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Magnetic Ferrites and
Related
Nanocomposites
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Magnetic Ferrites and
Related
Nanocomposites
Ali Ghasemi
Elsevier
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To my wife Azadeh
for her continued love, patience, and support
AND
my children
Reza, Ava, and Nava,
who are the reason for the mercy of God
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of ferrites.......................................... 1

1.1 Introduction...................................................................... 1
1.2 Brief history of magnets ..................................................... 1
1.3 Basic science of magnetism ................................................ 3
1.3.1 Origin of magnetism.................................................. 3
1.3.2 Coulomb and Lorentz forces ....................................... 3
1.3.3 Definition of fundamental magnetic parameters .............. 4
1.3.4 Ampère’s law ........................................................... 5
1.3.5 Faraday’s law ........................................................... 6
1.3.6 Lenz’s law ............................................................... 6
1.3.7 Maxwell’s equations .................................................. 6
1.4 Classes of magnetic materials.............................................. 7
1.4.1 Diamagnetism........................................................... 7
1.4.2 Paramagnetism.......................................................... 7
1.4.3 Ferromagnetism ...................................................... 10
1.4.4 Antiferromagnetism ................................................. 11
1.4.5 Ferrimagnetism....................................................... 13
1.5 Importance of ferrites........................................................15
1.6 Fundamentals of ferrite crystal structures..............................15
1.6.1 Spinel ferrites ......................................................... 16
1.6.2 Hexagonal ferrites ................................................... 16
1.6.3 Garnet structure ...................................................... 22
1.6.4 Orthoferrite structure ............................................... 23
1.7 Superexchange interaction .................................................23
1.8 Applications of ferrites......................................................26
1.8.1 Applications of ferrites in microwave-absorbing
media.................................................................... 27
1.8.2 Applications of ferrites in hard disk drives................... 30
1.8.3 Applications of ferrites in biosciences......................... 32
1.8.4 Applications of ferrites in the environment .................. 35
1.8.5 Applications of ferrites as permanent magnets.............. 35
1.8.6 Applications of ferrites in modern electronics............... 36
1.8.7 Applications of ferrites in microwave devices............... 41
References ......................................................................45
vii
viii Contents
CHAPTER 2 Ferrite characterization techniques ........................49

2.1 Introduction.....................................................................49
2.2 X-ray diffraction ..............................................................49
2.2.1 Fundamental principles of X-ray diffraction..................50
2.2.2 X-ray diffraction components and performance .............51
2.2.3 Applications ............................................................53
2.2.4 Strengths and limitations ...........................................53
2.3 Scanning electron microscopy.............................................54
2.3.1 The basic principles of scanning electron microscopy.....54
2.3.2 Scanning electron microscopy components and
performance ............................................................55
2.3.3 Energy- and wavelength-dispersive spectroscopy ...........57
2.3.4 Applications ............................................................58
2.3.5 Strengths and limitations ...........................................58
2.4 Transmission electron microscopy .......................................59
2.4.1 Selected area diffraction patterns.................................60
2.4.2 Kikuchi diffraction lines ............................................64
2.4.3 Electron energy-loss spectroscopy ...............................64
2.5 Atomic force microscopy...................................................67
2.6 Magnetic force microscopy ................................................68
2.7 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy................................68
2.7.1 Fundamental principles of Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy............................................................68
2.7.2 Typical applications of Fourier transform infrared
analysis of ferrite nanoparticles...................................70
2.8 Thermal analysis methods..................................................73
2.8.1 Thermal gravimetric analysis......................................74
2.8.2 Differential thermal analysis.......................................75
2.8.3 Simultaneous thermal analysis....................................77
2.8.4 Differential scanning calorimetry ................................77
2.9 Mössbauer spectroscopy of ferrites ......................................77
2.10 Magnetic anisotropy..........................................................82
2.10.1 Magnetocrystalline anisotropy...................................82
2.10.2 Shape anisotropy ....................................................84
2.10.3 Induced magnetic anisotropy ....................................85
2.10.4 Magnetostriction anisotropy......................................85
2.10.5 Magnetic surface and interface anisotropies ................86
2.11 Magnetic domains ............................................................86
2.12 Vibrating sample magnetometer ..........................................89
2.12.1 Low-temperature vibrating sample magnetometer.........89
2.12.2 High-temperature vibrating sample magnetometer ........90
Contents ix
2.13 BeH tracer......................................................................91

