to overbuy, overeat or smoke or gamble too much.
Researchers are also investigating what affects consumers’ abilities to control consumption temptations and
what happens when self-control falters, an issue for anybody who has tried to diet or make other changes to
consumption habits.43
Consumer behaviour involves emotions and coping

Consumer researchers have studied the powerful role that emotions play in consumer behaviour.44 Positive
and negative emotions as well as specific emotions such as hope,45 fear,46 regret,47 guilt,48 embarrassment49 and
general moods50 can affect how consumers think, the choices they make, how they feel after making a decision,
what they remember and how much they enjoy an experience. Emotions such as love sometimes describe how
we feel about certain brands or possessions.51 Consumers often use products to regulate their feelings – as when
a scoop of ice cream seems like a good antidote to a bad quiz score.52 Researchers have also studied how service
employees’ emotions can affect consumers’ emotions outside of their awareness.53
Because issues related to consumer behaviour can involve stress, consumers often need to cope in some
way.54 Researchers have studied how consumers cope with difficult choices and an overwhelming array of goods
from which to choose;55 how consumers use goods and services to cope with stressful events56 such as having
cancer; and how they cope with losing possessions due to divorce, natural disasters, moving to a residential-
care facility and other incidents.57 They have even studied the coping behaviour of certain market segments,
such as low-literacy consumers, who often find it challenging to understand the marketplace without being
able to read.58
LO2 WHAT AFFECTS CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR?

The many factors that affect acquisition, usage and disposition decisions can be classified into four broad
domains, as shown in the model at the start of the chapter: (1) the psychological core, (2) the process of making
decisions, (3) the consumer’s culture, and (4) consumer behaviour outcomes. Although the four domains are
presented in separate sections of this book, each domain is related to all the others. For example, to make
decisions that affect outcomes such as buying new products, consumers must first engage in processes
described in the psychological core. They need to be motivated, able and have the opportunity to be exposed
to, perceive and attend to information. They need to think about and comprehend this information, develop
attitudes about it and form memories they can retrieve during the decision process (see Figure 1.1).
The cultural environment also affects what motivates consumers, how they process information and the
kinds of decisions they make. Age, gender, social class, ethnicity, families, friends and other factors affect
consumer values and lifestyles and, in turn, influence the decisions that consumers make and how and why
they make them. In the following overview, we illustrate the interrelationships among the domains with an
example of a holiday decision.
The psychological core: internal consumer processes

Before consumers can make decisions, they must have some source of knowledge or information upon which
to base their decisions. This source – the psychological core – covers motivation, ability and opportunity
(MAO); exposure, attention, perception and comprehension; memory and knowledge; and attitudes about
an offering.
Motivation, ability and opportunity

Consider the case of a consumer named Jason who is deciding on a ski holiday. In Jason’s mind, the holiday decision
is risky because it will consume a lot of money and time and he does not want to make a bad choice. Therefore,
Jason is motivated to learn as much as he can about various holiday options, think about them and imagine what
they will be like. He has put other activities aside to give himself the opportunity to learn and think about this
holiday. Because Jason already knows how to ski, he has the ability to determine what types of ski holidays he
would find enjoyable. Whether he focuses on how much the trip will cost or how much fun he will have depends
on how soon he plans to travel and how well the place he plans to visit fits with his self-concept.59
Exposure, attention, perception and comprehension

Because Jason is motivated to decide where to go on holiday and has both the ability and opportunity to
do so, he will make sure he is exposed to and attends to any information relevant to his decision. He might
look at travel ads and websites, read travel-related articles, check Twitter for special deals and talk with
friends and travel agents. Jason will probably not attend to all holiday information; however, he is likely
to be exposed to information he will never consciously perceive or pay attention to. He must identify what
he has perceived – is it an ad or something else? – and then determine what country or mountain resort is
involved, all as part of the comprehension process. He might infer that Thredbo is a reasonably priced holiday
destination because a website shows information consistent with this interpretation, for example.
Memory and knowledge

Source: © Diageo
Whether Jason can store what he learns about ski resorts in his memory – and
whether he can recall that information later – depends, in part, on his MAO. As he
learns something new about ski resorts, he will organise that knowledge according
to categories such as ‘places to stay on a ski holiday’. Jason will also associate
each new piece of information with other concepts he knows, such as ‘expensive’
or ‘eco-friendly’. Note that Jason may store information in memory, but his choices
will be based only on the information that can be retrieved from memory – a key
point for marketers seeking to create strong brand images and develop memorable
communications (see Figure 1.7).
Forming and changing attitudes

Jason is likely to form attitudes towards the holidays he has categorised and
comprehended. He may have a favourable attitude towards Kitzbühel in Austria
because a website describes it as affordable, educational and fun. However, his attitudes
might change as he encounters new information. Also, attitudes do not always predict
behaviour. For example, although many of us have a positive attitude towards working
out, our attitude and our good intentions do not always culminate in a trip to the gym.
For this reason, attitudes and choices are considered separate topics.
FIGURE 1.7 » FORMING AND RETRIEVING

MEMORIES
The process of making decisions
As shown in the mind map diagram at the start of the chapter, the processes that are
In this ad, Bundaberg Rum plays on Australian heritage
and history to draw consumers in and to prompt them part of the psychological core are intimately tied to the process of making decisions.
to consider its products. It is also attempting to have This domain involves four stages: problem recognition, information search, decision
consumers associate the product with Australian
heritage, thereby forming new associations in consumers’ making and post-purchase evaluation.
long-term memory.
Problem recognition and the search for information

Problem recognition occurs when we realise that we have an unfulfilled need. Jason realised that he needed a
ski holiday, for example. His subsequent search for information gave him insight into where he might go, how
much the holiday might cost and when he might travel. He also examined his financial situation. Elements
of the psychological core are invoked in problem recognition and search because once Jason realises that he
needs a holiday and begins his information search, he is exposed to information, attends to and perceives it,
categorises and comprehends it, and forms attitudes and memories.
Making judgements and decisions

The psychological core is also invoked in making decisions. Because holidays generally are high on MAO, Jason
will be motivated to be exposed to lots of information, think about it deeply, analyse it critically and form
attitudes about it. He may have lasting memories about this information because he has thought about it so
much. Consumers are not always aware of what they are thinking and how they are making their choices, so
Jason might not be able to explain what affected his choices (background music in a travel agency might even
be an influence).60 Yet the emotions he thinks he will experience from different options (excitement, relaxation)
may well influence his ultimate choice.61 For products that invoke low MAO, such as what brand of toothpaste
to buy, he would probably engage in less information search and process information less deeply, resulting in
less enduring attitudes and memories.
Making post-decision evaluations

This step allows the consumer to judge, after the fact, whether the decision made was the correct one and
whether to purchase that offering again. When he returns from his holiday, Jason will probably evaluate the
outcome of his decisions. If his expectations were met and the holiday was everything he thought it would be,
he will feel satisfied. If the holiday exceeded his expectations, he will be delighted. If it fell short of them, he will
be dissatisfied. Once again, aspects of the psychological core are invoked in making post-decision evaluations.
Jason may expose himself to information that validates his experiences, he may update his attitudes and he
may selectively remember aspects of his trip that were extremely positive or negative.
The consumer’s culture: external processes

Why did Jason decide to go on a skiing trip in the first place? In large part, our consumption decisions and
how we process information are affected by our culture. Think of the last time you went grocery shopping.
It might seem like a ‘simple’ task, but your preference for Coles and your choice of a specific brand are all in
some way shaped by your partner’s or family’s influences, and even broadly from culture. Culture refers to Culture
The typical or expected
the typical or expected behaviours, norms and ideas that characterise a group of people. It can be a powerful behaviours, norms and ideas
influence on all aspects of human behaviour. Jason had certain feelings, perceptions and attitudes because of that characterise a group of
people.
the unique combination of groups to which he belongs and the influence they have on his values, personality
and lifestyle.
Reference groups and other social influences

When Jason sees groups of others he perceives as similar to himself, he regards them as reference groups, Reference group
A group of people consumers
people whose values he shares and whose opinions he respects. He might also want to emulate the behaviour compare themselves with
of people whom he admires and to listen to the advice they offer through word of mouth (in person, on Facebook, for information regarding
behaviour, attitudes or values.
on Twitter etc.). Athletes, musicians and movie stars sometimes serve as reference groups, influencing how we
evaluate information and the choices we make (see Figure 1.8). Reference groups can also make us feel as if we
should behave in a certain way. Jason may feel some pressure to go to Thredbo because his friends think that
doing so is cool.
Diversity influences
Alamy Stock Photo/The Advertising Archives
Jason is a member of many regional, ethnic and religious groups that

directly or indirectly affect the decisions he makes. For example,
although his decision to ski at a place far from home is fairly typical
for a man launched on his career, a consumer from a developing
nation or a single woman from a different culture may not have had
the same luxury of travelling far away even for a holiday. Also, his age,
gender and educational background may all affect his impressions
of what constitutes a good holiday, accounting for his interest in a
ski trip. Consider the holiday choices shown in Table 1.2 and try to
imagine the background factors that predispose consumers to choose
these as holiday options. The word ‘holiday’ means different things
to different people. Can you see how factors such as social class,
ethnic status, lifestyle, economic conditions, group affiliations and
gender affect the kinds of holidays that appeal to us? The examples
in Table 1.2 show that some marketers are successful because they
understand what their customers value.
Household and social class influences

