In the history of Korean architecture, tradition has been a valuable asset and in some instances a root of identity, while

at other times it was

something to be overcome or left behind. In both cases, it is impossible to discuss Korean contemporary architecture without an
understanding of it. Korean traditional architecture exists within the context of Asian traditional architecture. Nonetheless, it has developed
according to its own particular set of characteristics—its flexible responses to topography and surrounding mountains, the organic layout of
its buildings, its reiteration and metastasis of space—that distinguish it from the architecture of China and Japan. The unique charm of
traditional building culture is now attracting new attention. It provides important bearings for those searching for “Koreanness” in the context
of modern architecture and for those attempting to understand Korean contemporary architecture that rediscovers and reinterprets
tradition.

In ancient times on the Korean Peninsula, intense rivalry between various states that had entered the iron age led to the formation of three
powerful and organized monarchies: these were Goguryeo (37BCE–668CE), Baekje (17BCE–660CE) and Silla (57BCE–935CE), known
collectively as the Three Kingdoms. Janganseong and Gyeongju, the respective capitals of Goguryeo and Silla, displayed layouts in a grid-like
configuration of horizontal and vertical roads and residences arranged in chessboard fashion. Both cities were planned with an emphasis on
defense, surrounded by stone walls and mountain fortresses.

Figure 1. (From left to right) Janggunchong Tomb from Goguryeo, Cheonmachong Tomb from Silla, and King Muryeong’s tomb from Baekje

Each of the Three Kingdoms developed its own unique culture, into which evidence found in excavated tombs has offered us valuable insights.
Goguryeo’s architecture is characterized by huge stone-pile tombs. Janggunchong Tomb, thought to date from around the 5th century CE, is
31.5 meters across and 12.4 meters high. The murals inside it realistically depict various scenes from the life of the deceased. As time passed,
the emphasis of such tomb murals shifted from realism to symbolism, with scenes from everyday life being replaced by one of the Four
Symbols (the Azure Dragon of the East, the Vermilion Bird of the South, the White Tiger of the West, and the Black Tortoise of the North)
each on the eastern, southern, western and northern walls.
Baekje tombs were initially similar to those of Goguryeo, though smaller in size. From the late-5th century, however, brick tombs began to
appear; among these, that of King Muryeong offers a rare example of a tomb in which the deceased has been identified with certainty.
Silla tombs were built in a style different from those of Goguryeo and Baekje. A pit was dug in the ground, after which a burial chamber was
built from wood and the body of the deceased placed inside. A round pile of small stones was built above this, which was in turn covered
with earth to create a mound. These tumuli often measured more than 45 meters in base circumference and 12 meters in height.

The introduction of Buddhism brought extensive change and development to the

architecture of the Three Kingdoms. Goguryeo temples were built with three sanctums
arranged to the north, east and west of a central wooden octagonal pagoda. This layout
corresponds to that of Japan’s Asuka-dera and Horyuji temples, indicating that
Goguryeo’s architectural culture was transmitted to Japan.

In Baekje, unlike Goguryeo, Buddhist temple complexes consisted of a central square

Figure 2. The stone pagoda at Mireuksaji temple site
pagoda from which the main building and assembly hall were arranged in a single row
to the north. Complexes therefore took on a long, vertical appearance. Although Baekje
pagodas were originally built in wood, this was gradually replaced by stone; the 6th
century stone pagoda at Jeongnimsaji temple site in Buyeo, the capital of Baekje, is a
good example of this. The stone pagoda at Mireuksaji temple site in Iksan, meanwhile,
is a direct imitation of a wooden pagoda structure that illustrates the period of transition
from one material to the other. The Baekje temple layout, too, was transmitted to Japan,
resulting in the building of temples such as Shitennoji in Osaka.

Silla was the last of the Three Kingdoms to adopt Buddhism and thus inevitably influenced by Goguryeo and Baekje. Nonetheless, it developed
its own creative style of Buddhist architecture through the gradual introduction of indigenous elements. Hwangnyongsa Temple, in particular,
boasted a 7th-century wooden pagoda that stood more than 70 meters tall. Unfortunately, this pagoda was burned down during the
Mongolian invasion in the 13th century. Silla differed from the other two kingdoms in its frequent use of brick-like patterns in the construction
of pagodas. The pagoda at Bunhwangsa Temple, for example, consists of stone cut into the shapes of bricks and was built using a bricklaying
technique.