2.14 Interpretation of the MeH loop...........................................92
2.15 Henkel plot .....................................................................97
2.16 Alternating current magnetic susceptibility ...........................97
2.17 First-order reversal curve measurement .............................. 100
2.17.1 First-order reversal curve analysis background........... 100
2.17.2 First-order reversal curve analysis measurements ....... 102
2.17.3 First-order reversal curve analysis applications .......... 105
2.18 Measurement of permeability and Curie temperature ............ 109
2.19 Measurement of permittivity............................................. 111
2.20 Definition of intrinsic impedance....................................... 112
2.21 Microwave reflection loss (R) measurements ....................... 113
References .................................................................... 119
CHAPTER 3 Magnetic ferrites ................................................. 125
3.1 Introduction................................................................... 125
3.2 Important definitions....................................................... 125
3.2.1 Particles with single-domain structure........................125
3.2.2 Time variation of magnetization................................127
3.2.3 Superparamagnetic state ..........................................127
3.2.4 Snoek’s law...........................................................128
3.3 Hexagonal ferrites .......................................................... 129
3.3.1 M-type hexagonal ferrites ........................................131
3.3.2 W-type hexagonal ferrites ........................................151
3.3.3 Y-type hexagonal ferrites .........................................162
3.3.4 Z-type hexagonal ferrites .........................................180
3.3.5 X-type hexagonal ferrites.........................................186
3.3.6 U-type hexagonal ferrites.........................................191
3.4 Spinel ferrites ................................................................ 201
3.4.1 Simple spinel ferrites ..............................................201
3.4.2 Mixed spinel ferrites ...............................................205
3.4.3 Cobalt ferrites........................................................222
3.5 Biomedical aspects of magnetite ....................................... 242
3.6 Garnets......................................................................... 257
3.6.1 Yttrium iron garnet.................................................257
3.6.2 Substituted yttrium iron garnet nanoparticles...............260
3.6.3 Rare-earth-substituted yttrium iron garnet
nanoparticles .........................................................270
3.6.4 Other types of garnet nanoparticles ...........................279
References .................................................................... 286
x Contents
CHAPTER 4 Magnetoelectric ferrite nanocomposites ............... 301

4.1 Introduction................................................................... 301
4.2 Magnetoelectric effect..................................................... 301
4.3 Boomgaard’s requirements............................................... 303
4.4 Ferroelectrics in magnetoelectric components...................... 304
4.5 Ferrites in magnetoelectric components.............................. 306
4.6 Heterostructural configuration of ferrite/ferroelectric
materials in magnetoelectric components............................ 306
4.7 Applications of magnetoelectric components....................... 308
4.8 Theoretical aspects of magnetoelectric effect ...................... 308
4.8.1 MaxwelleWagner effect..........................................308
4.8.2 Koop’s theory ........................................................309
4.8.3 JahneTeller distortions............................................309
4.9 Ferrite/ferroelectric nanocomposites for magnetoelectric
components ................................................................... 309
4.9.1 Nickel-based ferrite/ferroelectric components..............310
4.9.2 Cobalt ferrite-ferroelectric magnetoelectric
components...........................................................330
References .................................................................... 359
Further reading .............................................................. 366
CHAPTER 5 Exchange-spring ferrite nanocomposites ............... 369
5.1 Introduction................................................................... 369
5.2 Maximum energy product................................................ 369
5.2.1 Soft phase thickness dependence...............................370
5.2.2 The role of exchange length.....................................373
5.3 Ferrite-based exchange-spring composites .......................... 376
5.4 Hard ferriteesoft iron oxide nanocomposites ...................... 378
5.5 Hexagonal ferriteeNi-based spinel ferrite nanocomposites .... 385
5.6 Hexagonal ferriteecobalt-based ferrite nanocomposites ........ 392
5.7 Hard ferriteesoft iron cobalt coreeshell nanocomposites ...... 403
5.8 Ferrite thin-film bimagnets............................................... 415
5.9 Metallic magneteferrite and inverted nanocomposites .......... 421
References .................................................................... 429
Further reading .............................................................. 433
CHAPTER 6 Microwave absorption of ferrite/carbon
nanocomposites ................................................... 435
6.1 Introduction................................................................... 435
6.2 Shielding effectiveness .................................................... 436
6.3 Absorbing media ............................................................ 437
Contents xi
6.4 Types of carbon materials ................................................ 438