Because Jason is a member of the upper middle class and lives with
his parents, these household and social class influences may affect
his decision to go to a luxurious European ski resort with friends
rather than join his family at a rustic ski area near home.
FIGURE 1.8 » INFLUENCE OF REFERENCE GROUPS Values, personality and lifestyles

The choices Jason makes are based, in part, on his beliefs, his
Reference groups are people whose values we share and whose opinions we
value, as evidenced in this TAG Heuer ad featuring Chris Hemsworth. personality, and his activities, interests and opinions. Therefore, he
may be attracted to a European ski trip because he wants a holiday
that he thinks will be exciting and out of the ordinary. He also
anticipates that this holiday will test his ability to manage on his own and give him a sense of accomplishment.
TABLE 1.2 » HOLIDAY CHOICES

On holiday, would you like to …
Learn how to walk on the moon? Space Camp is the place for you! You’ll experience the weightlessness of space flight, launch a rocket
and take a simulated trip to Mars or the Moon. The price for would-be astronauts (adults and children alike) is $699–$899 per week.
Volunteer in turtle conservation in Costa Rica? Take a conservation holiday to Costa Rica. Through Oyster Worldwide, you can take
the ultimate beach holiday that combines the golden sands of Costa Rica with a turtle conservation trip. Step off the beaten path while
helping protect both baby and adult turtles from extinction. Prices start at $1700 for one week.
See where penguins play? On a National Geographic cruise, you’ll start from the tip of South America and sail through Drake Passage.
Then you’ll travel by kayak along Antarctica’s edge, home to penguins, whales and other marine life. If your itinerary includes the
Falkland Islands and South Georgia, you’ll pay up to $45 000 (airfare is extra).
Sources: Based on information from http://www.spacecamp.com, https://www.oysterworldwide.com and http://www.expeditions.com
Consumer behaviour outcomes and issues

As the mind map diagram at the start of the chapter shows, the psychological core, decision-making processes
and the consumer’s culture affect consumer behaviour outcomes such as the symbolic use of products and the
diffusion of ideas, products or services through a market. They also influence and are influenced by issues of
ethics and social responsibility.
Consumer behaviours can symbolise who we are

The groups we belong to and our sense of self can affect the symbols or external signs we use, consciously Symbols
External signs that consumers
or unconsciously, to express our actual or desired identity. For example, while skiing, Jason may wear a use to express their identity.
Kathmandu coat and Ray-Ban sunglasses to communicate his status as an experienced skier or someone
who appreciates style. He might also take home objects, such as postcards and T-shirts, that symbolise his
holiday.
Consumer behaviours can diffuse through a market

After Jason makes his holiday decision, he may tell others about his prospective trip, which, in turn,
could influence their holiday decisions. In this way, the idea of going to Thredbo on holiday, for example,
may diffuse or spread to others. If Jason resists going to Thredbo (perhaps because he thinks it is too
expensive or too far away), he might communicate information that will make others less likely to
holiday there. Therefore, the diffusion of information can have both negative and positive effects for
marketers.
Consumer behaviour, ethics and social responsibility

Sometimes consumers face potentially conflicting priorities: they try to balance an immediate outcome
against a long-term outcome or try to balance their own interests against the interests of others.
For instance, a consumer who steals may acquire something right away, but the long-term outcome
is personally risky and also problematic to society. Similarly, marketing decisions may involve
conflicting priorities and sometimes lead to ethical questions, such as whether marketing efforts
promote obesity, whether advertising affects self-image and whether marketing invades consumers’
privacy.
On the other hand, both consumers and marketers can and do use marketing for constructive purposes,
balancing short- and long-term horizons plus the interests of themselves and others. These efforts by marketers
and consumers may be relatively narrow – focusing on satisfying the needs of a particular consumer segment
– or much broader, such as protecting the environment or improving the community. In the example of Jason
choosing a ski holiday, he might decide to stay at an eco-friendly resort that conserves water and uses energy
from clean sources. Or he may decide to buy his gear secondhand on eBay or from a retailer that is transparent
about its environmental impact.62
LO3 WHO BENEFITS FROM STUDYING CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR?

Why is it important to study consumer behaviour? The reasons are as varied as the three different groups who
use consumer research: marketing managers, public policymakers and regulators, and consumers. All of these
careers involve an intimate understanding of how consumers acquire, use and dispose of products and therefore
a study of consumer behaviour can help you beyond university.
Marketing managers
The study of consumer behaviour provides critical information to marketing managers for developing
marketing strategies and tactics. The American Marketing Association’s definition of marketing shows why Marketing
The activity, set of institutions
marketing managers need to learn about consumer behaviour:
and processes for creating,
communicating, delivering
Marketing is the activity, set of institutions and processes for creating, communicating,
and exchanging offerings with
delivering and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners and value for individuals, groups
society at large.63 and society.
As this definition makes clear, marketers need consumer behaviour insights to understand what consumers
and clients value; only then can they develop, communicate and deliver appropriate goods and services. See the
Appendix to this chapter for more about marketing research.
Public policymakers and regulators

Understanding consumer behaviour is crucial for legislators, regulators and government agencies in developing
policies and rules to protect consumers from unfair, unsafe or inappropriate marketing practices. In turn,
marketers’ decisions are affected by these public policy actions. Consider the regulatory limits on tobacco
marketing that are designed to discourage under-age consumers from smoking and to inform consumers of
smoking’s health hazards. The United States, Canada and many other nations already ban cigarette advertising
on TV and radio. In Australia, plain tobacco packages are required by law, which involves the removal of all
branding but the placement of visually depicted health warnings.64
Understanding how consumers comprehend and categorise information is important for recognising and
guarding against misleading advertising. For instance, researchers want to know what impressions an ad
creates and whether these impressions are true. They also want to know how marketing influences consumers’
decisions to comply with product usage instructions, such as using medical treatments as prescribed.65 And
consumer behaviour research helps government officials understand and try to improve consumer welfare.66
Consumers and society

Understanding consumer behaviour enables marketers and other organisations to provide tools for more
informed decision-making. For example, research indicates that we better understand the differences among
brands when we can view a chart, matrix or grid comparing brands and their attributes.67 Therefore, matrices
such as those presented in the US-based Consumer Reports Magazine or on its website (https://www.
consumerreports.org) are likely to help many consumers make better decisions.
Product, service and communications developments to protect certain consumer segments have also grown
out of understanding how consumers behave. Many people want to protect children against inappropriate
advertising or guard themselves against invasions of privacy. Some companies have changed their marketing
voluntarily, whereas others have waited until legislators, regulators or advocacy groups forced them to make
changes. Finally, a better understanding of consumer behaviour can pave the way for programs that benefit
society. As discussed in Chapter 8, research on disposition behaviour has the potential to aid recycling programs
and other environmental activities, just as research on charitable donations can help non-profit groups design
communications to attract contributors.
LO4 MARKETING IMPLICATIONS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

As you learn about consumer behaviour, you may wonder how marketers use different consumer behaviour
insights. Starting with Chapter 2, you will find numerous sections titled ‘Marketing implications’ that illustrate
how marketers apply consumer behaviour concepts in the real world. There will also be sections titled
‘International considerations’ and ‘Digital media considerations’ that demonstrate to you the importance
of understanding how consumer behaviour may differ around the world, as well as recent computerised and
technological advances that are shaping consumer behaviour today. In general, consumer research helps
marketers to develop product-specific plans, as well as broader strategies for market segmentation, targeting
and positioning, and to make decisions about the components of the marketing mix.
Developing and implementing customer-oriented strategy

The goal of marketing is to provide value to customers. Value is not simply about the cost of a product but
how valuable consumers see the product to be. As such, marketers can exert a great deal of influence on such
subjective valuations, but so can consumers’ friends, families and other social influences such as their social
class. Therefore, marketers must conduct research to understand the various groups of consumers within the
marketplace so that they can develop a strategy and specific offerings that will provide such value. Once they
develop and implement a suitable strategy, marketers need research to determine how well it is working and
whether it is delivering the expected results (such as increasing market share or improving profits).
How is the market segmented?

What one consumer values in a product may not be the same as what another consumer values. Consider the
market for orange juice, which can be offered from concentrate, fresh squeezed, with other juices and in other
combinations. For example, Berri offers several orange juice products. Its Mildura line is primarily an orange
and mango-flavoured beverage with only 25 per cent real fruit juice, but its Australian Grown brand is 100 per
cent freshly squeezed juice, not from concentrate. Why do this? Why offer the Mildura line when it is clear
that the Australian Grown brand is healthier? The answer is that different consumers have different needs and
preferences. Price is certainly a factor in many decisions, but so is how different consumers value orange juice
compared to, say, apple juice and their lifestyles. Clearly, research helps marketers understand the different
groups that make up a market and whether they can make an offering to appeal to one or more of these groups.
How profitable is each segment?

Consumer research can help marketers identify consumers who have needs that are not being met and can
reveal the size and profitability of each segment. For example, have you ever considered how the iPhone you
have in your hands came about? Steve Jobs announced the first iPhone on 9 January 2007. At this point in
time, cell phones only had a number pad and a small screen to show the number you were calling. But Apple
conducted considerable research and found that there was a sizeable segment of consumers who were willing
to pay more for a handheld device that would allow them to connect with their friends and family through other
channels. This gave birth to the iPhone that offered various apps, communication capabilities and enhanced
media offerings, which make the product still hugely popular today.68
What are the characteristics of consumers in each segment?