Despite such differences, the temple architectures of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla shared one basic feature: the central position of the pagoda.
Temples in all three kingdoms were designed with a pagoda at the heart of their complexes, with other buildings laid out around them.

Figure 3. Seokgatap (left) and Dabotap (right) pagodas in front of Daeungjeon Hall, Bulguksa Temple
Silla’s unification of the Three Kingdoms in the 7th century saw the formation of two states: Unified Silla occupied the majority of the Korean
Peninsula, while subjects of the former kingdom of Goguryeo formed the state of Balhae in northern Korea and Manchuria. This era is
consequently often referred to as the North and South States period. Gyeongju, the capital of newly unified Silla, saw an even greater
accumulation of people and material wealth, a situation that demanded both expansion and better organization. The city’s grid formation
was further extended, creating enough square plots of land to accommodate 170,000
households. Gyeongju became a truly splendid city, the capital of a dynasty that lasted for
more than a millennium.

Changes became apparent in Silla temples immediately after it had unified the Three
Kingdoms. Temple complexes now included not one but two pagodas in front of their main
halls. Sacheonwangsa Temple, in the center of Gyeongju, and Gameunsa Temple, on the
outskirts of the city, both featured two pagodas. This was not just a local phenomenon but a
wider trend that existed in China and Japan in the same period. Bulguksa Temple, built in 751,
also has two pagodas arranged on a left-right axis: Dabotap Pagoda and Seokgatap Pagoda.
These two pagodas and their names reflect the content of the Lotus Sutra, in which
Prabhutaratna Buddha, the Buddha of the past (known in Korean as Dabo), sits next to
Sakyamuni Buddha, the Buddha of the present (Seokga), testifying that the latter’s teaching of
the dharma is correct. If the previous era had been one of using the power of Buddhism to
reinforce royal authority, this was one of seeking a sense of depth in religious activity through Figure 4.The stupa at Ssangbongsa Temple
the interpretation of the Buddhist creed.

Silla during the North and South States period also saw a growing preference for Zen Buddhism, which emphasized the importance of Zen
meditation, and belief in mountain deities. This led to a rapid proliferation of temples in mountainous areas. Temples from this period that
remain today include Tongdosa, Geumsansa, Beopjusa, Buseoksa, Hwaeomsa and Haeinsa. These temples, with natural layouts that followed
the contours of the slopes on which they were built, had completely different atmospheres to those of the geometrically arranged temple
complexes previously built in urban areas.

Another new architectural form to emerge at this time was that of the stupa, a small stone tower built to enshrine the sarira or cremated
ashes of eminent monks. These aesthetically sophisticated structures, covered in splendid ornamentation and carved with elaborate details
are examples of Silla’s unique and original architecture and handicraft.

It can be assumed that Balhae, a state established in 698 by the former migrants of Goguryeo, inherited the latter’s architectural styles as
they also actively embraced the architectural culture of Tang China, resulting in an international style. Long-time Balhae capital Sanggyeong
Yongcheonbu was a thoroughly planned city from the start, arranged in a square formation like the Tang dynasty’s capital Changan. A main
road was created along a north-south axis in the city center, at the end of which a royal palace was located. The remains of towers and
tombs have been excavated outside the capital; these Balhae’s brick towers are similar in style to Chinese architecture, while the stone
chamber tombs of its ruling family members, for example that of Princess Jeonghye, are identical to those of Goguryeo.
The Goryeo (918–1392) capital of Gaegyeong, built in the 10th century, is characterized by the way the entire city follows the natural
contours of the land upon which it sits. The topography of its location, an undulating basin surrounded by mountains, caused the capital’s
roads to be curved rather than straight. Despite the fact that the city was planned, the sizes of the residential plots between its roads are
also irregular. The important buildings within the royal palace compound are arranged in long, north-south rows, but these, too, are not
completely straight; rather, the position and orientation of each structure differs slightly. This form is different to those of palaces in
Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla and China, and is due to the way the city’s roads follow the natural contours of the land.