6.5 Polymers as supporting media for absorption....................... 441
6.6 Permittivity and permeability of absorbing media ................ 442
6.7 Hard ferrite/carbon nanotube nanocomposites...................... 444
6.8 Hard ferrite/single-walled carbon nanotube
nanocomposites.............................................................. 459
6.9 Spinel ferrite/carbon nanotube nanocomposites.................... 463
6.10 Ferrite/graphene nanocomposites....................................... 481
6.11 Ferrite/graphene oxide nanocomposites .............................. 491
6.12 Ferrite/carbon black nanocomposites.................................. 494
6.13 Ferrite/carbon fiber nanocomposites................................... 498
6.14 Soft ferrite/amorphous carbon nanocomposites .................... 500
6.15 Ferrite/porous carbon nanocomposites................................ 503
6.16 Ferrite/graphite nanosheet nanocomposites.......................... 505
6.17 Ferrite-MoS2@nitrogen-doped carbon hybrid structure.......... 507
References .................................................................... 509
Further reading .............................................................. 517
CHAPTER 7 Nanoferrite photocatalysts.................................... 521
7.1 Introduction................................................................... 521
7.2 Basic definition of photocatalysts ...................................... 521
7.3 Nanocrystalline Co-ferrite photocatalyst ............................. 525
7.4 Nanocrystalline Zn-ferrite photocatalyst ............................. 534
7.5 Nanocrystalline NieZn-ferrite photocatalyst ....................... 542
7.6 Nanocrystalline CoeZneferrite photocatalyst...................... 543
7.7 Nanocrystalline Mn-rich ferrite photocatalyst ...................... 548
7.8 Nanocrystalline Li-ferrite and Mg-ferrite photocatalysts........ 558
7.9 Nanocrystalline Bi-ferrite photocatalyst.............................. 562
7.10 Ferrite nanocomposites photocatalysts................................ 564
7.10.1 Photocatalytic properties of Ni1 xCoxFe2O4/
multiwalled carbon nanotube nanocomposites............ 564
7.10.2 Photocatalytic properties of Cu1 xCoxFe2O4/
multiwalled carbon nanotube nanocomposites............ 567
7.10.3 Photocatalytic properties of reduced-graphene
oxide-Ni0.65Zn0.35Fe2O4 ferrite nanohybrids .............. 571
7.10.4 Photocatalytic properties of MnFe2O4
ferrite-graphene nanocomposites ............................. 573
7.10.5 Photocatalytic properties of TiO2/ferrite
nanocomposites.................................................... 579
References .................................................................... 580
xii Contents
CHAPTER 8 Ferrite synthesis methods..................................... 587