After determining how the market is segmented and whether it is potentially profitable, marketers need to
learn about the characteristics of consumers in each segment, such as their age, education and lifestyle. This
information helps marketers project whether the segment is likely to grow or shrink over time, a factor that
affects future marketing decisions. For example, sales of fitness goods and services are expected to rise as
ageing baby boomers strive to stay fit.
Are customers satisfied with existing offerings?

Marketers often do considerable research to learn whether consumers are currently satisfied with the company’s
offerings and marketing. For example, Harley-Davidson executives regularly ride with members of the Harley
Owners Group to find out firsthand what satisfies motorcycle buyers and what else they are looking for. They
also invite customers to submit their own videos online illustrating individual Harley-Davidson experiences
and ask social media users to comment on proposed ad campaigns. This research helps the company to come up
with new product ideas and new ways to promote motorcycles to current and potential customers.69
Selecting the target market

Understanding consumer behaviour helps marketers determine which consumer groups are appropriate targets
for marketing tactics and how heavy users of a product differ from light users.70 Marketers also need to identify
who is likely to be involved in acquisition, usage and disposition decisions. Australian apartment builders such
as Meriton, for example, are interested in the trend of multigenerational families living in a single apartment
because of how culture and societies have evolved. The company also knows that some, if not all, of the family
members will want some say in the apartment purchase and therefore the homes must have features that will
appeal to all the relatives involved in the decision.71
Developing products
Developing goods and services that satisfy consumers’ wants and needs is a critical marketing activity.
Marketers apply consumer research when making a number of decisions about products and branding.
What ideas do consumers have for new products?

First, marketers need to design an offering that matches what consumers in the target market want. As noted
earlier, sometimes customers collaborate with marketers or with each other on the development of innovative
new offerings. The jewellery firm Swarovski is one of many companies that have used online competitions to
tap the creativity of their customers in designing new products.72 Many Australian brands such as Australia
Post and Nestlé Australia have turned to social media channels for new product innovations and advertising
ideas. And because social media does not limit itself to Australia, ideas for the local market can come from
around the world. Recent ads for Pop Tops, for example, were inspired by a millennial living in Australia.73
What attributes can be added to or changed in an existing

offering?
Marketers often use research to determine when and how to modify or tailor a product to meet the needs of new
or existing groups of consumers. For example, Australia Post knows that many engaged couples still send printed
wedding invitations through the mail instead of communicating with friends and relatives electronically. To
supplement its regularly updated series of stamps, Australia Post also offers personalised stamps whereby
couples can upload their own photos and have it printed on stamps for use in their wedding invitations.74
How should the offering be branded?

Consumer research plays a vital role in decisions about choosing a brand and differentiating it from competing
brands and from other brands in the company’s product portfolio.75 For example, the Japanese automaker
Nissan once marketed cars under the Datsun brand, but it eliminated that brand in favour of its corporate name,
Nissan, in 1981. Later, the company introduced Infiniti to brand its luxury autos and distinguish them from
its other cars. As Nissan eyes sales opportunities in emerging markets, it is bringing back the Datsun brand
for small, low-priced cars to be sold in Russia, India and Indonesia. This strategy allows Nissan to maintain a
separate brand image and positioning for each of these product lines.76
What should the package and logo look like?

Many marketers use consumer research to test alternative packaging and logos. Research shows, for instance,
that consumers are likely to think that food (including cookies) is good for them if it comes in green packaging.77
This information is valuable in the design of packages for products with a ‘healthy’ positioning. Research is also
vital in decisions about changing packaging and logos.
Positioning
Another strategic choice is deciding how an offering should be positioned in consumers’ minds. The desired
image should reflect what the product is and how it differs from the competition. For example, the Dreamworld
theme park on the Gold Coast is positioned as a fun place for Australian consumers who want to ride roller-
coasters and experience thrills without leaving the country. This positioning is in contrast to Disney theme
parks in the United States that were designed specifically to attract customers from around the world and not
just those living in California or Florida.
How are competitive offerings positioned?

Marketers sometimes conduct research to see how consumers view other brands in comparison with their own
and then plot the results on a graph called a perceptual or positioning map. Brands in the same quadrant of the
map are perceived as offering similar benefits to consumers. The closer companies are to one another on the
map, the more similar they are perceived to be and hence, the more likely they are to be competitors. Marketers
can use perceptual maps to determine how their offerings can be positioned as distinct and different from
competing offerings, based on appeals that are sustainable over time.78
How should our offerings be positioned?

Companies use consumer research to understand what image a new offering should have in the eyes of
consumers and what messages will effectively support this image.79 The positioning should suggest that the
product is superior in one or more attributes valued by the target market.80 For example, Nestlé Australia’s head
of marketing used consumer research to better understand Australian coffee habits and preferences in order to
position its Nescafé products locally. Through its research, Nestlé Australia identified Chinese Australians as a
potential market and it positioned itself as a sought-after gift during Chinese New Year.81
Should our offerings be repositioned?

Consumer research can help marketers reposition existing products (i.e., change their image). In 2000, Australian
airline Virgin Blue was created, operating two aircraft on the Sydney–Melbourne route. Rapid growth over the
next decade saw the fleet expand to 91 aircraft, where operations were conducted under a portfolio of brands
including Virgin Blue, V Australia, Pacific Blue and Polynesian Blue. Despite such growth, the company was
struggling as a low-cost, budget airline and was bleeding dollars. In 2010, the company shed all brands and
renamed itself Virgin Australia, adopting cleaner brand colours and a sleeker, more stylised brand logo. From
2010 to 2015, the aim of the rebrand was to avoid costly fare wars with its major rival Qantas and focus on
service delivery. The result was that, by 2019, Virgin Australia was able to post a $64.4 million profit, its best
performance since the 2010 rebrand.82
Making promotion and marketing communications

decisions
Research can help companies make decisions about promotional/marketing communications tools, including
advertising, sales promotions (premiums, contests, sweepstakes, free samples, coupons and rebates), personal
selling and public relations. One area receiving attention is the use of techniques to measure consumers’
physiological and neurological responses to marketing communications.83 The rise of social media adds
another twist to promotion and communications decisions.84 Word of mouth – which spreads quickly through
social media – that is not marketer-controlled, although it may be marketer-initiated, seems more credible to
consumers than messages directly controlled by marketers.85
What are our advertising objectives?

Consumer research can be very useful in determining advertising objectives. It may reveal, for example, that
few people have heard of a new brand, suggesting that the advertising objective should be to enhance brand-
name awareness. If research indicates that consumers have heard of the brand but don’t know anything about
it, the advertising objective should be to enhance brand knowledge. If consumers know the brand name but
don’t know the characteristics of the brand that make it desirable, the advertising should aim to enhance brand
knowledge and encourage positive attitudes about it. And if consumers know neither the brand name nor the
product’s benefits, the advertising should educate the target market about both.
What should our advertising look like?

Research can help marketers determine what words and visuals – and what balance of text and images – would
be most effective for ad and brand recognition and recall.86 A brand name is better remembered when placed
in an ad that has interesting, unusual and relevant visuals. If the visuals are interesting but unrelated to the
product, consumers may remember the visuals but forget the product’s name. Moreover, marketers can research
how different groups respond to different wording. For example, saying a product is good ‘value for the money’
does not work in Spain. Instead, Spanish marketers use the phrase that literally translates to ‘price for product’
in English.87
Online advertising is also being researched. One finding, for instance, is that customising email messages
for targeted customers is an effective way to boost visits to the brand’s website.88 Another study showed that
both emotion and physiological arousal are factors in whether an online ad goes viral. Specifically, an ad is more
likely to be spread virally when the content evokes a positive emotional response (such as awe) or a negative
emotional response (such as anger).89
Where should advertising be placed?

When marketers select specific media vehicles in which to advertise, they find demographic, lifestyle and
media usage data very useful. As noted earlier, research shows that more people split their time among many
different media and that many people use recording technology to avoid commercials. Knowing this, marketers
are choosing media with better targeting or more consumer exposure in mind. For example, Ford has used video
ads on Facebook’s log-out page to promote its sporty Mustang car, taking advantage of the ability to target
by location, gender and age.90 A growing number of firms are using the sponsorship of cause-related events
(such as ME Bank sponsoring the Mother’s Day Classic for breast cancer research) that attract the interest of
consumers in the targeted segments.91
When should we advertise?

Research may reveal seasonal variations in purchases due to weather-related needs, variations in the amount
of discretionary money consumers have (which changes, for instance, before and after Christmas), holiday
buying patterns and the like. In the weeks leading up to Easter, for instance, you will see many ads from local
bakeries and supermarkets advertising their hot-cross buns. But did you know that you can actually buy hot-
cross buns throughout the year? Hot-cross buns are typically seasonal, in demand around Easter, so you will
only see ads for them at this time of the year.92
Has our advertising been effective?

Finally, advertisers can research an ad’s effectiveness at various points in the advertising development process.
Sometimes marketers or ad agencies conduct advertising copy testing or pretesting, testing an ad’s effectiveness
before it appears in public. If the objective is creating brand awareness and the tested ad does not enhance
awareness, the company may replace it with a new ad. Effectiveness research can also take place after the ads
have been placed in the media, such as conducting tracking studies to see whether ads have achieved particular
objectives over time.
What about sales promotion objectives and tactics?

