Advanced Strength of Materials

Advanced Strength of Materials
Lecture 4
Recap from the last lecture
XX X
0.9
XX
XX X X
X XX
0.7 XX X
X X
Stress (S/Su)
X XX
X X XX
X X XXXX X
X X X X X
0.5 X
“ideal” steel specimen (fully reversed bending)

0.3
without stress raiser
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
XX X
0.9
XX
XX X X didn’t fail
X XX
0.7 XX X
X X
Stress (S/Su)
X XX
X X XX
X X XXXX X
X X X X X
0.5 X

0.3
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
XX X
0.9
XX
XX X X
X XX
0.7 XX X
X X
Stress (S/Su)
X XX
X X XX
X X XXXX X
X X X X X
0.5 X

0.3
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
XX X
0.9
XX
XX X X
X XX
0.7 XX X
X X
Stress (S/Su)
X XX
X X XX
X X XXXX X
X X X X X
0.5 X

0.3
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9 Su
0.9
0.7
Stress (S/Su)
0.5Su
0.5

0.3
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9 Su
0.9
b
S = aN
0.7
Stress (S/Su)
0.5Su
0.5
where a and b
0.3 are constants
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9 Su
0.9
b
S = aN
0.7
Stress (S/Su)
0.5Su
0.5
0.3
log
= S log a + b log N where a and b
are constants
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9
S103 log a + b log 103
log =
0.7
Stress (S/Su)
0.5
S106 log a + b log 106

log =
These two equations can then be solved for the two
0.3 unknown constants, a and b.
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
Load type
Factor
Bending Torsion Axial
CL 1.0 0.58 0.9*
1.0 for D ≤ 10 mm
CD 1.0
0.9 for 10 ≤ D ≤ 50 mm
CS From figure shown above
Load type
Factor
CL 1.0 0.58 0.9*
1.0 for D ≤ 10 mm
CD 1.0
0.9 for 10 ≤ D ≤ 50 mm
Ref: R. C. Juvinall, p. 234 in Engineering considerations of stress, strain and strength (McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York) (1967).
0.9 Su
0.9
0.7
Stress (S/Su)
0.5Su
0.5
CS CL CD ( 0.5Su )
“non-ideal” steel specimen

0.3
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9 Su
Stress (S/Su)
0.5Su
CS CL CD ( 0.5Su )
Cycles (N)
Load type
Factor
CL 1.0 0.58 0.9*
1.0 for D ≤ 10 mm
CD 1.0
0.9 for 10 ≤ D ≤ 50 mm
0.9 Su
0.9
0.7
Stress (S/Su)
0.5 0.4 Su (max = 130 MPa)
“ideal” aluminium alloy specimen (fully reversed

0.3
bending) without stress raiser
103 5 x 108
Cycles (N)
Introduction to stress concentrations
Simple tension, compression, bending and torsion
⇒ assumed that the bar was of prismatic form
⇒ centrally applied force results in a stress which is evenly

distributed across the cross-section (tension, compression)
or along the length (pure bending, pure torsion)
Even if the cross-section varies very slowly the stress distribution

remains even.


remains even.


remains even.
However …..
abrupt changes in cross-section give rise to great irregularities in

stress distribution.
In a later lecture we will consider the case of a solid rotating disk

compared to one with a small central hole.
However …..
abrupt changes in cross-section give rise to great irregularities in

stress distribution.
In a later lecture we will consider the case of a solid rotating disk

compared to one with a small central hole.
Solid rotating disk
3 +ν
σ t max = ρω 2 ro2
8
Solid rotating disk
3 +ν
8
Rotating disk with small central hole
3 +ν
4
Solid rotating disk
3 +ν
8
σ t max ( Hole )
=2
σ t max ( Solid )
Rotating disk with small central hole
3 +ν
4
Such irregularities or geometric discontinuities, termed stress

concentrations or stress raisers, are of great importance in the
design of components subjected to varying stresses or in the design
of components utilising brittle materials.
Solid rotating disk Rotating disk with small central hole
3 +ν 3 +ν
σ t max = ρω 2 ro2 σ t max = ρω 2 ro2
8 4
Intuitive consideration of stress concentration
When making a preliminary comparison of design alternatives it is