8.1 Introduction................................................................... 587
8.2 Synthesis techniques for ferrite nanoparticles ...................... 587
8.2.1 Solegel technique ..................................................587
8.2.2 Coprecipitation technique ........................................589
8.2.3 Microemulsion technique.........................................590
8.2.4 Hydrothermal and solvothermal techniques.................591
8.2.5 Mechanical milling technique...................................598
8.2.6 Thermal decomposition technique .............................598
8.2.7 Other ferrite nanoparticle synthesis techniques ............601
8.2.8 Comparison of ferrite synthesis techniques .................602
8.3 Bulk ferrite synthesis techniques....................................... 604
8.3.1 Spark plasma sintering technique ..............................604
8.3.2 Hot pressing and hot isostatic pressing techniques........608
8.3.3 Cold isostatic pressing technique...............................610
8.4 Synthesis techniques of ferrite thin films ............................ 612
8.4.1 Physical vapor deposition technique ..........................612
8.4.2 Pulsed laser deposition ............................................617
8.4.3 Molecular beam epitaxy ..........................................618
8.5 Synthesis techniques for ferrite nanofibers .......................... 621
References .................................................................... 622
Index...................................................................................................627
Preface
When I decided to write this book, the world was reacting to the unwanted
COVID-19 pandemic. Now that the final pages are finished, the fourth peak of
this pandemic is spreading all over the world and affecting many people. It has
been a cause of great sorrow witnessing innocent people perishing unexpectedly
because of this virus. I wish those who have lost their lives a beatifying and blessed
soul. I sincerely believe that, with the aid of science, humankind will completely
eliminate this pandemic from the face of the Earth.
In modern societies today, considerable attention has been paid to the develop-
ment and analysis of magnetic materials. Magnetic ferrites are among the most
important materials and play important roles in many applications, including
microwave-absorbing media, high-density recording magnets, bioscience, telecom-
munication devices, magnetoelectric sensors, electromagnetic noise suppressors,
exchange-spring magnets, permanent magnets, photocatalysts, and many compo-
nents of microwave devices.
Despite there being many published books on this subject, no detailed book has
been introduced that deals exclusively with the magnetic properties of ferrite nano-
composites. Those who become interested in the science of magnetism usually have
quite different professional backgrounds. They may be metallurgists, physicists,
electrical engineers, chemists, geologists, or ceramists. Consequently, although
each new individual to the field has a different view of such fundamentals as atomic
theory, crystallography, electric circuits, and crystal chemistry, this book covers all
of these topics. Furthermore, recent developments in ferrite nanocomposites are
reviewed. The main highlights include new experimental approaches and findings
related to the mechanisms of magnetic features within ferrite nanocomposites.
The book comprises eight chapters. Their sequence is chosen to give readers an
insight into the behavior of magnetic ferrite nanocomposites. Chapter 1 provides a
quick review of magnetism and related phenomena. The origin of magnetism, the defi-
nition of magnetic parameters, and important equations are introduced. The impor-
tance of different types of ferrites such as hexagonal ferrites, spinel ferrites, garnets,
and orthoferrites with industrially related applications is emphasized. Chapter 2
discusses the subject of techniques for characterizing ferrites. The chapter provides
insights into phase identification and structural and thermal analysis of ferrites. Mea-
surement approaches for static and dynamic magnetic features and high-frequency
permeability, permittivity, and reflection loss are also reviewed. Chapter 3 develops
general information about substituted ferrites. Structural and magnetic features of
different types of hexagonal ferrites, including M, W, Y, U, X, and Z types, spinel
ferrite, iron oxides, and garnets are studied. The role of substituting cations on
the magnetic properties of ferrite nanoparticles, bulks, and thin films is evaluated.
Chapter 4 covers the magnetoelectric (ME) components of ferriteeferroelectric
nanocomposites used in fabricating spintronic devices, nanoscale electronics, sensors,
information storage, and magnetic MRAMs. Also, different ferroelectric and magnetic
xiii
xiv Preface
ferrites with various heterostructural configurations that are mostly employed to pre-
pare ME components are introduced. Chapter 5 deals with exchange-spring ferrite
nanocomposites. Nanostructure ferrites designed with specific ratios of hard-to-soft
magnetic phase are introduced for enhancing maximum-energy products. The role
of effective processing parameters, the nanocomposite configuration of soft and
hard phases, and (BH)max variation are also studied. Chapter 6 is devoted to ferritee
carbon nanocomposites with different compositional and morphological characteris-
tics used in microwave absorption media. The role of carbon material additions in
balancing permeability and permittivity is investigated in a wide frequency range to
reach the highest reflection loss values. Chapter 7 starts with the basic definition of
photocatalysts. The photocatalytic activation of typical ferrites is investigated, and
the effect of adsorbent dose on the photodegradation performance of dyes using ferrite
is evaluated. The roles of shape factors and effective parameters in the catalytic activ-
ity of ferrites are also evaluated. Chapter 8 presents various techniques for fabricating
magnetic ferrites, such as particles, bulks, coatings, and fibers.
The references employed comprise relevant books, classical papers, review arti-
cles, and conference proceedings and are provided at the end of each chapter.
This book is anticipated to be useful for materials scientists, physicists, elec-
tronic engineers, and chemists involved in developing and researching high-
quality magnetic ferrites. As the author of this book, I am privileged to acquaint
readers with the scientific aspects of the subject while also introducing the outcome
of my many experimental and research endeavors presented in this book. I sincerely
hope the contribution will assist readers in proliferating their knowledge of ferrites
and related nanocomposites.
Acknowledgment is made of the support of Prof. Q. Taghizadeh, president of the
MUT, for providing laboratory facilities and financial support. I would like to
express my gratitude to Eng. Mohammad Reza Nasr Isfahani and Eng. Behnoush
Alirezaei for spending considerable time procuring the required permissions and
revising the photographs and diagrams. Their thoughtful efforts significantly
reduced the burden of preparing the final version of this book. I have benefited enor-
mously from the assistance of Dr. Tahmineh Sodaee in providing useful information
about the photocatalytic performance and synthesizing techniques of ferrites.
Dr. Samira Samanifar provided literature about FORC, and Dr. Ali Rostamnejadi
helped to interpret magnetic susceptibility. I also would like to thank Dr. Amir Hos-
sein Montazer for his critical comments and constructive suggestions on parts of the
book. Further, I owe my colleagues a deep debt of gratitude; in particular, Dr. Ebra-
him Paimozd and Dr. Gholamreza Gordani for providing a friendly laboratory envi-
ronment and assistance in purchasing the raw materials needed over the course of the
experiment. I thank Dr. Arkom Kaewrawang, Prof. Vladimir Sepelak, and Prof.
Andrea Paesano Jr. for their contributions in original research works that became
the bases of my experimental setups. I acknowledge Simon Holt, John Leonard,
and Nirmala Arumugam for their patience during the course of writing this book.
I am very grateful to the late Prof. Ardeshir Hosseinpour, who initially encouraged
me to pursue my interest in the field of magnetic ferrites. It is a pleasure to express
Preface xv
my deep appreciation to all individuals who helped me promote my knowledge of

