Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Constructional Steel Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jcsr

An experimental investigation for corrosion resistance of stainless clad

steel plate
Juhui Zhang a, Jiacheng He a, Bin Peng a, Hongwei Li a, Baixian Li a, Bo Yan b, Jia-Hui Zhang a, *
a
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
b
Baosteel Central Research Institute, Baoshan Iron and Steel Co., Ltd, Shanghai 201900, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper explores the corrosion resistance of stainless steel clad carbon steel plate (SCSP) in simulated marine
Bi-metal environments. The hot-rolled steel plate, composed of stainless steel (304) exteriors and a carbon steel (Q235)
Corrosion resistance core, underwent a salt spray test for 24 to 1344 h. The study focused on three sections: the transverse section, the
Galvanic corrosion
core layer of carbon steel, and the outer layer of stainless steel. Using mass loss method, electrochemical
Marine environment
Stainless clad steel plate
methods, and microscopic and compositional analysis, it was found that stainless steel showed significantly
better corrosion resistance than carbon steel. The carbon steel's corrosion rate was initially high but stabilized
over time due to α-FeOOH in the rust layer. The transverse section exhibited a similar but slightly higher
corrosion rate. XRD analysis identified α-FeOOH in the rust layer, while SEM, EDS, and 3D scanning indicated
significant galvanic corrosion at the stainless and carbon steel interface, causing deep pits. Overall, the corrosion
rate of the transverse section over longer exposure is influenced by both the rust layer's resistance and the
galvanic corrosion at the bi-metallic section.

1. Introduction plate with a bimetallic composite construction. The unique ‘sandwich’

Recent developments in marine engineering have significantly
increased the reliance on steel, especially in the construction of bridges,
oil rigs, pipelines, and offshore platforms. These structures, when
exposed to marine environments for prolonged periods, inevitably un­
dergo corrosion. This degradation process not only reduces the thickness
of steel structures, leading to the formation of micro-cracks, but also
increases the risk of brittle fractures, unstable failures, and decreased
load-bearing capacities, potentially leading to catastrophic damages
[1–5]. Carbon steel, commonly used in maritime applications such as
shipbuilding and bridge construction due to its cost-effectiveness [6–8],
is notably deficient in corrosion resistance, a crucial requirement for
ocean engineering.
In contrast, stainless steel, enriched with elements like nickel (Ni)
and chromium (Cr), exhibits superior corrosion resistance [9,10].
However, its application in marine engineering is limited by high pro­
duction costs and relatively lower strength. Addressing this gap, the
Stainless Clad Steel Plate (SCSP) has emerged as a promising solution in
marine engineering, ship steel structures, and petrochemical engineer­
ing structures [11–14]. This material is a stainless steel clad carbon steel
structure consists of a core layer of carbon steel, flanked on both sides by
stainless steel layers. The stainless steel outer layers protect the carbon
steel core from corrosive environments, while the carbon steel core
contributes to the material's overall mechanical robustness and cost-
effectiveness.
Stainless Clad Steel Plate (SCSP), similar to other bimetallic mate­
rials, inevitably sees its mechanical properties, processability, and
corrosion resistance influenced by the two different metallic materials
involved. Ban et al. [15] discovered through elevated temperature ten­
sile tests that the high-temperature mechanical properties of SCSP differ
from those of both stainless steel and carbon steel, with these differences
being reflected in the proportion of the thicknesses of the two materials.
Ban et al. [16,17] conducted cyclic load tests on SCSP and their welded
joints, finding that the mechanical response of SCSP (304 + Q235B)
under cyclic loads significantly differs from their response under
monotonic loads. Furthermore, the welded joints exhibit significant
isotropic and kinematic hardening effects when compared to SCSPs.
Experimental studies by Shen et al. [18] revealed that the corrosion
resistance of SCSP (304 + Q235) is significantly superior to that of Q235
carbon steel. Hua et al. [19] found that corrosion could lead to a

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhangjh316@163.com (J.-H. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2024.108655
Received 21 January 2024; Received in revised form 12 March 2024; Accepted 30 March 2024
Available online 8 April 2024
0143-974X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Zhang et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655

(a)
Outer layer stainless steel (10%)
Core layer carbon steel (80%)
Outer layer stainless steel (10%)

(b) (c) (d)

25

25
Mass loss specimens
5

40 40 40

(e) (f) (g)

Macroscopic and electrochemical
5

specimens

10

10
20 10 10

Encapsalated in resin
Transverse section Carbon steel Stainless steel
Group A Group B Group C Exposed to salt spray

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of structural layering and salt spray test specimens for SCSP.

Table 1
Chemical composition of stainless clad steel plate (304 + Q235).
Outer layer C% Si% Mn% P% S% Cr% Ni% N%

304 0.03 0.75 2.00 0.045 0.030 18 8.00 0.1

Core layer C% Si% Mn% P% S% Cr% Ti% Nb% N%
Q235 0.06 0.205 0.8 0.01 0.0032 0.02 0.018 0.0064 0.005