Figure 5. Songgwangsa Temple located on Mt. Jogyesan in Suncheon

Goryeo was a devoutly Buddhist state, from its royal family to its commoners. Consequently, the whole country was full of Buddhist
temples built to pray for the wellbeing of the royal household and the health of individual citizens. Heungwangsa Temple, built over the
course of 12 years near Gaegyeong (today’s Gaeseong), consisted of buildings with a total of 2,800 kan (a unit of building area
corresponding to the distance between columns).

The construction of stone pagodas and stupas continued in the Goryeo period. The number of stone pagodas greatly increased, with strong
expressions of regional character. This led to a diversification of forms and heights, with some pagodas reaching 11 stories. The curves of
chunyeo (rafters protruding from the eaves at the corners of roofs) grew sharper, while overall forms grew slimmer.

The leading force in 13th century Buddhism was that of provincial mountain temples, including Zen temples such as Songgwangsa Temple
and Baengnyeonsa Temple. These temples were laid out in asymetrical, undulating arrangements that followed the contours of the land
upon which they were built. This was a form that had already appeared in temples built by monks who had brought Zen Buddhism back to
Korea from China in the late Silla period. In the Goryeo period, however, it became more pronounced and deeply entrenched.
The wooden architecture of Goryeo can be classified into two categories: jusimpo (column-head bracket) and dapo (multi-bracket). Jusimpo
style architecture is that in which brackets (wooden structural elements fitted to the tops of columns or beams in order to support the weight
of roof eaves) are placed only at the heads of the building’s structural columns, while dapo style architecture features additional brackets
between columns. Though a transition from column-head to multi-bracket styles was in progress in China at the time, the people of Goryeo
showed a preference for the former, resulting in magnificent buildings such as Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple. The concentration
of the weight of the roof on columns in column-head bracket architecture gives columns an important structural and aesthetic role. In such
cases, columns are shaped in a subtly curved way whereby their profile expands gradually until around one third of the way up before
gradually contracting again. This technique is known in Korean as baeheullim (entasis). Baeheullim was also used on columns in China and
Japan, but nothing compares to the beauty of Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple, which represents the zenith of column-head bracket
architecture. Muryangsujeon Hall is also valuable in that it combines the column-head bracket style with a large, paljak (hip-and-gable) roof.

jusimpo (column-head bracket) dapo (multi-bracket)

matbae (gable) roof ujingak (hipped) roof paljak (hip-and-gable) roof

The Geungnakjeon Hall at Bongjeongsa Temple in Andong, Korea’s oldest extant wooden building, also features the column-head bracket
system. Opinions as to exactly when this structure, which became famous following a visit in 1999 by Queen Elizabeth II, was built, but
comparison with Chinese buildings indicates that the Geungnakjeon Hall uses 10th century architectural forms. It also features flame patterns
found in Goguryeo tomb murals.

As time went on, column-head bracket architecture placed an increasing emphasis on ornamental aspects being used to provide decoration
in structurally simple matbae (gable) roof buildings. A good example of this is the Daeungjeon Hall at Sudeoksa Temple, built in 1308. While
some believe it is similar in style to the architecture of southern China, details such as brackets at the heads of its columns indicate the
development of a unique Korean style.
Multi-bracket systems had the comparative advantage over columnhead bracket styles of solving certain structural problems. The
Bogwangjeon Hall at Simwonsa Temple in today’s North Korea features the same hip-and-gable roof as that of the Muryangsujeon Hall at
Buseoksa, but with a multi-bracket rather than column-head bracket design. Despite their use of different bracket systems, both buildings
feature the same “lever-form” chunyeo at the corners of their roofs. Chunyeo are rafters protruding diagonally out from the corners of a
building. A lever type chunyeo rests half within the cross-beams and half on the outsides. The weight on the roof rests on the inner half of
the chunyeo, pushing it down and pushing the outer half up through a lever effect, lifting the corners of the roof. This is one of the key
distinctions between Goryeo-period and Joseon (1392–1910)-period architecture.

Figure 6. Muryangsujeon Hall at Buseoksa Temple (left) and Geungnakjeon Hall at Bongjeongsa Temple (right), good examples of the jusimpo style
from the Goryeo Dynasty.