magnetic ferrites, especially Prof. Akimitsu Morisako and Prof. Xiaoxi Liu. I am
also obliged to the many publishers and individuals who have given me permission
to reproduce their figures and tables. Last but by no means least, I would like to
thank Elsevier for their encouragement and steady collaboration.
Ali Ghasemi
Shahin Shahr, Isfahan
May 2021
CHAPTER
Fundamentals of ferrites
1
1.1 Introduction
This chapter explains the principles of magnetic phenomena and related theories to
provide a background for those with limited familiarity with magnetism and related
effects. Magnetic materials of various natures, including metallic, ceramic, and com-
posite, encompass many categories and applications. Metallic specimens such as
SmCo, NdFeB, FePt, and TbFeCo have an important role in developing hard mag-
netic features. Soft metallic magnets such as iron cobalt, mu-metal, permalloy, and
superalloy have applications in shielding environments and recording heads. The
most important magnetic ceramics are the ferrites used in communication and elec-
tronic engineering fields. Ferrites are usually known as ferrimagnetic oxides. Fer-
rites are electrically insulating and exhibit low loss within high-frequency fields,
making them appropriate candidates for communication and microwave devices.
The crystal structure of ferrite contains an interlocking network of positively
charged cations and negatively charged divalent oxygen anions. The site occupancy
of ions and the crystal structure of ferrite play an important role in determining mag-
netic features. Large varieties of ferrites in different configurations are fabricated to
be employed in many new technologies with various requirements. The frequency
applications of ferrites at which any electronic device can function range from
DC to microwave.
1.2 Brief history of magnets