decrease in the mechanical properties of stainless clad steel rebars (304
+ HRB400), and this decrease is more rapid than that caused by uniform
corrosion. Importantly, it was discovered by [20] that bimetallic mate­
rials (304 L + copper) form multiple galvanic corrosion couples at the
joints, leading to material failure.
Huang et al. [21] discovered that the hot-rolling process ensures
better bonding at the interface layer of SCSP (304 + Q235A), thereby
enhancing its mechanical properties. Li et al. [22] found that the
interface layer in SCSP can be subdivided into three transition layers:
carburized stainless steel, a diffusion layer, and decarburized carbon
steel. Due to the diffusion of carbon, iron, nickel, and chromium ele­
ments, the mechanical properties of the transition layers change
smoothly, ensuring the stability of the material's mechanical properties
in the thickness direction. Li et al. [23] studied the effect of carbon steel
on the corrosion resistance of stainless composite plates (304 + carbon
steel), showing that iron ions released by the carbon steel at the bonding
interface cause extensive corrosion of the stainless steel along the
interface layer. Therefore, for SCSP, a type of bimetallic material, the
interface layer in the thickness direction may be a research focus on
material mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
The study aimed to evaluate the corrosion resistance of SCSP using
neutral salt spray tests. The investigation was structured into three
specimen groups, each focusing on different components of the com­
posite material. The corrosion morphology and elemental composition
of the rust layer were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) and Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS). Additionally, an X-
ray Diffractometer (XRD) was employed to examine the physical phase
composition of the rust layer. Electrochemical measurements were
conducted to characterize the rust layer's electrochemical properties
over various periods. The outcomes of this study are crucial in under­
standing the corrosion mechanisms of stainless steel clad carbon steel
plate and enhancing its application in marine engineering.
2. Experimental program
2.1. Materials and specimen preparation
The stainless clad steel plate (SCSP) in this study was fabricated from
304 stainless steel and Q235 carbon steel through hot rolling. The
structure is comprised of a core layer of carbon steel, 4 mm in nominal
thickness, flanked by two stainless steel outer layers, each 0.50 mm in
nominal thickness, as depicted in Fig. 1(a). The chemical composition of
the composite plate is provided in Table 1.
In the context of engineering applications of Stainless Clad Steel
Plate (SCSP) in marine environments, the specimens were classified into
three distinct groups, each representing a unique exposed surface.
Specimens in Group A featured the transverse section of SCSP,
comprising two outer layers of stainless steel and a core layer of carbon
steel. In contrast, Group B specimens exclusively exposed the carbon
steel core layer of the SCSP, while Group C specimens revealed the
stainless steel outer layer. This categorization is illustrated in Fig. 1(b)-
(g). It is important to note that for each specimen, only one surface was
exposed to the environment, with the other surfaces being encapsulated
in epoxy resin to mitigate corrosion risks. Specifically for Group B, the
stainless steel layers were meticulously removed from the top and bot­
tom surfaces of the clad steel plate using a flat grinding machine.
In the neutral salt spray tests, the exposed area for Group A was
established as 2 cm2. This transverse section comprised a 40 mm × 4 mm
section of Q235 carbon steel and two 40 mm × 0.5 mm sections of 304
stainless steel, as shown in Fig. 1(b). For Groups B and C, the exposed
areas were standardized at 10 cm2, each measuring 40 mm × 25 mm, as
depicted in Fig. 1(c) and (d), respectively. In the electrochemical anal­
ysis, adhering to the requirement of a 1 cm2 exposed surface area, the
dimensions for Groups A, B, and C were uniformly adjusted. Specifically,
for Group A, the dimensions of the transverse section were modified to
20 mm × 4 mm for the Q235 carbon steel and 20 mm × 0.5 mm for each
of the two 304 stainless steel layers. For Groups B and C, the dimensions
were altered to 10 mm × 10 mm, as illustrated in Fig. 1(e) to 1(g).
To ensure uniform surface roughness, the exposed surfaces of the

2
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 2. Diagram of salt spray test device and specimens.
Fig. 3. Comparison of three groups of samples before and after acid pickling in salt spray test.
specimens were initially polished using SiC paper with grit sizes ranging
from 120 to 2000. Following this, epoxy resin was applied to all but the
designated exposed areas. To avoid resin contamination, masking paper
was used to cover these exposed areas during the resin application,
which was performed as uniformly as possible. After removing the
masking paper, the polished specimens were immersed in acetone for 10
min to eliminate surface oils. Subsequently, they were rinsed with
distilled water and underwent a 5-min ultrasonic cleaning in anhydrous
ethanol. Aimed at ensuring complete dehydration, the dehydrated
specimens were then dried using cold air from a hairdryer, wrapped in
filter paper, and placed in a drying oven set at 40 ◦ C for 24 h. The initial
mass (m0) of each specimen was accurately measured using an electronic
balance with a precision of 0.0001 g. With these steps, the pre-treatment
process was completed, and the specimens were ready for experimental
use.
3
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
2.2. Salt spray test
The neutral salt spray tests were conducted following ISO 9227:2017
guidelines [24], using a salt spray chamber LYW-075 N, as shown in
Fig. 2(a). The chamber maintained a constant temperature of 35 ◦ C. Test
specimens were supported at an approximate 20◦ angle, as illustrated in
Fig. 2(b). The salt spray comprised a 5 wt% NaCl solution with a near-
neutral PH. The testing regimen involved an 8-h daily operation, fol­
lowed by a 16-h non-operational period. During the operational phase,
the salt solution was continuously sprayed, while in the non-operational
period, the salt spray settled in the chamber's humid, nearly sealed
environment. This process resulted in the accumulation of salt droplets
on the specimens, promoting corrosion. The experiment spanned eight
cycles, conducted at 0, 24, 72, 168, 336, 672, 1008, and 1344-h in­
tervals. To ensure accuracy and reproducibility, each cycle used two
parallel samples.
J. Zhang et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655

Two corrosion cycles of 336 h and 672 h were selected to compare the
changes of three groups of specimens before and after pickling, as shown
in Fig. 3.
The corrosion rate of each specimen, denoted as ηm (in mm/a), was
evaluated based on the mass loss method. The calculation of ηm is
expressed as follows:

1
∑
2
t
m0 − mt − 2
[mr0 (i) − mrt (i) ] − 1344
[me0 − met ]
ηm = 87600 i=1
(1)
ρ⋅t⋅SA
Where m0 represents the initial mass of the pre-treated specimen in
grams (g), mt is the mass of the specimen after corrosion and chemical
cleaning in grams (g), t denotes the corrosion time in hours (h), ρ is the
density of the steel (7.85 g/cm3), and SA is the exposed area in square
centimeters (cm2).
The equivalent uniform corrosion depth, dc (μm), was also obtained
based on the mass loss and expressed as follows:

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of electrochemical tests.
2.3. Post-exposure treatment and calculation for mass loss specimens
After each corrosion cycle, the specimens were meticulously
extracted from the test chamber and immediately photographed. This
procedure aimed to systematically document the progression of corro­
sion products on the specimen surfaces. Following this, a thorough
pickling process was employed to remove the accumulated rust. This
step was meticulously conducted in strict adherence to the guidelines
outlined in ISO 8407:2021 [25]. Initially, the specimens underwent a
gentle mechanical brushing in reagent water, effectively dislodging any
loosely adherent corrosion products. Subsequently, a chemical cleaning
phase was initiated. This involved immersing the specimens in a solution
meticulously prepared with a concentration of 50% hydrochloric acid
(HCl) and 3.5 g/L hexamethylene tetramine. This chemical composition
was selected for its efficacy in dissolving and removing corrosion
products without causing detrimental effects to the underlying material.
1
∑
2
t
m0 − mt − 2
[mr0 (i) − mrt (i) ] − 1344
[me0 − met ]
dc = 104 ⋅ i=1
(2)
ρ⋅SA
To improve the accuracy in determining ηm and dc, two distinct sets
of experimental parameters were incorporated into Eqs. (1) and (2).
Firstly, the potential loss of steel material during the chemical
cleaning process was addressed. For this, two non-corroded reference
specimens, identical to those in each test group, were utilized. Their
masses before and following the acid pickling process are designated as
mr0 and mrt, respectively. This approach facilitates an accurate assess­
ment of material loss attributable to the acid pickling in steel specimens.
Secondly, the moisture absorption by epoxy resin in the neutral salt
spray test was evaluated. To this end, two additional reference speci­
mens were prepared: one coated with epoxy resin but not exposed to
corrosion, and the other subjected to corrosion for a period of 1344 h.
The masses of these specimens, before and after the salt spray test, are
recorded as me0 and met, respectively. The assumption of linear moisture
absorption by the epoxy resin over time enables a quantitative analysis
of this variable. These methodological enhancements are critical for
ensuring a more precise and reliable determination of the corrosion rate
and related parameters.