When developing sales promotions, marketers can use research to identify sales promotion objectives and
tactics. For example, when Snack Factory, based in the United States, wanted to attract new customers to its
Pretzel Crisps snacks and increase sales, the company posted a $1 coupon on Facebook for two weeks. This
promotion added 7000 new Facebook fans and, more importantly, the rate of redemption of the coupons was
87 per cent. Without fanfare, Snack Factory switched to a ‘buy one, get one free’ coupon on Facebook. The new
offer went viral, gaining Pretzel Crisps 15 000 new fans in two weeks – plus an impressive 95 per cent coupon
redemption rate. Now the brand has more than 200 000 ‘likes’ and regularly conducts contests, coupons and
other sales promotions on the social media site.93 Research can also prevent such pitfalls as offering coupons to
certain consumers who won’t redeem them for fear of looking stingy.94
Have our sales promotions been effective?

Consumer research can answer this question. Marketers might compare sales before, during and after a
promotion to determine changes in sales. Research can also indicate whether a free sample has been more
effective than a price promotion, whether a free gift enhances value perceptions and purchase intentions, and
how consumers react after a sales promotion has been discontinued.95
How can salespeople best serve customers?

Finally, research can help managers make decisions about salespeople. By tracking store patronage at different
times of the day or on different days of the week, retailers can determine the appropriate number of store
personnel needed to best serve customers at those times. Research also offers insights into selecting salespeople
and evaluating how well they serve customers. For example, similarity between the consumer and a salesperson
or service provider can influence whether customers comply with these marketing representatives.96 Other
studies indicate that how a salesperson presents a product will affect consumers’ attitudes towards the
salesperson and what consumers learn about the product.97
Making pricing decisions

The price of a product or service can have a critical influence on consumers’ acquisition, usage and disposition
decisions. It is therefore very important for marketers to understand how consumers react to price and to use
this information in pricing decisions.
What price should be charged?

When making a purchase, consumers consider how much they must pay in relation to the price of other relevant
brands or to the price they previously paid for that product, so marketers must be aware of these reference
prices.98 When buying multiple units of a service for one bundled price (such as a multiday ski pass), consumers
may not feel a great loss if they use only some of the units because they have difficulty assigning value to each
unit. In addition, when consumers buy multiple products for one bundled price (such as a case of wine), they are
likely to increase their consumption because unit costs seem low.99
According to research, how much consumers will pay can even be affected by the price of unrelated products
they happen to see first. Therefore, the price you would be willing to pay for a T-shirt may vary, depending on
whether the prices you noticed for shoes in the store next door were high or low.100
Finally, studies indicate that consumers have differing perceptions of what a product is worth, depending
on whether they are buying or selling it. Sellers should therefore avoid this endowment effect; that is, they
should not set a higher price than buyers are willing to pay.101
How sensitive are consumers to price and price changes?

Research also suggests that consumers have different views of the importance of price. Some consumers
are very price sensitive, meaning that a small change in price will have a large effect on consumers’
willingness to purchase the product. Other consumers are price insensitive and are therefore likely to buy
an offering regardless of its price. Marketers can use research to determine which consumers are likely
to be price sensitive and when. For fashion or prestige goods, a high price symbolises status. Therefore,
status-seeking consumers may be less sensitive to a product’s price and pay more than $50 for a T-shirt
with a prestigious label.
When should certain price tactics be used?

Research also reveals when consumers are likely to be most responsive to various pricing tactics. For example,
American consumers have traditionally been very responsive to price cuts on bed linens during January. These
‘white sales’ are effective because consumers have come to anticipate them at that time of the year. Similarly,
approximately 5 million American consumers buy new TVs specifically to watch the Super Bowl every year.
Knowing this trend, online and store retailers mount price promotions in the weeks leading up to the Super
Bowl, aiming to get their share of these TV purchases.102
Making distribution decisions

Another important marketing decision involves how products are distributed and sold to consumers in retail
stores. Here, too, marketers can use consumer research.
Where and when are target consumers likely to shop?

Marketers who understand the value consumers place on time and convenience have developed distribution
channels that allow consumers to acquire or use offerings whenever and wherever it is most convenient for
them. For example, 24-hour supermarkets, gyms, catalogue mail ordering and online ordering systems give
consumers flexibility in the timing of their acquisition, usage and disposition decisions. The supermarket chain
Tesco in the United Kingdom operated a supermarket chain called Home Plus in South Korea. Knowing that
many commuters have little time to shop, it set up virtual stores inside busy train stations (see Figure 1.9).
These ‘stores’ are actually large posters showing shelves stocked with frequently purchased items, each
featuring a QR (quick response) code. While they wait for the next train, commuters use their smartphones
to scan the QR code of items they want to buy, complete the transaction and schedule delivery for when they
know they will be home.103
What do customers want to see in stores?

Retailers want to carry the assortment of merchandise best suited to consumers who shop in their stores.
Walmart in the United States invites consumers to watch videos submitted by companies that have developed
new products. Because consumers vote for the items they would like to see in their local Walmart store, the
retailer gains insight into its customers’ preferences and can expand its merchandise assortment accordingly.104
Source: AP Images/Imaginechina
FIGURE 1.9 » TARGETING WHERE CONSUMERS SHOP

Marketers need to understand how and when consumers best shop. For instance, busy consumers can do a supermarket shop using
their smartphones on these boards in subway stations, which is very convenient for them.
How should stores be designed?

Supermarkets are generally designed with similar or complementary items stocked near one another
because research shows that consumers think about items in terms of categories based on products’ similar
characteristics or use. Therefore, stores stock peanut butter near honey because the products are often used
together. Consumer research can also help marketers develop other aspects of their retail environments.
Studies show that bright colours and up-tempo music make consumers move quickly through a store; subdued
colours and quiet music have the opposite effect.105
Store design also depends on whether consumers are shopping for fun or seeking to quickly
accomplish a particular task such as buying a certain item.106 During the back-to-school shopping season,
for instance, Target stores display school products together for consumer convenience.107 And in line with
the shopping-for-fun point made above, Target is building cafes into their stores so that families can relax
and enjoy their time while busy shopping.108 Knowing that some consumers simply like to shop, retailers
are increasingly creating more exciting and aesthetically pleasing store environments.109 For example, in
Shanghai, the distinctive glass exterior, spiral staircase and gleaming white logo of the Apple store has
made such an impression on shoppers that some competitors have opened look-alike stores elsewhere
in China.110
Stores and retail websites can be designed to convey a very specific image and for friendly functionality
on devices used by targeted consumer groups. After the Apple iPad became popular, many retail sites
redesigned their web pages to look better on a tablet computer screen and to be sure features worked properly
on all touch-screen devices, including mobile phones. The apparel retailer Abercrombie & Fitch even added
an online playlist so customers who shop via the Internet can click to hear the same songs that play in its
stores.111
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divine prerogatives of Jesus. But John deals very little in those
pointed and apt references to the testimony of the Hebrew
scriptures, which so distinguish the writings of Matthew; he evidently
apprehends that those to whom he writes, will be less affected by
appeals of that kind, than by proofs drawn from his actions and
discourses, and by the testimony of the great, the good, and the
inspired, among those who saw and heard him. The work of Matthew
was, on the other hand, plainly designed to bring to the faith of
Jesus, those who were already fully and correctly instructed in all
that related to the divinely exalted character of the Messiah, and only
needed proof that the person proposed to them as the Redeemer
thus foretold, was in all particulars such as the unerring word of
ancient prophecy required. Besides this object of converting the
unbelieving Jews, its tendency was also manifestly to strengthen and
preserve those who were already professors of the faith of Jesus;
and such, through all ages, has been its mighty scope, enlightening
the nations with the clearest historical testimony ever borne to the
whole life and actions of Jesus Christ, and rejoicing the millions of
the faithful with the plainest record of the events that secured their
salvation.
Beyond the history of this gospel, the Fathers have hardly given
the least account, either fanciful or real, of the succeeding life of
Matthew. A fragment of tradition, of no very ancient date, specifies
that he wrote his gospel when he was about to leave Palestine to go
to other lands; but neither the region nor the period is mentioned.
Probably, at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem, he followed the
eastward course of the Jewish Christians; but beyond this, even
conjecture is lost. But where all historical grounds fail, monkish
invention comes in with its tedious details of fabulous nonsense; and
in this case, as in others already alluded to, the writings of the monks
of the fourteenth century, produce long accounts of Matthew’s labors
in Ethiopia, where he is carried through a long series of fabled
miracles, to the usual crowning glory of martyrdom.
Ethiopia.――The earliest testimony on this point by any ecclesiastical history, is that of
Socrates, (A. D. 425,) a Greek writer, who says only, that “when the apostles divided the
heathen world, by lot, among themselves,――to Matthew was allotted Ethiopia.” This is
commonly supposed to mean Nubia, or the country directly south of Egypt. The other
Fathers of the fifth and following centuries, generally assign him the same country; but it is
quite uncertain what region is designated by this name. Ethiopia was a name applied by the
Greeks to such a variety of regions, that it is quite in vain to define the particular one meant,
without more information about the locality.
But no such idle inventions can add anything to the interest which
this apostolic writer has secured for himself by his noble Christian
record. Not even an authentic history of miracles and martyrdom,
could increase his enduring greatness. The tax-gatherer of Galilee
has left a monument, on which cluster the combined honors of a
literary and a holy fame,――a monument which insures him a wider,
more lasting, and far higher glory, than the noblest ♦achievements of
the Grecian or the Latin writers, in his or any age could acquire for
them. Not Herodotus nor Livy,――not Demosthenes nor
Cicero,――not Homer nor Virgil,――can find a reader to whom the
despised Matthew’s simple work is not familiar; nor did the highest
hope or the proudest conception of the brilliant Horace, when
exulting in the extent and durability of his fame, equal the boundless
and eternal range of Matthew’s honors. What would Horace have
said, if he had been told that among the most despised of these
superstitious and barbarian Jews, whom his own writings show to
have been proverbially scorned, would arise one, within thirty or forty
years, who, degraded by his avocation, even below his own
countrymen’s standard of respectability, would, by a simple record in
humble prose, in an uncultivated and soon-forgotten dialect,
“complete a monument more enduring than brass,――more lofty
than the pyramids,――outlasting all the storms of revolution and of
disaster,――all the course of ages and the flight of time?” Yet such
was the result of the unpretending effort of Matthew; and it is not the
least among the miracles of the religion whose foundation he
commemorated and secured, that such a wonder in fame should
have been achieved by it.
♦ “achievments” replaced with “achievements”
THOMAS, DIDYMUS.
The second name of this apostle is only the Greek translation of
the former, which is the Syriac and Hebrew word for a “twin-brother,”
from which, therefore, one important circumstance may be safely
inferred about the birth of Thomas, though unfortunately, beyond
this, antiquity bears no record whatever of his circumstances
previous to his admission into the apostolic fraternity.
Nor is the authentic history of the apostles, much more