In 1392, General Yi Seong-gye founded the new dynasty of Joseon. Two years later, he chose Hanyang (modern day Seoul) as its capital. Just
as in the preceding Goryeo period, geomancy was deeply influential in choosing the location of the city. After the key mountains and
orientation of the city and the site of the main palace had been determined, Jongmyo Shrine and Sajikdan Altar were built to the east and
west of the main palace, respectively. Adhering to such propriety was believed to be the most fundamental consideration when building the
new city. The topography of the site, however, made building a completely square, symmetrical city impossible. While remaining faithful to
basic principles and ideology, therefore, Hanyang’s planners acknowledged the natural contours of the land, applying principles of feng shui
(pungsu in Korea), yin/yang, and the Five Elements.

Five Joseon-era palaces still stand in modern Seoul: Gyeongbokgung Palace, Changdeokgung Palace, Changgyeonggung Palace,
Gyeongungung Palace (currently known as Deoksugung Palace) and Gyeonghuigung Palace. Gyeongbokgung Palace, with main gate
Gwanghwamun establishing its central axis, emphasizes order and hierarchy. Its main buildings are arranged along a central axis consisting
of Geunjeongjeon Hall, where rituals of state were conducted; Sajeongjeon Hall, where the king performed his duties during peacetime;
Gangnyeongjeon Hall, the king’s residence and resting place; and Gyotaejeon Hall, the queen’s quarters. The overall design of the palace was
one of left-right symmetry, arranged according to this axis. After being burned down during the Japanese invasions of the late 16th century,
Gyeongbokgung was restored to its former glory in 1865.
Figure 7. Gyeongbokgung Palace

Changdeokgung Palace is characterized by its almost total lack of level ground; its undulating, irregular terrain has been used in its original
form to create a natural layout. The main gate of the palace is located to the southwest of the complex, so that visitors heading for the main
hall must turn eastwards after entering, then north again. All buildings in the palace are arranged at oblique angles rather than along a single
north-south axis, making Changdeokgung Palace the most Korean in character among the country’s remaining palaces.

Changgyeonggung Palace was built as a residence for the king’s mother and grandmother. Its somewhat small scale allowed its main buildings
to be arranged in a relatively straight line, but it is unusual in that it faces east rather than south.

Gyeongungung Palace (Deoksugung Palace) was originally not a royal palace but the residence of a prince. When other palaces were burned
down during the Japanese invasions, however, it was used as the king’s temporary residence. In 1611, it was named Gyeongungung Palace
and acquired the status Korea’s fourth royal palace. In 1900, it became the imperial palace of the Daehan Empire. One of Korea’s first
Western-style buildings, Seokjojeon Hall, was built within its complex. In 1907, after he was forced to abdicate, Emperor Gojong began living
in the palace and its name was changed to Deoksugung Palace.

Gyeonghuigung Palace, too, features an irregular layout that reflects its natural topography. Its gate is located at the south-east corner of its
complex. In 1909, imperial Japan demolished all of Gyeonghuigung Palace’s buildings and built a Japanese middle school on the site. In 1988,
the palace’s main gate, Honghwamun Gate, and Sungjeongjeon Hall were restored.

Jongmyo Shrine, Joseon’s royal shrine, is located to the east of Gyeongbokgung Palace, opposite Sajikdan Altar to the west. It is one of the
most important pieces of architecture of this period. Starting with the ancestral tablet of King Taejo (Yi Seong-gye), the founder of the dynasty,
at the far west, the building houses the successive ancestral tablets of all deceased Joseon monarchs. As the number of tablets to be enshrined
increased over time, the building was gradually extended from its original 7 kan, ultimately reaching a width of 19 kan. In Joseon, where
Confucian loyalty and filial piety were practically the cardinal tenets of the nation, nowhere was more important than this building for
worshipping the ancestors of the king.

Munmyo Shrine, meanwhile, consisted of an area that housed the ancestral tablets of Korea’s most famous Confucian scholars, centered on
Confucius himself, and an area where students gathered to study. A hierarchical order exists within Munmyo, as well, with the buildings
housing ancestral tablets accorded greater importance and buildings to the east of the complex placed in higher positions that those to the
west.

Jongmyo and Munmyo shrines were located only in the capital; the provinces were instead home to hyanggyo (provincial Confucian shrines
and village public schools). Hyanggyo echoed the function and composition of Munmyo Shrine. They displayed certain differences according
to the various sizes and topographies of their plots. Those built on large, flat sites placed the building housing ancestral tablets at the front
of the complex, while those with narrow plots that were forced to build on sloping land placed this building on higher ground at the back of
the complex.