Fig. 5. Three groups of specimens for the neutral salt spray test.

4
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 6. Macroscopic morphology of three types of specimens under different corrosion cycles.
2.4. Morphological and compositional assessment with SEM, EDS, and
XRD
The microstructural and corrosion morphologies of the specimens
were meticulously evaluated using a FEI Quanta 450FEG Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM). This SEM examination was strategically
conducted to discern the microstructural changes in the specimens post-
corrosion and following the removal of rust. The examined specimens
were systematically categorized into Groups A, B, and C, subjected to
salt spray durations of 24, 168, 672, and 1344 h, respectively. Subse­
quently, the elemental composition of the rust layers was precisely
analyzed employing Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) map­
ping. This analysis pertained specifically to specimens from Groups A
5
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
and B, which were exposed to salt spray for 168 and 672 h, respectively.
To augment this analysis, the rust layers underwent a thorough
compositional examination via Rigaku Ultima IV X-ray Diffraction
(XRD). These XRD measurements employed a Cu Kα radiation source at
a wavelength of 1.54 Å, with the apparatus operating under a voltage of
40KV and a current of 40 mA. The XRD scans, conducted at a rate of 5◦ /
min, encompassed a scanning range from 10◦ to 90◦ (2θ), primarily
focusing on the transverse section corrosion products of SCSP, for the
specified salt spray durations of 168, 336, 672, and 1344 h. Finally, the
intricate three-dimensional corrosion patterns of Groups A and B, spe­
cifically after a salt spray duration of 1344 h, were vividly visualized
using a GOM ATOS Triple Scan 3D scanner.
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 7. SEM images of the transverse section (Group A) after salt spray testing.
2.5. Electrochemical experiments
Electrochemical evaluations of the corroded specimens were con­
ducted utilizing a CHI604E electrochemical workstation. The measure­
ments incorporated a conventional three-electrode system, as illustrated
in Fig. 4. Within this configuration, the corroded specimen served as the
working electrode. This was in conjunction with a saturated calomel
electrode (SCE), employed as the reference electrode, and a platinum
electrode (Pt) acting as the auxiliary electrode. The specimen was
secured to a pure copper wire and encased in resin. To facilitate im­
mersion, a 5 wt% NaCl solution was prepared, allowing the specimen to
expose a working surface area of 1 cm2. Electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) measurements were executed at the open circuit
potential (OCP). These measurements involved an alternating current
(AC) modulation amplitude of 5 mV, spanning a frequency range from
100 kHz to 0.01 Hz. The electrode scanning rate was set at 1 mV/s, over
a test range of ±400 mV relative to OCP. Experimental conditions were
consistently maintained at a temperature of 25 ◦ C ± 1 ◦ C. For the
analysis and fitting of the experimental data, ZSimpWin software was
utilized.
To ensure the attainment of a steady state for both the specimen and
the solution, the corroded specimen was immersed in a 5 wt% NaCl
solution for one hour before carrying out the electrochemical experi­
ments. This experimental electrochemical test focuses on open-circuit
potential and EIS measurements. The open-circuit potential serves as a
tool to compare the corrosion tendencies of different metals in the same
6
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
environment and to predict their relative corrosion resistance in specific
conditions. EIS measurements provide a means to evaluate the passiv­
ation behavior and corrosion resistance of metals by analyzing the
impedance spectrum of electrodes, thereby facilitating the assessment of
their corrosion resistance.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Corrosion resistance from salt spray and mass loss analysis
This section evaluates the corrosion resistance of SCSP based on salt
spray tests, by assessing the mass loss of the specimens after different
exposure times. As shown in Fig. 5, the exposure time to the salt spray
ranges from 24 h to 1344 h. The corrosion rates of the transverse section
of the clad plate (Group A), the carbon steel core layer (Group B), and
the stainless steel outer layer (Group C) are presented separately
through the corrosion rate in Fig. 5(a), along with the equivalent
corrosion depth in Fig. 5(b).
Corrosion Rate Results: Initially, Group B demonstrated the most
rapid corrosion, peaking at 1.82 mm/a within the first 24 h. This rate
notably diminished to 1.07 mm/a after 72 h. As the duration of the salt
spray test extended, Group B's corrosion rate exhibited a gradual stabi­
lization, followed by a minor decline. Conclusively, after 1344 h of
exposure, the rate settled at 0.89 mm/a. Group A (the transverse section)
mirrored Group B's pattern, undergoing initial fluctuations but eventu­
ally stabilizing at approximately 1.0 mm/a. By the test's conclusion,
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 8. SEM images of the carbon steel (Group B) after salt spray testing.
Group A's corrosion rate was marginally higher at 1.01 mm/a compared
to Group B. The stainless steel outer layer of SCSP maintained a
consistently low corrosion rate throughout the test, never exceeding
0.05 mm/a and predominantly remaining at 0.04 mm/a.
Corrosion Rate Analysis: The differing exposed surfaces of the
three groups revealed a markedly lower corrosion rate in stainless steel
compared to carbon steel and the composite plate's transverse section.
The corrosion rate of carbon steel displayed a tendency to stabilize and
decrease slowly over time. This trend suggests the formation of a pro­
tective rust layer on the carbon steel surface, which impedes the diffu­
sion of chloride ions, thereby decelerating the corrosion process. The
transverse section, comprising 80% carbon steel and 20% stainless steel,
exhibited a corrosion rate slightly exceeding that of carbon steel in the
test's latter stages. This observation implies the influence of galvanic
corrosion at the bimetallic bonding interface.
Equivalent Corrosion Depth and Data Fitting: Fig. 5(b) delineates
the evolution of equivalent uniform corrosion depth over time, corre­
lating with the observed corrosion resistance characteristics. Stainless
steel showcased superior corrosion resistance compared to carbon steel
and the clad plate's transverse section. The latter indicated a marginally
higher equivalent corrosion depth than carbon steel. Corrosion kinetics
in marine environments are typically represented by a power function
(referenced in Eq. (3)). In this context, β is a constant, and n is a coef­
ficient indicative of the metal's corrosion protection efficiency. An n
value less than 1 suggests a decreasing corrosion rate and protective role