satisfactory in respect to subsequent parts of Thomas’s history. A
very few brief but striking incidents, in which he was particularly
engaged, are specified by John alone, who seems to have been
disposed to supply, by his gospel, some characteristic account of
several of the apostles, who had been noticed only by name, in the
writings of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Those in particular who receive
this peculiar notice from him, are Andrew, Philip, Nathanael,
Thomas, and John himself,――of all whom, as well as of Peter, are
thus learned some interesting matters, which, though apparently so
trivial, do much towards giving a distinct impression of some of the
leading traits in their characters. Among those facts thus preserved
respecting Thomas, however, there is not one which gives any
account of his parentage, rank in life, or previous occupation; nor do
any other authentic sources bring any more facts to view on these
points. The only conclusion presented even by conjecture, about his
early history, is, that he was a publican, like Matthew,――a notion
which is found in some of the Fathers,――grounded, no doubt,
altogether on the circumstance, that in all the gospel lists, he is
paired with Matthew, as though there were some close connection
between them. This is only a conjecture, and one with even a more
insignificant basis than most trifling speculations of this sort, and
therefore deserving no regard whatever. Of the three incidents
commemorated by John, two at least, are such as to present
Thomas in a light by no means advantageous to his character as a
ready and zealous believer in Jesus; but on both these occasions he
is represented as expressing opinions which prove him to have been
very slow, not only in believing, but in comprehending spiritual truths.
The first incident is that mentioned by John in his account of the
death of Lazarus, where he describes the effect produced on the
disciples by the news of the decease of their friend, and by the
declaration made at the same time by Jesus, of his intention to go
into Judea again, in spite of all the mortal dangers to which he was
there exposed by the hatred of the Jews, who, enraged at his open
declarations of his divine character and origin, were determined to
punish with death, one who advanced claims which they pronounced
absolutely blasphemous. This mortal hatred they had so openly
expressed, that Jesus himself had thought it best to retire awhile
from that region, and to avoid exposing himself to the fatal effects of
such malice, until the other great duties of his earthly mission had
been executed, so as to enable him, at last, to proceed to the bloody
fulfilment of his mighty task, with the assurance that he had finished
the work which his Father gave him to do.
But in spite of the pressing remonstrances of his disciples, Jesus

expressed his firm resolution to go, in the face of all mortal dangers,
into Judea, there to complete the divine work which he had only
begun. Thomas, finding his Master determined to rush into the
danger, which, by once retreating from it for a time, he had
acknowledged to be imminent, resolved not to let him go on, alone;
and turning to his fellow-disciples, said, “Let us also go, that we may
die with him.” The proposal, thus decidedly made, shows a noble
resolution in Thomas, to share all the fortunes of him to whom he
had joined himself, and presents his character in a far more
favorable light than the other passages in which his conduct is
commemorated. While the rest were fearfully expostulating on the
peril of the journey, he boldly proposed to his companions to follow
unhesitatingly the footsteps of their Master, whithersoever he might
go,――thus evincing a spirit of far more exalted devotion to the
cause.
The view here taken differs from the common interpretation of the passage, but it is the
view which has seemed best supported by the whole tenor of the context, as may be
decided by a reference to the passage in its place, (John xi. 16.) The evidence on both
views can not be better presented than in Bloomfield’s note on this passage, which is here
extracted entire.
“Here again the commentators differ in opinion. Some, as Grotius, Poole, Hammond,
Whitby, and others, apply the αὐτου to Lazarus, and take it as equivalent to ‘let us go and
die together with him.’ But it is objected by Maldonati and Lampe, that Lazarus was already
dead; and die like him they could not, because a violent death was the one in Thomas’s
contemplation. But these arguments seem inconclusive. It may with more justice be
objected that the sense seems scarcely natural. I prefer, with many ancient and modern
interpreters, to refer the αὐτου to Jesus, ‘let us go and die with him.’ Maldonati and
Doddridge regard the words as indicative of the most affectionate attachment to our Lord’s
person. But this is going into the other extreme. It seems prudent to hold a middle course,
with Calvin, Tarnovius, Lyser, Bucer, Lampe, and (as it should appear) Tittman. Thomas
could not dismiss the idea of the imminent danger to which both Jesus and they would be
exposed, by going into Judea; and, with characteristic bluntness, and some portion of ill
humor, (though with substantial attachment to his Master’s person,) he exclaims: ‘Since our
Master will expose himself to such imminent, and, as it seems, unnecessary danger, let us
accompany him, if it be only to share his fate.’ Thus there is no occasion, with Markland and
Forster, apud Bowyer, to read the words interrogatively.” (Bloomfield’s Annotations, vol. III.
p. 426, 427.)
In John’s minute account of the parting discourses of Christ at the

Last Supper, it is mentioned, that Jesus after speaking of his
departure, as very near, in order to comfort his disciples, told them,
he was going “to prepare a place for them, in his Father’s house,
where were many mansions.” Assuring them of his speedy return to
bring them to these mansions of rest, he said to them, “Whither I go
ye know, and the way ye know.” But so lost, for the time, were all
these words of instruction and counsel, that not one of his followers
seems to have rightly apprehended the force of this remark; and
Thomas was probably only expressing the general doubt, when he
replied to Jesus, in much perplexity at the language, “Lord, we know
not whither thou goest; and how can we know the way?” Jesus
replied, “I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man comes to the
Father but by me.” But equally vain was this new illustration of the
truth. The remark which Philip next made, begging that they might
have their curiosity gratified by a sight of the Father, shows how idly
they were all still dreaming of a worldly, tangible and visible kingdom,
and how uniformly they perverted all the plain declarations of Jesus,
to a correspondence with their own pre-conceived, deep-rooted
notions. Nor was this miserable error removed, till the descent of that
Spirit of Truth, which their long-suffering and ever watchful Lord
invoked, to teach their still darkened souls the things which they
would not now see, and to bring to their remembrance all which they
now so little heeded.
The remaining incident respecting this apostle, which is recorded

by John, further illustrates the state of mind in which each new
revelation of the divine power and character of Jesus, found his
disciples. None of them expected his resurrection;――none would
really believe it, until they had seen him with their own eyes. Thomas
therefore showed no remarkable skepticism, when, hearing from the
others, that one evening, when he was not present, Jesus had
actually appeared alive among them, he declared his absolute
unbelief,――protesting, that far from suffering himself to be as lightly
deceived as they had been, he would give no credit to any evidence
but that of the most unquestionable character,――that of seeing and
touching those bloody marks which would characterize, beyond all
possibility of mistake, the crucified body of Jesus. “Except I shall see
in his hands the print of the nails, and put my finger into the print of
the nails, and thrust my hand into his side, I will not believe.” After
eight days, the disciples were again assembled, and on this
occasion Thomas was with them. While they were sitting, as usual,
with doors closed for fear of the Jews, Jesus again, in the same
sudden and mysterious manner as before, appeared all at once in
the midst, with his solemn salutation, “Peace be with you!” Turning at
once to the unbelieving disciple, whose amazed eyes now for the
first time fell on the body of his risen Lord, he said to him, “Thomas!
Put thy finger here, and see my hands; and put thy hand here, and
thrust it into my side; and be not faithless, but believing.” The
stubbornly skeptical disciple was melted at the sight of these
mournful tokens of his Redeemer’s dying agonies, and in a burst of
new exalted devotion, he exclaimed, “My Lord! and my God!” The
pierced hands and side showed beyond all question the body of his
“Lord;” and the spirit that could, of itself, from such a death, return to
perfect life, could be nothing else than “God.” The reply of Jesus to
this expression of faith and devotion, contained a deep reproach to
this slow-believing disciple, who would take no evidence whatever of
the accomplishment of his Master’s dying words, except the sight of
every tangible thing that could identify his person. “Thomas! because
thou hast seen me, thou hast believed: blessed are they, who though
not seeing, yet believe.”
“Put thy finger here.”――This phrase seems to express the graphic force of the original,
much more justly than the common translation. The adverb of place, ὧδε, gives the idea of
the very place where the wounds had been made, and brings to the reader’s mind the
attitude and gesture of Jesus, with great distinctness. The adverb “here,” refers to the print
of the nails; and Jesus holds out his hand to Thomas, as he says these words, telling him to
put his finger into the wound.
Not seeing, yet believe.――This is the form of expression best justified by the
indefiniteness of the Greek aorists, whose very name implies this unlimitedness in respect
to time. The limitation to the past, implied in the common translation, is by no means
required by the original; but it is left so vague, that the action may be referred to the present
and the future also.
Beyond this, the writings of the New Testament give not the least
account of Thomas; and his subsequent history can only be
uncertainly traced in the dim and dark stories of tradition, or in the
contradictory records of the Fathers. Different accounts state that he
preached the gospel in
Parthia,――Media,――Persia,――Ethiopia,――and at last, India. A
great range of territories is thus spread out before the investigator,
but the traces of the apostle’s course and labors are both few and
doubtful. Those of the Fathers who mention his journeys into these
countries, give no particulars whatever of his labors; and all that is
now believed respecting these things, is derived from other, and
perhaps still more uncertain sources.
India is constantly asserted by the Fathers, from the beginning of