Lodestone rocks rich in Fe3O4 ferrites as permanent magnets were known by priests
and people in “Sumer, China, pre-Columbian America, and ancient Greece.” The
Chinese used magnetic compasses sometime before 2500 BCE. The first device
based on a lodestone was developed by the Chinese and named a “South pointer”
(Coey, 2010). In the 6th century BCE, The Greek philosopher Thales carried out
the earliest observation of magnetism for which a lodestone or magnetite attracted
iron. The first manufactured magnets were fabricated by rubbing iron needles on
magnetite to form the essential parts of a compass (Goldman, 2006). In 1064, Zheng
Gongliang carried out thermoremanent magnetization through special heat
Magnetic Ferrites and Related Nanocomposites. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824014-4.00009-3 1
Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of ferrites
treatment of iron. Shen Kua invented the navigation compass in 1088. The perpet-
uum mobile was described by Petrus Peregrinus in the first European text on magne-
tism (Coey, 2010). William Gilbert found that melted and forged steel bars cooled
under the magnetic field of the earth contain magnetic features. He published the
first systematic experimental study on magnetism in 1600. He found that the Earth
is the greatest magnet in the world and identified it as the source of the magnetic field
that affects the compass needle and determines the direction of navigation systems
(Özgür et al., 2009a).
The horseshoe magnet was invented by Daniel Bernoulli in 1743. In 1819,
Oersted found that a wire carrying current could deflect a compass needle, represent-
ing a kind of correlation between magnetism and electricity. Then, in Paris,
Andre-Marie Ampere and Dominique-Francois Arago wound wire into a coil and
demonstrated that a magnetic field could be generated by applying current to the
coil (Coey, 2010).
William Sturgeon introduced the iron-core electromagnet in 1824, which
was more effective than a weak permanent magnet in electric motors and
generators. Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1821 and
the magneto-optic effect in 1845. The previous experimental investigation inspired
James Clerk Maxwell to formulate the theory of electricity and magnetism in 1864
(Coey, 2010).
The first hysteresis loop was plotted by Warburg for an iron magnet in 1880.
Curie found the transition temperature from ferromagnetism to paramagnetism
(Curie law) in 1895. The theory of diamagnetism and paramagnetism was discussed
by Langevin in 1905 (Özgür et al., 2009a).
The theory of ferromagnetism was proposed by Pierre-Ernest Weiss in 1907 to
describe the transition temperature (Curie temperature) (Özgür et al., 2009a).
Regarding magnetic materials, it is well known that carbon steel was the first
important permanent magnet during 1820e1900. The 1920s was the beginning of
quantum mechanics and the physics of magnetism, which were used for a deeper
explanation of magnetic phenomena. At the beginning of the 20th century, the devel-
opment of permanent magnets rapidly grew by adding other magnetic or nonmag-
netic elements such as Mn, Co, W, Al, and Ni into the composition while
controlling processing conditions, especially the quenching steps of the heat-
treatment process. During 1900e1935, the Alnico was developed. Ferrite permanent
magnets were introduced in the 1930s and used in loudspeakers and later for motors
in portable appliances. Substituting various cations in ferrites and making new nano-
composites are still rapidly expanding areas. The first rare earth cobalt permanent
magnet was fabricated in the 1960s, and the NdFeB hard magnet was developed
in the 1980s (Goldman, 2006; Özgür et al., 2009a). Novel achievements in perma-
nent magnets, magnetic recording, and high-frequency materials have made prog-
ress in telecommunications, computer science, and microwave systems. In recent
decades, the impact of nanomagnetism and spin electronics in modern electronics
has been considerable.
1.3 Basic science of magnetism 3
1.3 Basic science of magnetism

In this section, some important magnetic parameters and well-known laws
describing magnetic phenomena are explained.
1.3.1 Origin of magnetism

According to the basic science of atomic configuration, atomic magnetic moment
originates from the orbital motion of the electron around the nucleus and the spin
motion of the electron around its own axis. Consider a simple model of an atom
in which the electron moves in a circular loop with radius r and angular velocity
of u. The total magnetic moment produced by circular and spin motions is
m0 e
m¼ g P (1.1)
2m
where m and e are the mass and electric charge of a single electron, respectively
(e/m ¼ 1.76 1011 C/kg), m0 is the magnetic permeability of free space
(m0 ¼ 4p 107 H/m), and P denotes the angular momentum of the circular motion.
The factor of g is called “gyromagnetic ratio” or simply g factor, which is 1 and 2 for
orbital and spin motions, respectively. The unit of orbital magnetic moment and spin
magnetic moment is the Bohr magneton (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009).
Note that in magnetic ceramics such as ferrites, the crystalline field (electric
field) resulting from the surrounding ions would cause the quenching of orbital
moments, in which case the orbital moment of electrons is far smaller than spin
moments (Smit, 1959, pp. 278e280).
1.3.2 Coulomb and Lorentz forces