of the rust layer. Conversely, n greater than 1 indicates accelerating
7
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
metal corrosion without rust layer protection. The fitting results for the
three groups (Eqs. (4)–(6)) reveal n values greater than 1 for Groups A
and C, and less than 1 for Group B. This implies that the rust layer on
carbon steel exerts a protective effect in the test's middle and later
stages, contrary to the transverse section and stainless steel.
dc = β⋅tn (3)
dc = 0.0705t1.068 (for transverse section) (4)
dc = 0.1298t0.964 (for carbon steel) (5)
dc = 0.00199t1.188 (for stainless steel) (6)
3.2. Macroscopic corrosion morphology
The corrosion study depicted in Fig. 6 examines the surface macro­
scopic morphologies of the three specimen groups (A, B, and C), each
subjected to varying durations of a salt spray test.
The inner core carbon steel (Group B), initially manifested light-
yellow rust spots after 24 h of salt spray exposure, indicative of sur­
face roughening. This initial phase of corrosion was followed by a
transition within 72 h, where these spots evolved into pitting, eventually
coalescing to form a reddish-brown rust layer. This transformation is
primarily attributed to the abundant oxygen supply, which facilitates a
higher valence state of iron, specifically γ-FeOOH. Notably, this rusting
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 9. SEM images of 3 samples without corrosion products after different corrosion times.
phase is detrimental to the stability of the rust layer. As the experiment
progressed to 168 h, there was a perceptible shift in the rust layer's color
to deeper hues, accompanied by the emergence of black corrosion
products, indicative of the presence of Fe3O4. Concurrently, a significant
increase in the rust layer's thickness was observed. The period between
336 and 1344 h was marked by an increasing prevalence of black
corrosion products (Fe3O4) on the carbon steel surface, while the reddish
components (γ-FeOOH) diminished. This trend indicates a gradual sta­
bilization of the corrosion rate and thickening and densification of the
rust layer on the carbon steel surface.
The transverse section of SCSP (Group A), exhibited macroscopic
morphologies analogous to the carbon steel surface. In the early stages of
corrosion, light-yellow rust spots were evident, which progressively
evolved into a reddish-brown rust layer, subsequently transitioning to
black-brown corrosion products. It is noteworthy that the stainless steel
surface remained distinctly observable when the salt spray exposure
duration was below 168 h. However, post 336 h of exposure, the
corrosion products of the carbon steel in the core layer of the transverse
section intensified, thickened, and gradually extended to both sides,
enveloping the stainless steel surface. The macroscopic morphology of
the cross-sectional corrosion leads to the inference that most of the
corrosion in this area originated from carbon steel.
In contrast, the outer layer stainless steel (Group C), demonstrated
exceptional corrosion resistance. Throughout the extensive 1344-h salt
spray test, the observable changes on the surface layer of the stainless
steel were negligible.
8
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
3.3. Micro-morphological and compositional analysis: SEM, EDS, XRD,
and 3D scanning
3.3.1. SEM analysis
Upon exposure to salt spray conditions, Scanning Electron Micro­
scopy (SEM) was employed to analyze the micro-morphologies of three
distinct test groups, as depicted in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The observations are
delineated as follows:
Fig. 7 presents the micro-morphology of corrosion products on a
transverse section (Group A) after exposure to salt spray for durations of
24, 168, 672, and 1344 h. The images exhibit a characteristic corrosion
pattern on the transverse section, comprising carbon steel on the left and
stainless steel on the right. Initially, at the 24-h mark, the carbon steel
side revealed loose and porous corrosion products, while the stainless
steel side remained predominantly unaltered. Subsequently, these
products coalesced into spherical masses by 168 h (Fig. 7(b)). By the
672-h exposure, delamination became evident on the carbon steel side
(Fig. 7(c)), in contrast to the stainless steel side, which retained its
smoothness. At 1344 h, pronounced, elongated pits were observed along
the interface with the stainless steel outer layer on the carbon steel side
(Fig. 7(d)), indicative of potential galvanic corrosion exacerbation at the
bi-metal junction of the clad steel plate.
Fig. 8 presents the SEM images of carbon steel (Group B) across
identical exposure periods as the transverse section specimens in Fig. 7.
Notably, the formation of spherical corrosion products induced surface
tension, leading to the emergence of transverse and longitudinal cracks
on the carbon steel surface. This cracking facilitated oxygen infiltration
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 10. EDS diagram of the transverse section (Group A) and the carbon steel (Group B) corrosion products.
through the rust layer, augmenting the reactivity of metal ions. By 1344
h, the accumulated corrosion products on the carbon steel surface
constituted a denser layer, thereby impeding oxygen and corrosive agent
penetration. These SEM findings corroborate the observed gradual sta­
bilization and deceleration of the corrosion rate of carbon steel, as
inferred from mass loss measurements in Section 3.1.
To further scrutinize the micro-damage induced by salt spray
corrosion on the clad plate's surface, the samples from the three groups
were de-rusted before SEM examination. Fig. 9 exhibits the SEM images
of these groups after salt spray exposure for 24, 168, and 1344 h. Fig. 9
(a)-(c) highlight the corrosion behavior of the transverse section across
different corrosion cycles, revealing pronounced disparities in corrosion
damage between carbon steel and stainless steel at the junction. The 304
stainless steel, depicted on the right side of the image, incurred minimal
corrosion damage, with superficial corrosion marks attributable to
scratches. Conversely, the carbon steel on the left side demonstrated
exacerbated corrosion, manifesting as elongated pits aligned with the bi-
metal junction – a consequence of its role as the anode in galvanic
corrosion. Fig. 9(d)-(f) illustrate the corrosion morphology of the carbon
steel (Group B), which exhibited more uniform corrosion compared to
9
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
the Q235 carbon steel side in the transverse section, with later-stage rust
pits appearing nearly circular – a stark contrast to the elongated rust pits
along the junction in the cross-section. Fig. 9(g)-(i) display the corrosion
morphology of stainless steel (Group C). Post-1344 h of salt spray
corrosion, the 304 stainless steel exhibited only minor signs of corrosion,
underscoring its superior corrosion resistance throughout the
experiment.
3.3.2. EDS analysis
The Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) analysis showed notable