preferable to be able to make a qualitative assessment on the
relative severity of stress raisers.
One concept useful for the visualisation of stress concentration is

that of “lines of force flow”.
Ref: R. C. Juvinall, in Engineering considerations of stress, strain and strength (McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York) (1967).
Far away from the notch …
⇒ lines of force flow are uniformly distributed
Close to the notch …
⇒ become “squeezed together” near the surface as they pass

through the reduced cross-sectional region
Far away from the notch …
⇒ lines of force flow are uniformly distributed
Close to the notch …
⇒ become “squeezed together” near the surface as they pass

through the reduced cross-sectional region
Lines of force flow have a tendency to remain straight unless

otherwise obstructed.
Lines of force squeezed together close to the notch are an

indication of the presence of stress concentration.
Another way to think of this …
each line “carries" an equal load …
⇒ squeezing of lines is equivalent to a larger force being

carried within a smaller region, i.e., higher stress.
Another way to think of this …
each line “carries" an equal load …
⇒ squeezing of lines is equivalent to a larger force being

carried within a smaller region, i.e., higher stress.
FEA of notched beam
FEA property Value

Nodes 834,277
Elements 184,862
Element type Wedge15 (2nd order)
Element size 480 µm ⇒ 5 mm
Material Generic steel
Stress 0.55 MPa
FEA of notched beam
FEA of notched beam
σxx
Max = 16.09 MPa

FEA of notched beam
εxx
Max = 60.07 µε
FEA of notched beam
σxx
Max = 16.09 MPa
σ maximum
≅ 16
σ nominal
FEA of notched beam
FEA of notched beam
σxx
nominal stress
Max = 16.09 MPa

FEA of notched beam
σxx
nominal stress
Max = 16.09 MPa
Area under the curve:
∫ ( normalised stress )( normalised distance ) dx ≅ 1
⇒ average stress ≅ nominal stress

Stress concentration due to a circular hole
Let’s determine the stress field which exists near a circular hole in
an infinite plate subject to uniaxial tension.
Consider a plate subject to a uniform tensile stress of magnitude σ

in the x-direction.
Let’s determine the stress field which exists near a circular hole in
an infinite plate subject to uniaxial tension.
Consider a plate subject to a uniform tensile stress of magnitude σ

in the x-direction.
σx
x
Consider a portion of the plate bounded by a circle of radius, b,

large compared to a, as shown above.
We utilise St. Venant’s principle to assume that local stress

concentrations near the hole have no effect at radius, b.
St. Venant’s principle
Red region = σmax

Red region = 0.1 σmax

Red region = 0.01 σmax

Hence, at r = b (far away from the hole) the stress field will be
similar to that in a plate without a hole.
Let us determine the radial and tangential stresses on the perimeter

of circle radius, b.
σ a 2  σ  3a 4 4a 2 
σ r = 1 − 2  + 1 + 4 − 2  cos 2θ
2 r  2 r r 
σ a 2  σ  3a 4 4a 2  σ a 2  σ  3a 4 
σ r = 1 − 2  + 1 + 4 − 2  cos 2θ σ θ = 1 + 2  − 1 + 4  cos 2θ
2 r  2 r r  2 r  2 r 
σ a 2  σ  3a 4 4a 2  σ a 2  σ  3a 4 
σ r = 1 − 2  + 1 + 4 − 2  cos 2θ σ θ = 1 + 2  − 1 + 4  cos 2θ
2 r  2 r r  2 r  2 r 
σ 3a 4 2a 2 
τ rθ − 1 − 4 + 2  sin 2θ
=
2 r r 
Tangential stress, σθ, along the y-axis (θ = π/2) …
σ a 2 3a 4 
σθ = 2+ 2 + 4 
2  r r 
σθ (θ = π/2)
At the edge of the hole:
⇒ r=a
⇒ σθ = 3σ
At the edge of the hole:
⇒ r=a σ maximum
=3
σ nominal
⇒ σθ = 3σ
σθ = 3σ
normalised distance
from hole
Ref: R. I. Stephens, A. Fatemi, R. R. Stephens, and H. O. Fuchs, p. 188 in Metal fatigue in engineering, 2nd edition (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York)
(2001).
normalised stress
(2001).
normalised stress
parallel to loading
direction
(2001).
normalised stress
parallel to loading
direction
(2001).
normalised stress
parallel to loading
direction
(2001).
Theoretical stress concentration factor, Kt
The ratio of the maximum stress and nominal stress, known as the
theoretical stress concentration factor, Kt, is defined as follows:
σ max imum
Kt =
σ nominal
The ratio of the maximum stress and nominal stress, known as the
theoretical stress concentration factor, Kt, is defined as follows:
σ max imum
Kt =
σ nominal
(2001).
(2001).
(2001).
(2001).
(2001).
Plate width
= 40
Hole diameter
Nominal stress = 90 MPa