Figure 8. Cheonan Hyanggyo

Joseon-era wooden buildings used various bracket systems. The most important and formal
buildings in royal palaces and Buddhist temples used multi-bracket designs. Other important
buildings of lower status, such as the main buildings in gaeksa (guesthouses for traveling officials
and dignitaries) and daeseongjeon (the buildings that housed the tablets of Confucius and other
important scholars) in hyanggyo, featured column head bracket designs. Normal houses were
usually built without the use of brackets, which is called mindori style. Regular houses designed
to appear more formal, or buildings within the complex of official places such as palaces,
temples, public offices and hyanggyo that were intended to appear less formal, used the ikgong
system. The ikgong is a simplified version of the bracket found in column-head and multi-
Figure 9. The main hall at the Jongmyo
bracket designs, featuring a bird beak-like protrusion as its main decorative element. In some
shrine is an example of the ikgong style.
cases, ikgong can also be found in highly important buildings such as those of Jongmyo Shrine or the shrines of hyanggyo; this can be
interpreted as a sign of respect or an emulation of the restraint and frugality of the ancestors they commemorate. Though such symbolic
order was strictly observed in the early Joseon period, the passing of time led to blended styles and the appearance of forms showing
compromise between column head and multi-bracket designs or between column-head brackets and ikgong in later years.

In the late 19th century, Korea signed a series of treaties in which it agreed to open its doors to many foreign countries, including Japan,
China, Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia, and France. The ports of Busan, Wonsan and Incheon were opened as a result, leading to the
appearance of various foreign concessions with new and unfamiliar buildings. While foreign legations were initially housed in remodeled
traditional hanok (Korean style houses), after 1890 they began erecting buildings in the architectural styles of their own respective countries.
All that now remains of the Russian legation, built in Seoul next to Deoksugung Palace in 1895, is its belltower, while the Belgian consulate
that was built in 1905 in Hoehyeondong, Jung-gu still stands but has been relocated.

The appearance of buildings in new styles was accompanied by the demolition of traditional city walls, leading to extensive and fundamental
change in Korea’s cityscapes. The demolition of Daegu’s city wall in 1906 was followed in 1907 by part of that of Seoul; the phenomenon
spread later on to cities all over the country.

In 1897, Emperor Gojong moved from Gyeongbokgung Palace to Gyeongungung Palace (today’s Deoksugung Palace). In order to proclaim his
new status as an emperor, he built Wongudan Altar, a round altar for hosting the performance of the rite of heaven, a ritual that could only
be performed by an emperor, opposite Gyeongungung Palace. Hwanggungu Shrine, part of the Wongudan complex, was built to house the
ancestral tablet of Taejo, founder of the Joseon Dynasty. Within Gyeongungung Palace itself, meanwhile, a series of Western-style buildings
was erected; the first of these, Jeonggwanheon Pavilion, was built as a venue for holding banquets. Seokjojeon Hall, completed in 1910, is a
three-story neoclassical style building designed to imitate the style of a European palace. Junghwajeon Hall, a two-story structure built in
1902 by Korea’s last palace carpenters, was destroyed by fire and rebuilt as a one-story structure in 1906. The simultaneous building of
Western-style Seokjojeon Hall and traditional-style Junghwajeon Hall completed this modern-style palace with its coexistence of traditional
and Western architectural forms.
The Catholic Church in Korea gained freedom to conduct missionary activity as part of a treaty signed with France in 1886. Yakhyeon Catholic
Church was built in 1892 and became a model for other small Catholic churches in the country. Myeong-dong Cathedral was completed in
1898, becoming Korea’s leading Catholic building. Built under the supervision of Father Eugene Coste, the cathedral was built in an overall
Romanesque style, with its interior spatial composition and finer details in Gothic style. Outside Seoul, Daegu’s Gyesan-dong Catholic Church
was completed in1902 in the same style as that of Myeong-dong Cathedral. Jeonju’s Jeongdong Catholic Church, completed in 1914, has
three domed bell towers: the central dome is dodecagonal, while those on either side are octagonal. Protestant Jeong-dong Church,
meanwhile, first used a hanok building; this was replaced by a Victorian-style brick church in 1898.