morphological transformations in the corrosion products on both the
transverse section of SCSP and carbon steel over time. Subsequently,
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) investigations were undertaken.
Fig. 10 illustrates the EDS imagery depicting the corrosion products in
carbon steel (Group B) after exposure periods of 168 and 672 h. Sites
chosen for EDS analysis on these corrosion products were labeled as
Points 1# and 2#. The analysis post 168 h of exposure revealed a
chloride concentration of 0.69 wt% within the rust layer. This concen­
tration escalated to 8.41 wt% after a prolonged exposure of 672 h. In
saline or marine environments, chloride ions are pivotal accelerants of
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 11. XRD patterns of the rust layer on the transverse section after salt
spray tests.
corrosion. The observed escalation in chloride ion concentration sug­
gests the incursion of chloride compounds (e.g., sodium chloride present
in seawater) into the surface or internal structure of the carbon steel.
Moreover, a heightened concentration of chloride ions can disrupt the
protective oxide film on the metal, markedly intensifying the propensity
for pitting corrosion.
Fig. 10 also delineates the EDS spectra of corrosion products located
on the cross-section (Group A) after equivalent exposure durations. A
disparity in the EDS findings between the carbon steel (Group B) and the
transverse section (Group A) is the detection of nickel (Ni) and chro­
mium (Cr) in the corrosion products of the latter. Additionally, with the
increase in exposure time to salt spray from 168 to 672 h, a migration of
these elements from the stainless steel to the carbon steel side was
observed. This phenomenon is indicative of pronounced galvanic
corrosion at the interface of the two metals. During galvanic corrosion,
stainless steel can release elements such as Cr and Ni. In the presence of a
sodium chloride solution, these elements may leach from the stainless
steel and migrate toward the carbon steel in the course of the electro­
chemical reaction. Owing to the cathodic protection conferred by
stainless steel, the anodic areas of carbon steel are likely to undergo
more severe corrosion.
3.3.3. XRD analysis
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed the mineralogical compo­
sition of rust on the transverse section (Group A) exposed to salt spray
testing for durations of 168, 334, 672, and 1344 h, as shown in Fig. 11.
Initially, at 168 h, γ-FeOOH (2θ = 12◦ ) predominated in the rust
composition, accompanied by α-FeOOH and Fe3O4 As exposure time
increased, the iron hydroxide oxides near the rust layer progressively
transformed into α-FeOOH. By 1344 h, α-FeOOH (2θ = 35.0◦ ) emerged
as the predominant phase in the rust. Concurrently, a significant in­
crease was observed in the peak intensity of Fe3O4 at its characteristic
diffraction angle (2θ = 36.5◦ ).
In contrast to γ-FeOOH, the formation of α-FeOOH and Fe3O4, typi­
cally associated with slower and more stable corrosion processes, results
in a denser layer. This layer more effectively impedes the penetration of
oxygen and water, thereby reducing the corrosion rate. The phase
transition in the rust from γ-FeOOH to α-FeOOH, accompanied by the
presence of Fe3O4, signifies a stabilization in the corrosion process. From
this finding, it can be inferred that as the corrosion stabilizes with the
rust layer becoming thicker and denser, predominantly composed of
α-FeOOH, the corrosion resistance of the interface between carbon steel
and stainless steel (transverse section) is likely to enhance.
10
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
3.3.4. 3D scanning
Fig. 12 displays the images of the transverse section (Group A) and
carbon steel (Group B) specimens following 1344 h of exposure to salt
spray and subsequent de-rusting. The left side of the figure illustrates the
macroscopic morphology and 3D scans of these specimens. In contrast,
the right side features line scan images of notable corrosion sites
(denoted by red lines), emphasizing the corrosion patterns along the
cutting direction.
The macroscopic morphology reveals clear distinctions in the
corrosion behavior between the transverse section and carbon steel
specimens. These differences are predominantly observed at the inter­
face between stainless steel and carbon steel, where intensified corro­
sion occurs due to galvanic effects, leading to more profound pitting
(depth of 0.57 mm). Nonetheless, the superior corrosion resistance of
stainless steel effectively inhibits pit formation on its side, resulting in a
pit boundary that closely aligns with the stainless steel layer.
The corrosion patterns in the carbon steel layer exhibit both uniform
corrosion and pitting. The prior EDS analysis demonstrated a significant
increase in chloride ion concentration in the corrosion products of the
carbon steel specimen after extended salt spray exposure, a key factor in
pitting formation. The line scans of the carbon steel plate substantiate
this observation, revealing that along the direction of the cut, the
corrosion in the carbon steel is characterized by a combination of uni­
form corrosion and pitting, with the pits being deep and narrow (depth
of 0.48 mm).
3.4. Corrosion mechanism
When exposed to a 5 wt% NaCl salt spray environment, carbon steel
initially forms a thin liquid membrane on its surface. In this saline
context, iron (Fe) rapidly oxidizes to its ferrous state (Fe2+) [26]. This
oxidation is a crucial step in the corrosion process, leading to subsequent
reactions. As Fe2+ interacts with sufficient oxygen, it undergoes hy­
drolytic transformation, resulting in the formation of Fe(OH)+ and Fe
(OH)2+ [27]. These hydrolytic products are precursors to the pitting
corrosion that is commonly observed on the steel surface, as illustrated
in Fig. 13(a). The chemical reactions involved can be expressed as
follows:
Fe→Fe2+ + 2e− (7)
Fe2+ + H2 O→Fe(OH)+ + H + (8)
4Fe2+ + O2 + 6H2 O→4Fe(OH)+
2 + 4H
+
(9)
The corrosion mechanism further involves the oxidation of Fe(OH)+
and Fe(OH)2+ within the liquid membrane, forming γ-FeOOH. This
compound coats the carbon steel surface, playing a significant role in the
subsequent transformation processes [28]. γ-FeOOH can transform into
Fe₃O₄, and further oxidation leads to the formation of γ-Fe₂O₃ [29]. As
the rust formation enters a stable phase, part of γ-FeOOH transitions into
an amorphous state, identified as FeOx(OH)₃-2×, before ultimately
transforming into α-FeOOH [29]. The progression and distribution of
these phases within the rust layer depend on the sequence of these
chemical reactions [30], as delineated in the development process of the
rust layer in Fig. 13(b). The chemical reactions involved can be
expressed as follows:
Fe(OH)+
2 →γ − FeOOH + H
+
(10)
4Fe(OH)+ + O2 + 2H2 O→4γ − FeOOH + 4H + (11)
2γ − FeOOH + Fe2+ →Fe3 O4 + 2H + (12)
4Fe3 O4 + O2 →6γ − Fe2 O3 (13)
J. Zhang et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655