the third century, to have very early received the gospel, and this
apostle is named as the person through whom this evangelization
was effected; but this evidence alone would be entitled to very little
consideration, except from the circumstance, that from an early
period, to this day, there has existed in India, a large body of
Christians, who give themselves the name of “St. Thomas’s
Christians,” of whose antiquity proofs are found in the testimony,
both of very ancient and very modern travelers. They still retain
many traditions of the person whom they claim as their
founder,――of his place of landing,――the towns he visited,――the
churches he planted,――his places of residence and his retreats for
private devotion,――the very spot of his martyrdom, and his grave.
A tradition, however, floating down unwritten for fifteen centuries, can
not be received as very good evidence; and the more minute such
stories are in particulars, the more suspicious they are in their
character for truth. But in respect to the substance of this, it may well
be said, that it is by no means improbable, and is in the highest
degree consistent with the views, already taken, in former parts of
this work, of the eastward course of the apostles after the destruction
of Jerusalem. The great body of them, taking refuge at Babylon,
within the limits of the great Parthian empire, the more adventurous
might follow the commercial routes still farther eastward, to the mild
and generally peaceful nations of distant India, whose character for
civilization and partial refinement was such as to present many
facilities for the introduction and wide diffusion of the gospel among
them. These views, in connection with the great amount of
respectable evidence from various other sources, make the whole
outline of the story of Thomas’s labors in India very possible, and
even highly probable.
The earliest evidence among the Fathers that has ever been quoted on this point, is that
of Pantaenus, of Alexandria, whose visit to what was then called India, has been mentioned
above; (page 363;) but as has there been observed, the investigations of Michaelis and
others, have made it probable that Arabia-Felix was the country there intended by that
name. The first distinct mention made of any eastward movement of Thomas, that can be
found, is by Origen, who is quoted by Eusebius, (Church History, III. 1,) as testifying, that
when the apostles separated to go into all the world, and preach the gospel, Parthia was
assigned to Thomas; and Origen is represented as appealing to the common tradition, for
the proof of this particular fact. Jerome speaks of Thomas, as preaching the gospel in
Media and Persia. In another passage he specifies India, as his field; and in this he is
followed by most of the later writers,――Ambrose, Nicephorus, Baronius, Natalis, &c.
Chrysostom (Oration on the 12 Apostles) says that Thomas preached the gospel in
Ethiopia. As the geography of all these good Fathers seems to have been somewhat
confused, all these accounts may be considered very consistent with each other. Media and
Persia were both in the Parthian Empire; and all very distant countries, east and south,
were, by the Greeks, vaguely denominated India and Ethiopia; just ♦ as all the northern
unknown regions were generally called Scythia.
♦ removed duplicate “as”
Natalis Alexander (Church History, IV. p. 32,) sums up all these accounts by saying, that
Thomas preached the gospel to the Parthians, Medes, Persians, Brachmans, Indians, and
the other neighboring nations, subject to the empire of the Parthians. He quotes as his
authorities, besides the above-mentioned Fathers, Sophronius, (A. D. 390,) Gregory
Nazianzen, (A. D. 370,) Ambrose, (370,) Gaudentius, (A. D. 387.) The author of the
imperfect work on Matthew, (A. D. 560,) says, that Thomas found in his travels, the three
Magi, who adored the infant Jesus, and having baptized them, associated them with him, in
his apostolic labors. Theodoret, (A. D. 423,) Gaudentius, Asterius, (A. D. 320,) and others,
declare Thomas to have died by martyrdom. Sophronius (390,) testifies that Thomas died at
Calamina, in India. This Calamina is now called Malipur, and in commemoration of a
tradition, preserved, as we are told, on the spot, to this effect, the Portuguese, when they
set up their dominion in India, gave it the name of the city of St. Thomas. The story reported
by the Portuguese travelers and historians is, that there was a tradition current among the
people of the place, that Thomas was there martyred, by being thrust through with a lance.
(Natalis Alexander, Church History, vol. IV. pp. 32, 33.)
A new weight of testimony has been added to all this, by the statements of Dr. Claudius
Buchanan, who, in modern times, has traced out all these traditions on the spot referred to,
and has given a very full account of the “Christians of St. Thomas,” in his “Christian
researches in India.”
On this evidence, may be founded a rational belief, though not an

absolute certainty, that Thomas actually did preach the gospel in
distant eastern countries, and there met with such success as to
leave the lasting tokens of his labors, to preserve through a course
of ages, in united glory, his own name and that of his Master. In
obedience to His last earthly command, he went to teach “nations
unknown to Caesar,” proclaiming to them the message of divine
love,――solitary, and unsupported, save by the presence of Him,
who had promised to “be with him always, even to the end of the
world.”
JAMES, THE LITTLE;
THE SON OF ALPHEUS.
his name.
It will be observed, no doubt, by all readers, that the most

important inquiry suggested in the outset of the most of these
apostolic biographies, is about the name and personal identification
of the individual subject of each life. This difficulty is connected with
peculiarities of those ancient times and half-refined nations, that may
not, perhaps, be very readily appreciated by those who have been
accustomed only to the definite nomenclature of families and
individuals, which is universally adopted among civilized nations at
the present day. With all the refined nations of European race, the
last part of a person’s name marks his family, and is supposed to
have been borne by his father, and by his ancestors, from the time
when family names were first adopted. The former part of his name,
with equal definiteness, marks the individual; and generally remains
fixed from the time when he first received his name. Whenever any
change takes place in any part of his appellation, it is generally done
in such a formal and permanent mode, as never to make any
occasion for confusion in respect to the individual, among those
concerned with him. But no such decisive limitation of names to
persons, prevailed among even the most refined nations of the
apostolic age. The name given to a child at birth, indeed, was very
uniformly retained through life; but as to the other parts of his
appellation, it was taken, according to circumstances, chance or
caprice, from the common name of his father,――from some
personal peculiarity,――from his business,――from his general
character,――or from some particular incident in his life. The name
thus acquired, to distinguish him ♦ from others bearing his former
name, was used either in connection with that, or without; and
sometimes two or more such distinctive appellations belonged to the
same man, all or any of which were used together with the former, or
separate from it, without any definite rule of application. To those
acquainted with the individual so variously named, and
contemporary with him, no confusion was made by this multiplicity of
words; and when anything was recorded respecting him, it was done
with the perfect assurance, that all who then knew him, would find no
difficulty in respect to his personal identity, however he might he
mentioned. But in later ages, when the personal knowledge of all
these individual distinctions has been entirely lost, great difficulties
necessarily arise on these points,――difficulties which, after tasking
historical and philological criticism to the highest efforts, in order to
settle the facts, are, for the most part, left in absolute uncertainty.
Thus, in respect to the twelve apostles, it will be noticed, that this
confusion of names throws great doubt over many important
questions. Among some of them, too, these difficulties are partly
owing to other causes. Their names were originally given to them, in
the peculiar language of Palestine; and in the extension of their
labors and fame, to people of different languages, of a very opposite
character, their names were forced to undergo new distortions, by
being variously translated, or changed in termination; and many of
the original Hebrew sounds, in consequence of being altogether
unpronounceable by Greeks and Romans, were variously
exchanged for softer and smoother ones, which, in their dissimilar
forms, would lose almost all perceptible traces of identity with each
other, or with the original word.
♦ replace word omitted from text “from”
These difficulties are in no case quite so prominent and serious as