Nominal stress = 90 MPa

=K tTheory 2.925
= K tFEA 2.940
normalised stress
perpendicular to
loading direction
(2001).
σy τxy
σx von Mises
σy τxy
σx von Mises
With mesh Without mesh
von Mises stress

Stress Strain
σxx & εxx

Stress Strain
σyy & εyy

Stress Strain
σzz & εzz

Stress Strain
τxy & γxy

Stress Strain
σ1 & ε1
Stress Strain
σ2 & ε2
Stress Strain
Tresca theory of static failure

Stress Strain
von Mises theory of static failure

Stress Stress
Why are σyy & σ1 so similar?

Stress Stress
Why are σyy & σ1 so similar?

Finite element analysis of Laboratory 1 flexural beam
FEA property Value

Nodes 144,714
Elements 83,681
Element type Tet10 (2nd order)
Element size 50 µm ⇒ 2 mm
Material Aluminium 6061-T6
Force 78 N
εxx
Max = 2554 µε
σxx
Max = 175.8 MPa

von Mises
Max = 176.3 MPa

General considerations for stress concentration
factors
When applying stress concentration factors to the analysis of

stresses in engineering components, the following points should be
borne in mind:
(i) Stress concentration factors depend on the type of loading,

e.g., bending, axial, torsional.
Therefore, great care should be made to use the stress

concentration factor appropriate for the type of loading
expected.
factors
(ii) Stress concentration factors must be applied to the nominal

stress, σnom, which takes into account the reduction in
surface area of the specimen due to the stress raiser,
e.g., hole or crack.
(iii) If the component will be subjected to multiple loading

conditions then each load type should be multiplied by the
respective stress concentration factor.
factors
(ii) Stress concentration factors must be applied to the nominal

stress, σnom, which takes into account the reduction in
surface area of the specimen due to the stress raiser,
e.g., hole or crack.
(iii) If the component will be subjected to multiple loading

conditions then each load type should be multiplied by the
respective stress concentration factor.
factors
(iv) Stress concentration factors assume that the strength of the

original component (i.e., without the stress raiser) was
constant throughout the component.
However, for some situations the strength may vary as a function of

distance from the surface.
An example of this is “shot peening” in which small glass or metal

balls are fired at the surface of (usually) steel in order to plastically
deform the surface region.
This results in a residual compressive stress at the surface which

will reduce the tendency for fatigue cracking to initiate at the surface
under specific loading conditions, e.g., axial tensile.
factors




factors




factors
(v) It should be kept in mind that errors may exist when

computing stress concentration factors and thus values
from different sources may differ by a small amount.
Stress concentration due to an elliptical hole
Previously we considered the case of

a circular hole in an infinite plate.
The next situation to consider is that

of an elliptical hole in an infinite plate.
(2001).
By following the same procedure as that shown earlier it is possible

to deduce that:
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
Three special cases can be noted for the theoretical stress

concentration factor due to an elliptical hole in an infinite plate:
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
(i) For a crack parallel to the direction of loading, a/b → 0 and