Fig. 12. 3D scanning profile between Groups A and B under 1344 h corrosion.

Fig. 13. The rusting process of SCSP under continuous salt spray test.

release of hydrogen ions, resulting in the acidification of the surface

(14) electrolyte. Conversely, the cathodic process varies depending on the
oxygen diffusion characteristics within the rust layer. With ample
On the steel surface, the anodic process is marked by a significant

11
J. Zhang et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655

Fig. 14. OCP and EIS of Groups A, B, and C in the uncorroded state under 5 wt% NaCl solution.

the presence of galvanic corrosion extends the stabilization phase of

Table 2
corrosion, potentially beyond the experimental duration of 1344 h. The
The fitting results of the EIS curves of the unrusted specimens under 5 wt% NaCl
continuous increase in α-FeOOH eventually mitigates the galvanic
solution at 25 ◦ C.
corrosion between the carbon steel and stainless steel in the cross-
Rs Qdl × 10− 4 ndl Rct χ2 × 10− 3
section, which could lead to a gradual reduction in the corrosion rate.
(Ω⋅cm2) (Ω− 1⋅sn⋅cm− 2) (Ω⋅cm2)

A 5.91 4.72 0.79 1142.0 2.00

B 4.34 11.91 0.71 926.7 1.71
C 26.69 1.55 0.51 35,520.0 3.24
oxygen, reduction of O₂ at the cathode counterbalances the dissolution
of iron, as indicated in Eq. (15). However, when oxygen diffusion is
limited, the cathodic process is mainly characterized by hydrogen pre­
cipitation reactions as described in Eq. (16).
O2 + 2H2 O + 4e− →4OH − (15)
2H + + 2e− →H2 (16)
In the context of the cross-section corrosion mechanism (Group A),
initial stages of corrosion exhibit enhanced electrochemical reactivity
due to galvanic corrosion. This effect promotes anodic dissolution of the
Q235 carbon steel substrate, leading to an increased production of Fe2+
ions, as delineated in Eq. (7). Around 336 h into the corrosion process,
γ-FeOOH undergoes solvation precipitation and transforms into
α-FeOOH. The rise in Fe2+ concentration facilitates the chemical re­
actions crucial for γ-FeOOH formation, impacting the corrosion dy­
namics significantly, as described in Eqs. (8)–(11).
Combining weight loss measurements with EDS and XRD analysis, it
is inferred that the corrosion rate of the cross-section stabilizes when the
protective effect of α-FeOOH balances the detrimental impact of
galvanic corrosion, typically after 336 h of exposure. As α-FeOOH pro­
gressively accumulates on the surface of the corrosion products, the
overall corrosion resistance of the cross-section improves. Nevertheless,
3.5. Electrochemical analysis
In Fig. 14(a), the open circuit potential (OCP) versus time charac­
teristics for three specimen groups in their uncorroded states are pre­
sented. The electrochemical assessments utilized a sodium chloride
solution at a concentration of 5% by weight. Stabilization of OCP values
occurred at − 536 mV, − 592 mV, and − 388 mV for the transverse
section, carbon steel, and stainless steel samples, respectively. These
OCP readings suggest a higher OCP in the transverse section compared
to carbon steel, yet lower than that of stainless steel, implying the
emergence of a galvanic couple on the transverse section. Here, stainless
steel functions as the cathode, while carbon steel serves as the anode.
Enhanced polarization, attributed to bimetallic coupling, indicates the
preponderance of the carbon steel component in determining the OCP of
cross-section samples, a phenomenon likely linked to the respective
surface area exposure ratios of stainless steel (20%) and carbon steel
(80%).
The Nyquist curves for the three groups, depicted in Fig. 14(b),
reveal a notably larger capacitive loop radius for Group C compared to
Groups A and B. This larger loop is indicative of increased charge
transfer resistance, thereby suggesting heightened resistance to corro­
sion reactions, and subsequently affirming the superior corrosion resis­
tance of stainless steel. Additionally, the low-frequency region |Z| values
in the Bode plot (Fig. 14(c)) further corroborate the markedly enhanced
corrosion resistance of stainless steel specimens relative to both the
transverse section and carbon steel samples. The transverse section
impedance exceeds that of carbon steel, signifying the role of bimetallic

12
J. Zhang et al.
Fig. 15. (a) The Nyquist curves and (b) Bode diagrams of Group An under different corrosion cycles.
Fig. 16. (a) The Nyquist curves and (b) Bode diagrams of Group B under different corrosion cycles.
Fig. 17. Equivalent circuit diagrams.
coupling in bolstering material corrosion resistance. Within the phase
diagram (Fig. 14(d)), all specimen groups exhibit a singular peak,
denoting single time constant characteristics within the assessed fre­
quency spectrum. Consequently, the equivalent circuit model in Fig. 17
(a), consisting of solution resistance (Rs), constant phase element (CPE)
resistance (Qdl) between double-layer capacitance phases, and charge
transfer resistance (Rct), was employed to fit the EIS curves. Table 2
13
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
displays these fitting results, further underscoring the superior corrosion
resistance of stainless steel and suggesting slightly enhanced corrosion
resistance in the transverse section compared to carbon steel.
Figs. 15 and 16 illustrate the EIS curves for transverse section (Group
A) and carbon steel (Group B) specimens across varying salt spray
exposure durations, ranging from 24 to 1344 h. Analysis of the Nyquist
plots in Figs. 15(a) and 16(a) reveals a general declining trend in the
Nyquist curves for both specimen types with prolonged exposure
periods.
Examining the Bode modulus plots in Figs. 15(b) and 16(b), the
modulus values for transverse section specimens in the experiment's
latter stages are observed to be slightly higher than those for carbon
steel. This discrepancy could emanate from two primary factors: the
predominant role of carbon steel and the secondary role of stainless steel
in the polarization process, and the accelerated corrosion rate of the
transverse section due to galvanic corrosion, resulting in a thicker rust
J. Zhang et al. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655

Table 3
The fitting results of the EIS curves of the rusted specimens under the salt spray test for various durations.
Group T(h) Rs Qf × 10− 4 nf Rf Qdl × 10− 4 ndl Rct χ2 × 10− 4

(Ω⋅cm2) (Ω− 1⋅sn⋅cm− 2) (Ω⋅cm2) (Ω− 1⋅sn⋅cm− 2) (Ω⋅cm2)