Other protestant cathedrals and churches also followed this trend of initially using hanok before erecting their own Western-style structures.
In provincial towns with relatively small numbers of worshippers, however, designs for hanok churches appeared. Doejae Catholic Church
(1894) in Jincheon and Ganghwa Anglican Church (1900) on Ganghwado Island are good examples of this. Built by Rev. Charles John Corfe,
Korea’s first Anglican bishop, Ganghwa Anglican Church symbolizes the Korean naturalization of Western Christianity through its adaptation
of the wooden hanok style to produce a basilica-like floor plan. The same process, of course, occurred with Protestant churches; Sollae Church
in Jangyeon, Hwanghae-do province is known as the first entirely hanok Protestant chapel. Many other chapels at this time used L-shaped
hanok designs in consideration of the late-Joseon social climate, which required segregated spaces for men and women. One surviving
example of this form is Geumsan Church in Gimje, built in 1908.
By 1907, the Korean government was running a technical
college which turned out engineers with the basic skills needed
for architectural work. Gyeongseong Industrial Vocational
School, a college teaching architectural design, opened in 1916,
though only a small number of its students were Korean. This
school turned out around 60 Korean graduates by 1945. Only
some of these went on to work as architects; key examples
include Park Gil-ryong and Park Dong-jin.

Park Gil-ryong graduated in 1919 and initially became a civil

Figure 10. Former main hall of Seoul National University
servant before opening his own studio in 1932. He designed a
large number of buildings from 1929, including the former main hall of Keijo Imperial University (now Seoul National University) in 1930,
Jongno Department Store in 1931 and Hwasin Department Store in 1935. Park also designed Bohwagak (now Gansong Art Museum), Korea’s
first private museum, in 1938. Park Dong-jin graduated in 1924 and opened his own company in 1938; previously, from around 1932, he
designed a large number of buildings including the main hall and library of Korea University. Though some of his works show modern,
rationalist tendencies, most of them are stone buildings in Gothic style. The Chosun Ilbo head office (1933), Osan Middle School (1936),
Jungang Middle School (1937) and Yeongnak Church (1946) are all Park’s work.

Figure 11. Main hall of Korea University

Mud huts, which first appeared on the Korean Peninsula in the Paleolithic Period,
were created through a combination of pits dug in the ground and timbers
arranged in a converging structure above. These huts featured fireplaces in their
centers and holes for storing food around fireplaces. The remains of mud huts
from this period have been excavated in Amsa-dong in today’s southeast Seoul.
With the advent of the Bronze Age and the expansion of agriculture, villages and
the mud huts in them grew larger. Interior space was divided, according to
function, into cooking and resting areas, while some buildings were built with
elevated, loft-like spaces. The spread of iron culture around the 3rd century BCE
saw the emergence of Gojoseon and several other states on the Korean
Figure 12. Reconstruction of prehistoric mud huts in
Peninsula. Buildings and villages became larger again and the forms and Seoul’s Amsa-dong neighborhood
structures of houses further diversified. More houses were built without resorting to the use of pits, based instead upon columns resting on
foundation stones at ground level. The use of fully vertical walls increased available interior space, allowing people to spend more time and
engage in a greater range of activity indoors. It was at this time that original forms of ondol (underfloor heating), which can be regarded as a
defining characteristic of Korean residential architecture, began to appear.

Silla’s capital city during the North and South States period was home to people of varying social status. In accordance with Silla’s rigid caste
system, the homes of its citizens were also subject to various restrictions, in terms of size and ornamentation, according to their statuses.
Specific standards dictated details such as the size of rooms, form of staircases, type of roof tiles and roof decorations, form of wooden
brackets, ceiling appearance, right to use decorative dancheong painting (red and green colors on the pillars and rafters of a building), height
of walls, type of front gate and size of stable.

Goryeo, too, placed similar restrictions upon the building of houses; those who violated them could be punished. Nonetheless, those in power
did take advantage of their authority to build unnecessarily luxurious buildings. The houses of ordinary citizens are presumed to have not
been especially splendid. While wooden beds were used in the houses of those of high status, commoners generally used ondol, which made
sleeping on the floor the preferable option. In the late Goryeo period, individuals were encouraged, at the suggestion of Confucian scholars,
to install family shrines in their own houses for the performing of ancestral rites.