Kt → 1, showing there to be almost no stress concentration
for this situation.
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
a
= 0.01
b
a
= 0.01
b
a
= 0.01
b
(ii) For a crack perpendicular to the direction of loading,

a/b → ∞ and Kt → ∞.
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
a
= 100
b
a
= 100
b
a
= 100
b
von Mises stress

a
= 100
b
von Mises stress

a
= 100
b
a
= 100
b
a
= 100
b
a
= 100
b
a
= 100
b
Equivalent strain
Equivalent strain
Equivalent
Equivalent strain
strain
Equivalent strain
von Mises stress Equivalent strain
(iii) For a circular hole, a/b = 1 and therefore Kt = 3 as shown

earlier.
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
Stress concentration due to a finite plate width and
thickness
The value of Kt for the cases of a circular or elliptical hole in an

infinite or semi-infinite plate can be obtained relatively simply as
shown earlier.
a
Kt = 1 + 2
b
thickness
However, the situation is complicated when any dimension of the

plate becomes comparable with the dimension of the hole.
In this case it is necessary to take into account the effect of the finite
plate size, resulting in the need to produce graphs of Kt for varying
plate dimensions
thickness

plate dimensions
thickness

plate dimensions
thickness

plate dimensions
thickness
thickness
Ref: R. E. Peterson, in Stress concentration design factors (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) (1953).
thickness
thickness
thickness
It is clear that the concept of Kt may help improve our understanding

of fatigue failure and therefore produce designs that increase the
lifetime of components
How?
⇒ attempt to reduce Kt for any stress raisers present within

the component
Simple examples of how knowledge of Kt may assist in the design of

components have been presented in the following figures.
Perhaps surprisingly, in many of the examples the component may

be strengthened (in fatigue) by removing material.






Ref: J. Y. Mann, in Fatigue of materials (Melbourne University Press, Melbourne) (1967).




Fatigue stress concentration factor, Kf
Experimental tests often indicate …..
…. the reduction in fatigue limit (or fatigue strength) due to stress

raisers is less than that predicted by Kt ….
…. particularly for small notch radii in coarse-grained materials.

Experimental tests often indicate …..
…. the reduction in fatigue limit (or fatigue strength) due to stress

raisers is less than that predicted by Kt ….
…. particularly for small notch radii in coarse-grained materials.

In order to take this into account, the concept of a fatigue stress

concentration factor, Kf, needs to be introduced such that:
S n for unnotched sample

Kf =
S n for notched sample
For the case above, Sn is either the endurance limit, Sn’, or the
endurance strength at an arbitrary large number of cycles, e.g., 5 x
108.
The reason why Kf is often less than Kt involves the relationship

between the stress gradient and coarseness of the microstructure.
Whereas a large machine part and scale model would have the
same value of Kt, the value of Kf would often turn out to be less for
the scale model due to the grain size being the same for both
components,
i.e., the ratio between the size of the stress raiser and grain
structure is different for the machine part and scale model.
Therefore, there must be a relationship between Kt and Kf


components,


components,

Notch-sensitivity curves for the estimation of Kf
R. E. Peterson suggested the use of a notch sensitivity factor, q,

which has become widely used in engineering due to it’s simplicity.
K f −1
q= with 0 ≤ q ≤1
Kt − 1
Rearranging gives
1 + ( K t − 1) q
Kf =
It is recommended to also take into account the effect of surface

roughness on the stress raiser.
For example, if the component in question contains a curved section

which acts as a stress raiser, then the surface finish of the curved
section will also have an effect on Kf.
In this case, we need to modify the previous equation to take into

account the effect of surface roughness as follows:






1 + ( K t − 1) qCS
Kf =
where CS is the surface factor mentioned in the previous lecture.
Ref: R. E. Peterson, “Notch sensitivity”, in Metal fatigue (G. Sines and J. L. Waisman, eds., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York) (1959).
Influence of Kf on fatigue behaviour
specimen geometry
& Kt
loading type
strength
& CS Kf
surface finish
notch radius
&
loading type q
&
strength
specimen geometry
?
& Kt
loading type
strength
?& CS Kf
surface finish
notch radius
&
? type
loading q
&
strength
specimen geometry
& Kt
loading type
strength
& CS Kf
surface finish
notch radius
&
loading type q
&
strength
specimen geometry
& Kt
loading type
strength
& CS Kf
surface finish
notch radius
&
loading type q
&
strength
specimen geometry
& Kt
loading type
strength
& CS Kf
surface finish
notch radius
&
loading type q
&
strength
106 cycle data point
“ideal” steel specimen
“non-ideal” specimen without stress raiser
“non-ideal” specimen with stress raiser