24 7.37 57.77 0.51 4.91 189.70 0.50 395.8 4.59

72 10.19 129.90 0.33 1.31 89.24 0.62 624.1 9.76
168 14.95 191.40 0.62 6.70 375.80 0.81 757.3 4.60
A
336 19.29 127.30 0.59 5.32 302.40 0.71 1318.0 4.80
672 5.74 84.94 0.39 58.00 189.40 0.73 2786.0 1.63
1344 5.08 71.38 0.53 4.37 173.00 0.46 3260.0 3.71
24 4.36 172.40 0.54 2.16 62.50 0.58 164.5 6.34
72 4.39 32.02 0.51 9.65 216.30 0.42 170.8 5.33
168 4.22 132.00 0.45 7.14 108.50 0.38 283.3 4.47
B
336 4.15 104.90 0.50 2.59 286.00 0.56 395.0 5.40
672 5.16 95.04 0.54 2.70 372.40 0.49 950.6 4.60
1344 6.19 251.70 0.35 8.63 22.97 0.77 1351.0 1.90

layer that enhances corrosion protection in later salt spray exposure
stages. Thus, the transverse section of stainless steel clad carbon steel
plate demonstrates improved corrosion resistance in electrochemical
tests compared to the carbon steel.
The Bode phase plots in Figs. 15(b) and 16(b) exhibit two time
constants, suggesting the impact of the rust layer formation on the
corrosion resistance and capacitance processes [31]. An equivalent cir­
cuit for the rusted SCSP, designed to simulate corrosion behavior in
marine environments, is presented in Fig. 17(b). Here, Qf and Rf repre­
sent the rust layer's capacitive characteristics and the ion migration
resistance within the rust layer, respectively. Table 3 provides the fitting
outcomes, with all chi-square (χ2) values in the order of 10− 4, indicating
reliable fitting. The Rct values, reflective of interface reaction resistance
changes, are utilized for comparing corrosion rates. These values,
detailed in Table 3, show an increase in corrosion time, denoting an
inhibition of the charge transfer process, which aligns with a reduction
in corrosion rate [32]. The fitting parameters, particularly the Rct values
derived from the equivalent circuit, suggest that despite galvanic
corrosion, the transverse section (two outer layers of stainless steel and a
core layer of carbon steel) exhibits marginally superior corrosion resis­
tance than carbon steel over various salt spray exposure durations.
4. Conclusions
This study explored the corrosion resistance of stainless clad steel
plate (304 + Q235 + 304) under simulated marine conditions. Speci­
mens were categorized into three groups based on the exposed surfaces
in the salt spray test: the outer stainless steel layer, the core carbon steel
layer, and the transverse section, with exposure times ranging from 24 to
1344 h. Post salt spray testing, the corrosion resistance of the specimens
was evaluated using mass loss and electrochemical method, com­
plemented by microscopic morphology and composition analyses,
including SEM, EDS, XRD, and 3D scanning. From these analyses, the
corrosion mechanism of the stainless clad steel plate was deduced. The
key conclusions are as follows:
compared to carbon steel. Localized corrosion at the bimetallic
interface remains a concern, even with improved corrosion
resistance over time.
(4) Energy spectroscopy analysis revealed high Cl- and dissolved
oxygen content in the cracks of carbon steel, indicating that
pitting corrosion initiated from cracks on the rust layer. 3D pro­
file scanning showed the maximum corrosion depth at the
interface on the transverse section. From stainless steel to the
carbon steel substrate, the maximum corrosion depth was
observed near the carbon steel side of the interface, measuring
approximately 0.57 mm.
Future Work: Suggests monitoring the corrosion resistance changes
in the transverse section of the stainless clad steel plate over longer
periods and conducting experimental studies under various simulated
marine conditions to develop protective recommendations for specific
scenarios, especially when the transverse section is exposed. Further­
more, the corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of SCSP
composed of carbon steels with different strength grades and stainless
steels with varying corrosion resistance, as well as how to adjust the
cladding ratio of bi-metallic materials to achieve a balance between
corrosion resistance and strength, may also be key research directions.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Juhui Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision,
Funding acquisition. Jiacheng He: Investigation, Formal analysis,
Visualization, Writing – original draft. Bin Peng: Funding acquisition,
Supervision. Hongwei Li: Investigation, Software. Baixian Li: Investi­
gation, Software. Bo Yan: Conceptualization, Funding acquisition, Re­
sources, Supervision. Jia-Hui Zhang: Conceptualization, Funding
acquisition, Investigation, Project administration, Writing – review &
editing.
Declaration of competing interest

(1) The outer layer of stainless steel exhibited outstanding corrosion
resistance in both salt spray tests and electrochemical analysis,
surpassing carbon steel. The corrosion resistance of the stainless
clad steel plate under normal conditions is largely determined by
the outer stainless steel layer.
(2) The corrosion rate of core layer of carbon steel was initially rapid,
then gradually stabilized and decreased. The gradual increase in
α-FeOOH is identified as the primary reason for the stabilization
of the carbon steel's corrosion resistance.
(3) The corrosion rate of the transverse section was similar to that of
carbon steel, but showed signs of improvement over an extended
period. Despite the improvement, the presence of galvanic
corrosion at the bimetallic junction indicates a longer time
required for the corrosion rate to stabilize and decrease,
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
This research, as reported in this paper, is funded by the National Key
Research and Development Program of China (Grant No.
SQ2021YFB3700191). Additionally, it is supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant Nos. 51408359,