in regard to the apostle who is the subject of this particular
biography. Bearing the same name with the elder son of Zebedee,
he was of course necessarily designated by some additional title, to
distinguish him from the other great apostle James. This title was not
always the same, nor was it uniform in its principle of selection. On
all the apostolic lists, he is designated by a reference to the name of
his father, as is the first James. As the person first mentioned by this
name is called James, the son of Zebedee, the second is called
James, the son of Alpheus; nor is there, in the enumeration of the
apostles by Matthew, Mark or Luke, any reference to another
distinctive appellation of this James. But in one passage of Mark’s
account of the crucifixion, it is mentioned, that among the women
present, was Mary the mother of James the Little, and of Joses. In
what sense this word little is applied,――whether of age, size, or
dignity,――it is utterly impossible to ascertain at this day; for the
original word is known to have been applied to persons, in every one
of these senses, even in the New Testament. But, however this may
be, a serious question arises, whether this James the Little was
actually the same person as the James, called, on the apostolic lists,
the son of Alpheus. In the corresponding passage in John’s gospel,
this same Mary is called Mary the wife of Clopas; and by Matthew
and Mark, the same James is mentioned as the brother of Joses,
Juda, and Simon. In the apostolic lists given by Luke, both in his
gospel, and in the Acts of the Apostles, Juda is also called “the
brother of James;” and in his brief general epistle, the same apostle
calls himself “the brother of James.” In the beginning of the epistle to
the Galatians, Paul, describing his own reception at Jerusalem, calls
him “James, the brother of our Lord;” and by Matthew and Mark, he,
with his brothers, Joses, Juda and Simon, is also called the brother
of Jesus. From all these seemingly opposite and irreconcilable
statements, arise three inquiries, which can, it is believed, be so
answered, as to attribute to the subject of this article every one of the
circumstances connected with James, in these different stories.
James, the Little.――This adjective is here applied to him in the positive degree,
because it is so in the original Greek, [Ιακωβος ὁ μικρος, Mark xv. 40,] and this expression
too, is in accordance with English forms of expression. The comparative form, “James, the
Less,” seems to have originated in the Latin Vulgate, “Jacobus Minor,” which may be well
enough in that language; but in English, there is no reason why the original word should not
be literally and faithfully expressed. The Greek original of Mark, calls him “James, the Little,”
which implies simply, that he was a little man; whether little in size, or age, or dignity, every
one is left to guess for himself;――but it is more accordant with usage, in respect to such
nicknames, in those times, to suppose that he was a short man, and was thus named to
distinguish him from the son of Zebedee, who was probably taller. The term thus applied by
Mark, would be understood by all to whom he wrote, and implied no disparagement to his
mental eminence. But the term applied, in the sense of a smaller dignity, is so slighting to
the character of James, who to the last day of his life, maintained, according to both
Christian and Jewish history, the most exalted fame for religion and intellectual
worth,――that it must have struck all who heard it thus used, as a term altogether unjust to
his true eminence. His weight of character in the councils of the apostles, soon after the
ascension, and the manner in which he is alluded to in the accounts of his death, make it
very improbable that he was younger than the other James.
First: Was James the son of Alpheus the same person as James
the son of Clopas? The main argument for the identification of these
names, rests upon the similarity of the consonants in the original
Hebrew word which represents them both, and which, according to
the fancy of a writer, might be represented in Greek, either by the
letters of Alpheus or of Clopas. This proof, of course, can be fully
appreciated only by those who are familiar with the power of the
letters of the oriental languages, and know the variety of modes in
which they are frequently given in the Greek, and other European
languages. The convertibility of certain harsh sounds of the dialects
of southwestern Asia, into either hard consonants, or smooth vowel
utterances, is sufficiently well-known to Biblical scholars, to make the
change here supposed appear perfectly probable and natural to
them. It will be observed by common readers, that all the consonants
in the two words are exactly the same, except that Clopas has a
hard C, or K, in the beginning, and that Alpheus has the letter P
aspirated by an H, following it. Now, both of these differences can,
by a reference to the original Hebrew word, be shown to be only the
results of the different modes of expressing the same Hebrew letters;
and the words thus expressed may, by the established rules of
etymology, be referred to the same oriental root. These two names,
then, Alpheus and Clopas, may be safely assigned to the same
person; and Mary the wife of Clopas and the mother of James the
Little, and of Joses, was, no doubt, the mother of him who is called
“James the son of Alpheus.”
Clopas and Alpheus.――It should be noticed, that in the common translation of the New
Testament, the former of these two words is very unjustifiably expressed by Cleophas,
whereas the original (John xix. 25,) is simply Κλωπας. (Clopas.) This is a totally different
name from Cleopas, (Luke xxiv. 18, Κλεοπας,) which is probably Greek in its origin, and
abridged from Cleopater, (Κλεοπατρος,) just as Antipas from Antipater, and many other
similar instances, in which the Hellenizing Jews abridged the terminations of Greek and
Roman words, to suit the genius of the Hebrew tongue. But Clopas, being very differently
spelt in the Greek, must be traced to another source; and the circumstances which connect
it with the name Alpheus, suggesting that, like that, it might have a Hebrew origin, directs
the inquirer to the original form of that word. The Hebrew ‫( חלפא‬hhalpha) may be taken as
the word from which both are derived; each being such an expression of the original, as the
different writers might choose for its fair representation. The first letter in the word, ‫ח‬,
(hhaith,) has in Hebrew two entirely distinct sounds; one a strong guttural H, and the other a
deeply aspirated KH. These are represented in Arabic by two different letters, but in
Hebrew, a single character is used to designate both; consequently the names which
contain this letter, may be represented in Greek and other languages, by two different
letters, according as they were pronounced; and where the original word which contained it,
was sounded differently, by different persons, under different circumstances, varying its
pronunciation with the times and the fashion, even in the same word, it would be differently
expressed in Greek. Any person familiar with the peculiar changes made in those Old
Testament names which are quoted in the New, will easily apprehend the possibility of such
a variation in this. Thus, in Stephen’s speech, (Acts vii.) Haran is called Charran; and other
changes of the same sort occur in the same chapter. The name Anna, (Luke ii. 36,) is the
same with Hannah, (1 Samuel i. 2,) which in the Hebrew has this same strongly aspirated
H, that begins the word in question,――and the same too, which in Acts vii. 2, 4, is changed
into the strong Greek Ch; while all its harshness is lost, and the whole aspiration removed,
in Anna. These instances, taken out of many similar ones, may justify to common readers,
the seemingly great change of letters in the beginning of Alpheus and Clopas. The other
changes of vowels are of no account, since in the oriental languages particularly, these are
not fixed parts of the word, but mere modes of uttering the consonants, and vary throughout
the verbs and nouns, in almost every inflexion these parts of speech undergo. These
therefore, are not considered radical or essential parts of the word, and are never taken into
consideration in tracing a word from one language to another,――the consonants being the
fixed parts on which etymology depends. The change also from the aspirate Ph, to the
smooth mute P, is also so very common in the oriental languages, and even in the Greek,
that it need not be regarded in identifying the word.
Taking into consideration then, the striking and perfect affinities of the two words, and
adding to these the great body of presumptive proofs, drawn from the other circumstances
that show or suggest the identity of persons,――and noticing moreover, the circumstance,
that while Matthew, Mark, and Luke speak of Alpheus, they never speak of Clopas,――and
that John, who alone uses the name Clopas, never mentions Alpheus,――it seems very
reasonable to adopt the conclusion, that the last evangelist means the same person as the
former.
Second: Was James the son of Alpheus the same person as

“James, the brother of our Lord?” An affirmative answer to this
question seems to be required by the fact, that Mary the wife of
Clopas is named as the mother of James and Joses; and elsewhere,
James and Joses, and Juda and Simon, are called the brothers of
Jesus. It should be understood that the word “brother” is used in the
scriptures often, to imply a relationship much less close than that of
the children of the same father and mother. “Cousins” are called
“brothers” in more cases than one, and the oriental mode of
maintaining family relationship closely through several generations,
made it very common to consider those who were the children of
brothers, as being themselves brothers; and to those familiar with
this extension of the term, it would not necessarily imply anything
more. In the case alluded to, all those to whom the narratives and
other statements containing the expression, “James the brother of
our Lord,” were first addressed, being well acquainted with the
precise nature of this relationship, would find no difficulty whatever in
such a use of words. The nature of his relationship to Jesus seems
to have been that of cousin, whether by the father’s side or mother’s,
is very doubtful. By John indeed, Mary the wife of Clopas is called
the sister of the mother of Jesus; but it will seem reasonable enough
to suppose,――since two sisters, daughters of the same parents,
could hardly bear the same name,――that Mary the mother of
James, must have been only the sister-in-law of the mother of Jesus,
either the wife of her brother, or the sister of her husband; or, in
perfect conformity with this use of the term “sister,” she may have
been only a cousin or some such relation.
The third question which has been originated from these various
statements,――whether James, the brother of Jesus and the author
of the epistle, was an apostle,――must, of course, be answered in
the affirmative, if the two former points have been correctly settled.
All the opinions on these points are fully given and discussed by Michaelis, in his
Introduction to the epistle of James. He states five different suppositions which have been
advanced respecting the relationship borne to Jesus by those who are in the New
Testament called his brothers. 1. That they were the sons of Joseph, by a former wife.
2. That they were the sons of Joseph, by Mary the mother of Jesus. 3. That they were the
sons of Joseph by the widow of a brother, to whom he was obliged to raise up children
according to the laws of Moses. 4. That this deceased brother of Joseph, to whom the laws
required him to raise up issue, was Alpheus. 5. That they were brothers of Christ, not in the
strict sense of the word, but in a more lax sense, namely, in that of cousin, or relation in
general, agreeably to the usage of this word in the Hebrew language. (Genesis xiv. 16: xiii.
8: xxix. 12, 15: 2 Samuel xix. 13: Numbers viii. 26: xvi. 10: Nehemiah iii. 1.) This opinion
which has been here adopted, was first advanced by Jerome, and has been very generally
received since his time; though the first of the five was supported by the most ancient of the
Fathers. Michaelis very clearly refutes all, except the first and the fifth, between which he
does not decide; mentioning, however, that though he had been early taught to respect the
latter, as the right one, he had since become more favorable to the first.
The earliest statement made concerning these relations of Jesus,