'
“ideal” steel specimen S S=
= n 0.5 Su

'
= n 0.5 Su
“non-ideal” specimen without stress raiser S = CL CD CS S n'

'
= n 0.5 Su
“non-ideal” specimen without stress raiser S = CL CD CS S n'
CL CD CS S n'
“non-ideal” specimen with stress raiser S=
Kf
103 cycle data point (bending)
“ideal” steel specimen

“ideal” steel specimen S = 0.9 Su

“non-ideal” specimen without stress raiser S = 0.9 Su

“non-ideal” specimen with stress raiser ?

For this 103 cycle case, the fatigue stress concentration factor also
needs to be modified and is given the symbol Kf’ which is estimated
from the following figure …
Ref: R. B. Heywood, in Designing against fatigue (Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London) (1962).
For this 103 cycle case, the fatigue stress concentration factor also
needs to be modified and is given the symbol Kf’ which is estimated
from the following figure …
Ref: R. B. Heywood, in Designing against fatigue (Chapman and Hall, Ltd., London) (1962).
0.9 Su
“non-ideal” specimen with stress raiser S=
Kf '
Review of S-N plot for fully reversed bending
0.9 0.9 Su
0.7
0.5Su
0.5
Stress (S/Su)
0.3
0.1
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9 0.9 Su
0.7
0.5Su
0.5
Stress (S/Su)
CS CL CD ( 0.5Su )
0.3
0.1
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)
0.9 0.9 Su
0.7
0.5Su
0.5
Stress (S/Su)
CS CL CD ( 0.5Su )
0.9 Su
0.3 K ′f
CS CL CD ( 0.5Su )
Kf
0.1
103 104 105 106 107 108

Cycles (N)

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Advanced Strength of Materials

“ideal” steel specimen (fully reversed bending)

103 104 105 106 107 108

“ideal” steel specimen (fully reversed bending)

103 104 105 106 107 108

“ideal” steel specimen (fully reversed bending)

103 104 105 106 107 108

“ideal” steel specimen (fully reversed bending)

103 104 105 106 107 108

“ideal” steel specimen (fully reversed bending)

103 104 105 106 107 108

103 104 105 106 107 108

103 104 105 106 107 108

S106 log a + b log 106

103 104 105 106 107 108

“non-ideal” steel specimen

103 104 105 106 107 108

0.5 0.4 Su (max = 130 MPa)

“ideal” aluminium alloy specimen (fully reversed

Simple tension, compression, bending and torsion

⇒ assumed that the bar was of prismatic form

⇒ centrally applied force results in a stress which is evenly

Even if the cross-section varies very slowly the stress distribution

Simple tension, compression, bending and torsion

⇒ assumed that the bar was of prismatic form

⇒ centrally applied force results in a stress which is evenly

Even if the cross-section varies very slowly the stress distribution

Simple tension, compression, bending and torsion

⇒ assumed that the bar was of prismatic form

⇒ centrally applied force results in a stress which is evenly

Even if the cross-section varies very slowly the stress distribution

abrupt changes in cross-section give rise to great irregularities in

In a later lecture we will consider the case of a solid rotating disk

abrupt changes in cross-section give rise to great irregularities in

In a later lecture we will consider the case of a solid rotating disk

Solid rotating disk

Solid rotating disk

Rotating disk with small central hole

Solid rotating disk

Such irregularities or geometric discontinuities, termed stress

Solid rotating disk Rotating disk with small central hole

When making a preliminary comparison of design alternatives it is

One concept useful for the visualisation of stress concentration is

Far away from the notch …

⇒ lines of force flow are uniformly distributed

Close to the notch …

⇒ become “squeezed together” near the surface as they pass

Far away from the notch …

⇒ lines of force flow are uniformly distributed

Close to the notch …

⇒ become “squeezed together” near the surface as they pass

Lines of force flow have a tendency to remain straight unless

Lines of force squeezed together close to the notch are an

Another way to think of this …

each line “carries" an equal load …

⇒ squeezing of lines is equivalent to a larger force being

Another way to think of this …

each line “carries" an equal load …