14
J. Zhang et al.
51508328, and 51978401. This support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Y. Fan, W. Liu, S. Li, T. Chowwanonthapunya, B. Wongpat, Y. Zhao, B. Dong,
T. Zhang, X. Li, Evolution of rust layers on carbon steel and weathering steel in
high humidity and heat marine atmospheric corrosion, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 39
(2020) 190–199, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2019.07.054.
[2] M.A. Azam, S. Sukarti, M. Zaimi, Corrosion behavior of API-5L-X42 petroleum/
natural gas pipeline steel in South China Sea and Strait of Melaka seawaters, Eng.
Fail. Anal. 115 (2020) 104654, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
engfailanal.2020.104654.
[3] D. Liu, J. Liu, S. Wu, F. Huang, Corrosion fatigue-cracking behaviors of low alloy
steels in seawater for offshore engineering structures, Metall. Mater. Trans. A 53
(7) (2022) 2369–2382, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2020.105666.
[4] Y. Xu, Y. Huang, F. Cai, D. Lu, X. Wang, Study on corrosion behavior and
mechanism of AISI 4125 steel in marine environments based on field exposure
experiment, Sci. Total Environ. 830 (2022) 154864, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2022.154864.
[5] J.D. Fu, S. Wan, Y. Yang, Q. Su, W.W. Han, Y.B. Zhu, Accelerated corrosion
behavior of weathering steel Q345qDNH for bridge in industrial atmosphere,
Constr. Build. Mater. 306 (2021) 124864, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
conbuildmat.2021.124864.
[6] H.K. Mohammed, S.A. Jafar, J.I. Humadi, S. Sehgal, K.K. Saxena, G.H. Abdullah, L.
I. Saeed, M.S. Salman, W.S. Abdullah, Investigation of carbon steel corrosion rate in
different acidic environments, Mater. Today: Proc. (2023), https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matpr.2023.03.792.
[7] S. Zheng, X. Zhang, X. Zhao, Experimental investigation on seismic performance of
corroded steel columns in offshore atmospheric environment, Struct. Des. Tall
Spec. 28 (4) (2018) 1580, https://doi.org/10.1002/tal.1580.
[8] H. Huang, C. Jia, O. Zhao, L. Guo, Local corrosion morphology analysis and
simplification of low carbon steel plates, Ocean Eng. 268 (2023) 113372, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2022.113372.
[9] D. Suo, W. Dai, Y. Liu, B. Zhang, K. Zheng, W. Tu, Y. Jiang, J. Li, Y. Sun, Optimizing
annealing temperature for Duplex Stainless Steel 2205 in acidic NaCl environments
according to corrosion resistance, Corros. Sci. 222 (2023) 111374, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.corsci.2023.111374.
[10] J. Li, M. Ye, R. Li, X. Chen, Effect of microstructure variation on corrosion
properties of as-cast 0Cr23Ni12 stainless steel at high strain rate of hot
compression, J. Iron Steel Res. Int. 30 (10) (2023) 2091–2100, https://doi.org/
10.1007/s42243-023-00918-4.
[11] J. Xue, J. Bouchard, X. Chen, Z. Fan, Y. Zhou, Anisotropic elastic constants
calculation of stainless steel cladded layers of pressure vessel steel plate, Int. J.
Press. Vessel. Pip. 177 (2019) 103991, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijpvp.2019.103991.
[12] Y. Liu, Y. Li, Z. Wang, Y. Liu, T. Wang, Q. Huang, T. Wang, Deformation
mechanism and microstructure evolution in stainless steel clad plate of
longitudinal corrugated hot rolling, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 316 (2023)
117957, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2023.117957.
[13] B.X. Liu, F.X. Yin, X.L. Dai, J.N. He, W. Fang, C.X. Chen, Y.C. Dong, The tensile
behaviors and fracture characteristics of stainless steel clad plates with different
interfacial status, Mater. Sci. Eng. A 679 (2017) 172–182, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msea.2016.10.033.
[14] Z. Lin, B. Liu, W. Yu, B. Zhang, P. Ji, J. Feng, F. Yin, The evolution behavior and
constitution characteristics of interfacial oxides in the hot-rolled stainless steel clad
plate, Corros. Sci. 211 (2023) 110866, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
corsci.2022.110866.
15
Journal of Constructional Steel Research 217 (2024) 108655
[15] H. Ban, R. Bai, L. Yang, Y. Bai, Mechanical properties of stainless-clad bimetallic
steel at elevated temperatures, J. Constr. Steel Res. 162 (2019) 105704, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2019.105704.
[16] H. Ban, J. Zhu, G. Shi, Cyclic loading tests on welded connections of stainless-clad
bimetallic steel and modelling, J. Constr. Steel Res. 171 (2020) 106140, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2020.106140.
[17] H. Ban, J. Zhu, G. Shi, Y. Zhang, Tests and modelling on cyclic behaviour of
stainless-clad bimetallic steel, J. Constr. Steel Res. 166 (2020) 105944, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2020.105944.
[18] W. Shen, L. Feng, H. Feng, Y. Cao, L. Liu, M. Cao, Y. Ge, Preparation and
characterization of 304 stainless steel/Q235 carbon steel composite material,
Results Phys. 7 (2017) 529–534, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2016.12.050.
[19] J. Hua, F. Wang, L. Huang, N. Wang, X. Xue, Experimental study on mechanical
properties of corroded stainless-clad bimetallic steel bars, Constr. Build. Mater. 287
(2021) 123019, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123019.
[20] Y. Xu, X. Hou, Y. Shi, W. Zhang, Y. Gu, C. Feng, K. Volodymyr, Correlation between
the microstructure and corrosion behaviour of copper/316 L stainless-steel
dissimilar-metal welded joints, Corros. Sci. 191 (2021) 109729, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.corsci.2021.109729.
[21] Q. Huang, X. Yang, L. Ma, C. Zhou, G. Liu, H. Li, Interface-correlated characteristics
of stainless steel/carbon steel plate fabricated by AAWIV and hot rolling, J. Iron
Steel Res. Int. 21 (10) (2014) 931–937, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1006-706X(14)
60164-3.
[22] H. Li, L. Zhang, B. Zhang, Q. Zhang, Microstructure characterization and
mechanical properties of stainless steel clad plate, Materials 12 (3) (2019)
12030509, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12030509.
[23] H. Li, L. Zhang, B. Zhang, Q. Zhang, Effect of substrate on metallographic corrosion
of cladding in stainless/carbon steel bimetal plate, Results Phys. 16 (2020) 102925,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2020.102925.
[24] ISO 9227, Corrosion tests in artificial atmospheresdsalt spray tests, International
Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2017.
[25] ISO 8407, Corrosion of metals and alloys removal of corrosion products
fromcorrosion test specimens, International Organization for Standardization,
2021.
[26] Y.Y. Chen, H.J. Tzeng, L.I. Wei, L.H. Wang, J.C. Oung, H.C. Shih, Corrosion
resistance and mechanical properties of low-alloy steels under atmospheric
conditions, Corros. Sci. 47 (4) (2005) 1001–1021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
corsci.2004.04.009.
[27] S. Li, L.H. Hihara, In situ Raman spectroscopic identification of rust formation in
Evans' droplet experiments, Electrochem. Commun. 18 (2012) 48–50, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.elecom.2012.02.014.
[28] J. Jia, X. Cheng, X. Yang, X. Li, W. Li, A study for corrosion behavior of a new-type
weathering steel used in harsh marine environment, Constr. Build. Mater. 259
(2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119760.
[29] C. Pan, W. Han, Z. Wang, C. Wang, G. Yu, Evolution of initial atmospheric
corrosion of carbon steel in an industrial atmosphere, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 25
(12) (2016) 5382–5390, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-016-2312-0.
[30] T. Zhao, K. Liu, Q. Li, Comparison of the rusting behaviors of S450EW weathering
steel under continuous spray and wet/dry cycling, Constr. Build. Mater. 309 (2021)
125211, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125211.
[31] Z. Cui, S. Chen, Y. Dou, S. Han, L. Wang, C. Man, X. Wang, S. Chen, Y.F. Cheng,
X. Li, Passivation behavior and surface chemistry of 2507 super duplex stainless
steel in artificial seawater: influence of dissolved oxygen and pH, Corros. Sci. 150
(2019) 218–234, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2019.02.002.
[32] T. Zhang, W. Liu, Z. Yin, B. Dong, Y. Zhao, Y. Fan, J. Wu, Z. Zhang, X. Li, Effects of
the addition of Cu and Ni on the corrosion behavior of weathering steels in
corrosive industrial environments, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 29 (4) (2020)
2531–2541, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-020-04738-5.