is by John, who, in giving an account of the visit made by Jesus to
Jerusalem, at the feast of the tabernacles, mentions, that the
brethren of Jesus did not believe in him, but, in a rather sneering
tone, urged him to go up to the feast, and display himself, that the
disciples who had formerly there followed him, might have an
opportunity to confirm their faith by the sight of some new miracle
done by him. Speaking to him in a very decidedly commanding tone,
they said, “Depart hence, and go into Judea, that thy disciples also
may see the works that thou doest. For there is no man that does
anything in secret, while he himself seeks to be widely known; if thou
do these things, show thyself to the world.” The whole tenor of this
speech shows a spirit certainly very far from a just appreciation of
the character of their divine brother; and the base, sordid motives,
which they impute to him as ruling principles of action, were little less
than insults to the pure, high spirit, which lifted him so far above their
comprehension. The reply which Jesus made to their taunting
address, contained a decided rebuke of their presumption in thus
attacking his motives. “My time is not yet come, but yours is always
ready. The world can not hate you, but me it hates, because I testify
of it that its works are evil. Go ye up to this feast; but I am not going
yet; for my time is not yet fully come.” They might always go where
mere inclination directed them, nor was there any occasion to refer
to any higher object. But a mighty scheme was connected with his
movements, to which he directed every action. In his great work, he
had already exposed himself to the hatred of the wicked, and his
movements were now checked by a regard to the proper time for
exposing himself to it; and when that time should come, he would
unhesitatingly meet the results.
By a passage in Mark’s gospel, it appears also, that at the first

beginning of the ministry of Jesus, his relations generally were so
little prepared for a full revelation of the character and destiny of him
with whom they had long lived so familiarly as a brother and an
intimate, that they viewed with the most disagreeable surprise and
astonishment, his remarkable proceedings, in going from place to
place with his disciples,――neglecting the business to which he had
been educated, and deserting his family friends,――preaching to
vast throngs of wondering people, and performing strange works of
kindness to those who seemed to have no sort of claim on his
attention. Distressed at these strange actions, they could form no
conclusion about his conduct that seemed so reasonable and
charitable, as that he was beside himself, and needed to be
confined, to prevent him from doing mischief to himself and others,
by his seemingly extravagant and distracted conduct. “And they
came out to lay hold on him, for they said ‘He is beside himself.’”
With this very purpose, as it seems, his brothers and family relations
had come to urge and persuade him back to their home if possible,
and stood without, utterly unable to get near him, on account of the
throngs of hearers and beholders that had beset him. They were
therefore obliged to send him word, begging him to stop his
discourse and come out to them, because they wanted to see him.
The request was therefore passed along from mouth to mouth, in the
crowd, till at last those who sat next to Jesus communicated the
message to him,――“Behold thy mother and thy brethren stand
without, desiring to speak with thee.” Jesus fully apprehending the
nature of the business on which their ill-discerning regard had
brought them thither, only suspended the train of his discourse to
make such a remark as would impress all with the just idea of the
value which he set upon earthly affections, which were liable to
operate as hindrances to him in the great work to which he had been
devoted; and to convince them how much higher and stronger was
the place in his affections held by those who had joined themselves
to him for life and for death, to promote the cause of God, and to do
with him the will of his Father in heaven,――in the striking language
of inquiry, he said, “Who is my mother or my brethren?” Then looking
with an expression of deep affection around, on those who sat near
him, he said, “Behold my mother and my brethren! For whosoever
shall do the will of God, the same is my brother, and my sister and
mother.” It appears by this remark, as well as by another passage,
that he had not only brothers, but sisters, who lived at Nazareth at
that time, and were well known as his relations. No mention however
is any where made of his father; so that it would appear that Joseph
was now dead.
This remarkable faithlessness on the part of the brothers of Jesus,

may be thought to present an insuperable difficulty in the way of the
supposition that any of them could have been numbered with the
apostles. But great as seems to have been their error, it hardly
exceeded many that were made by his most select followers, even to
the time of his ascension. All the apostles may be considered to
have been in a great measure unbelievers, until the descent of the
Holy Spirit,――for until that time, on no occasion did one of them
manifest a true faith in the words of Jesus. Times almost without
number, did he declare to them that he should rise from the dead;
but notwithstanding this assertion was so often made to them in the
most distinct and solemn manner, not one of them put the slightest
confidence in his words, or believed that he would ever appear to
them again after his crucifixion. Not even the story of his
resurrection, repeatedly and solemnly attested by the women and
others, could overcome their faithlessness; so that when the risen
Lord, whose words they had so little heeded, came into their
presence, moved with a just and holy anger, “he upbraided them with
their unbelief and hardness of heart, because they believed not
those who had seen him after he was risen.” So that his brothers at
this early period, can not be considered any worse off than the rest
of those who knew and loved him best; and if any are disposed to
oppose the view that his brethren were apostles, by quoting the
words of John, that “neither did his brethren believe in him,” a
triumphant retort may be found in the fact, that neither did his
apostles believe in him.
There were, however, other “brothers” of Jesus, besides those

who were apostles. By Matthew and Mark is also mentioned Joses,
who is nowhere mentioned as an apostle; and there may have been
others still, whose names are not given; for, in the account given, in
the first chapter of Acts, it is recorded that, besides all the eleven
apostles, there were also assembled in the upper room, Mary the
mother of Jesus, and his brethren. It is very likely, that Jesus may
have had several other cousins, who followed his fortunes, though
they were not considered by him, qualified to rank among his chosen
apostles. But a very prominent objection to the notion that they were
the children of his mother, with whom they are mentioned in such
close connection,――is, that when Jesus was on the cross, he
commended her to the care of John, his beloved disciple, as though
she were destitute of any immediate natural protector; and certainly,
if she had at that time several sons living, who were full-grown, she
could not have needed to be intrusted thus to the kindness of one
who claimed no relationship whatever to her; but would, of course,
have been secure of a home, and a comfortable support, so long as
her sons could have worked for her. These also may have been
those brethren who did not believe in him, and who considered him
beside himself, though there seems no good reason to except any of
those who are mentioned by Matthew and Mark, as his
brethren,――James, Juda, Joses and Simon.
Beyond these allusions to him, in connection with others, the

gospels take no notice whatever of this apostle; and it is only in the
Acts of the Apostles, and some of the epistles of Paul, that he is
mentioned with any great distinctness. In all those passages in the
apostolic writings where he is referred to, he is presented as a
person of high standing and great importance, and his opinions are
given in such a manner as to convey the impression that they had
great weight in the regulation of the apostolic doings. This is
particularly evident in the only passage of the Acts of the Apostles
where his words are given, which is in the account of the
consultation at Jerusalem about the great question of communion
between the circumcised and uncircumcised. On this occasion,
James is mentioned in such a way as to make it evident that he was
considered the most prominent among those who were zealous for
the preservation of the Mosaic forms, and to have been by all such,

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APPENDIX: CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 29

CHAPTER 3 From exposure to comprehension 73

CHAPTER 4 Memory and knowledge 103

CHAPTER 5 Attitudes and persuasion 131

CHAPTER 7 Judgement and decision making 187

CHAPTER 8 Post-decision processes 217

CHAPTER 10 Consumer diversity 275

CHAPTER 11 External and internal influences on consumer behaviour 305

CHAPTER 13 Symbolic consumer behaviour 367

PART- AND CHAPTER-OPENING FEATURES

2 Motivation, ability and opportunity

AN INTRODUCTION TO PART 3 THE PROCESS OF MAKING DECISIONS

PART 4 THE CONSUMER’S CULTURE

9 Social influences on consumer behaviour

1 Understanding consumer behaviour

12 Innovations: adoption, resistance and diffusion

PART 3 THE PROCESS OF MAKING DECISIONS

9 Social influences on consumer behaviour

12 Innovations: adoption, resistance and diffusion

FIGURE 2.1 » CHAPTER OVERVIEW: MOTIVATION, ABILITY AND OPPORTUNITY

behaviour for marketing activities.

BK-CLA-HOYER_2E-200075-Chp01.indd 1 10/06/20 9:46 PM Motivation, ability and

Gain an insight into how consumer behaviour

chapter-opening vignette at the beginning of each 46 P A RT isn’t

Test your understanding by answering the

enjoy margaritas and eat full-course dinners with dessert

LO1 CONSUMER MOTIVATION AND ITS EFFECTS

interest in many topics like beauty, fashion or cosmetics,

FEATURES WITHIN CHAPTERS consideration set. 6

their sense of selfwhich

Considerations boxes present examples and current Trickle-down

useful? Why or why not? Typical responses to consumer dissatisfaction

QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

Analyse in-depth cases that present issues in

Cengage is pleased to provide you with a selection of resources that will

COGNERO TEST BANK

ARTWORK FROM THE TEXT

FOR THE STUDENT

WHY THE NEW EDITION OF THIS BOOK?

emphasis on international and and are likely to be of considerable interest to students.

technological considerations Balanced treatment of micro and

CONTENT AND ORGANISATION OF THE BOOK

■■ Dr Joan Carlini – Griffith University

1 Understanding consumer behaviour

PART 2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE

2 Motivation, ability and opportunity

PART 3 THE PROCESS OF MAKING DECISIONS

6 Problem recognition and information search

PART 4 THE CONSUMER’S CULTURE

9 Social influences on consumer behaviour

PART 5 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR OUTCOMES AND ISSUES

12 Innovations: adoption, resistance and diffusion

PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR

1 Understanding consumer behaviour

PART 2 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE

2 Motivation, ability and opportunity

PART 3 THE PROCESS OF MAKING DECISIONS

6 Problem recognition and information search

APPENDIX: CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 29

➜ How important to the success of Toby’s Estate is understanding consumer behaviour?