In the Joseon period, too, social class-based distinctions existed not only in the size of plot and floor area of the house, but also the length of
materials used and architectural forms. The practice of installing Confucian shrines and performing rites in the house increased the
importance of the maru (a wooden-floored central space). A typical house was arranged with the male and female anbang (inner quarters)
facing each other across a central space and the kitchen placed in front of, or next to, the anbang. Ondol, which warms rooms by using fire
to heat the stones that comprise the floor from below, became widespread and was used in houses throughout Korea, regardless of the social
status of their occupants. This completed the defining characteristic of Korean architecture: the juxtaposition of fire-heated ondol rooms and
naturally ventilated ritual spaces (maru) in a single building. Those of high social status lived in complexes with a separate anchae (main
building), sarangchae (men’s quarters), haengnangchae (servants’ quarters), sadang (ancestral shrine) and occasionally a separate banbitgan
(kitchen).

Examples of maru (left) and ondol (right)

Joseon residential architecture reached a technical and cultural peak in the mid-19th century, as exemplified in buildings such as
Yeongyeongdang and Nakseonjae in Changdeokgung Palace and Unhyeongung Palace. The introduction of Western culture and Japan’s
seizure of Korea’s economic assets, however, brought change to traditional methods of housebuilding. The 1920s saw the appearance in
cities of so-called “cultural housing,” a compromise between Western-style housing and traditional lifestyles. As interest in function grew,
the tendency to link the inner spaces of hanok with long corridors grew more pronounced. Examples from the 1930s illustrate this
phenomenon both in the work of trained architects, such as Park Gil-ryong’s “Min Byeong-ok House” in Insa-dong, and in that of traditional
carpenters, such as the “Lee Tae-jun House” in Seongbuk-dong. These houses also feature indoor toilets, though they are located in corner
positions.

The house of Min Byeong-ok

near Insa-dong is now used as
a restaurant called Min’s Club.
Increases in the urban population between the 1930s and 1960s led to a need for more large-scale housing developments on the outskirts of
cities. In order to build large numbers of cheap hanok, land was divided into plots of a certain size and a standard model of hanok designed.

A ㄷ (a letter in the Korean alphabet)-shaped design was employed in order to make efficient use of each plot; houses were built facing away

from the road, enhancing security, while inner courtyards were maintained, increasing the comfort of occupants. Since the structural nature
of hanok makes building them more than one-story-high difficult, some were also built in terraced form, with several repetitions of the same
floor plan, making it possible to accommodate more than one household.

Following the building of apartments for civil servants in 1968, apartments for private
citizens began sprouting up in Seoul’s Dongbuichon-dong. The dull I-shaped apartment
blocks built en masse in the 1970s were simple in their layout. A turning point for multi-
unit dwellings in Korea came in 1986 with the building of accommodations for athletes
participating in the Asian Games, which organically connected the everyday lines of flow
of its residents with communal living spaces. Later developments went beyond the scale
of single apartments to include the planning of whole urban areas. The new district built
in Seoul’s Mok-dong area was divided into commercial and residential zones, with each
apartment complex accorded a degree of independence and featuring various other
experimental elements, such as a mixture of low- and high-rise blocks. The
accommodations built for athletes and journalists at the 1988 Seoul Olympics showed
apartment blocks radiating outward and differing in shape and height, suggesting a new
form of collective housing. In 1989, the planning of two new cities outside Seoul, Bundang
and Ilsan, in order to spread housing demand outside the bounds of the saturated capital,
was announced. These plans aimed to create not satellite cities but areas capable of
functioning as autonomous towns in their own right.
Figure 13. Tower Palace in Seoul’s Dogok-dong
neighborhood
In Seoul, meanwhile, multipurpose super high-rise blocks appeared as a new form in the
1990s. Built in the 2000s, Tower Palace is a development renowned as the epitome of super-high-rise multipurpose blocks in Korea. Equipped
with banquet halls, a gym, a swimming pool, a golf driving range and a rooftop garden in a single building, Tower Palace is an impregnable
fortress that eliminates the need for its residents to venture beyond its gates.