Consider two magnetic poles with distance r in meter, as well as strengths of m1
(weber) and m2 (weber). The force exerted in newtons from one pole to the other,
known as the Coulomb force, is given by
m1 m2
F¼ (1.2)
4pm0 r 2
The force on the magnetic pole can also be imposed by employing an electric
current. For example, by considering an infinitely long coil or solenoid carrying a
current of I, the uniform magnetic field is generated and defined by
H ¼ NI (1.3)
where N denotes the number of turns per unit length (along the axis) of the solenoid
(Chikazumi & Graham, 2009; Morrish, 2001).
On the other hand, by considering a particle with charge q moving with a velocity
of v and subjected to magnetic and electric fields of B and E, the Lorentz force of
f ¼ q(E þ v B) can be defined. Cyclotrons and other particle accelerators, cathode
ray tube televisions, and generators are based on the Lorentz force equation.
1.3.3 Definition of fundamental magnetic parameters

When a magnetic field (H) is applied to a material, the response of materials is called
magnetic induction (B), which heavily depends on the nature of the specimen. The
relation of B and H defines the properties and statements of magnetic material types.
In free space and some limited materials, the relation is linear, while in many cases,
it is very complicated and not even single-valued in some magnets. An important
parameter that can be extracted from the relation of magnetic induction with a mag-
netic field is permeability, which can be represented as follows:
m ¼ B=H (1.4)
Permeability indicates how permeable the material is to the magnetic field. The
relation of magnetic induction with magnetic field is expressed in the following:
B ¼ m0 ðH þ MÞðSI systemÞ (1.5)
B ¼ H þ 4pMðcgs systemÞ (1.6)
where m0 is the B/H ratio measured in a vacuum, and M is the magnetization of the
material. In cgs units, the permeability of free space is unity and so does not appear
in the equation (Cullity & Graham, 2011; Spaldin, 2010).
Magnetization is a very important parameter of magnetic materials. Magnetiza-
tion strongly depends on both the individual magnetic moments of the constituent
ions, atoms, or molecules and the type and strength of interaction of magnetic mo-
ments with each other in a medium. In general, magnetization is defined as the mag-
netic moment (m) per volume unit (V):
M ¼ m=V (1.7)
Magnetic polarization (J) indicates the intensity of magnetization and is given by
J ¼ m0 M (1.8)
The pole strength for the area unit perpendicular to M is found by the following:
s ¼ M$n (1.9)
where n is the unit vector normal to the surface and s is the pole strength per unit of
area.
The magnetization-to-magnetic field ratio is called magnetic susceptibility and
reflects how responsive a material is to an applied magnetic field. The susceptibility
equation in both units is expressed by
c ¼ M=H (1.10)
The relations between permeability and susceptibility in SI and cgs systems are
given by (Cullity & Graham, 2011; Morrish, 2001)
m ¼ m0 ð1 þ cÞðSI systemÞ (1.11)
m ¼ 1 þ 4pcðcgs systemÞ (1.12)
1.3 Basic science of magnetism 5
The magnetic flux F is defined as the flux of magnetic induction through a sur-
face area A; that is,
Z
F¼ B$ndS (1.13)
A
where n is the unit normal. A large amount of flux density in materials reflects the
high permeability value of the medium (Morrish, 2001).
The units of magnetic induction, magnetic field, magnetization, magnetic polar-
ization, permeability, susceptibility, and magnetic flux, along with the conversion
factors, are summarized in Table 1.1.
1.3.4 Ampère’s law

Andre-Marie Ampère discovered an important law in 1826 which relates the mag-
netic field along a closed loop in which current I carried through the loop. The
law is as follows:
I ZZ
B$dl ¼ m0 j$dS ¼ m0 I (1.14)
C s
where j represents the current density. Ampère’s law can be employed for calcu-
lating the magnetic field of current distributions with a high degree of symmetry.
In general, using this law, the magnetic field generated by the current can be calcu-
lated for different geometries, such as straight lines and coaxial cable. Note that the
current should be steady and not change with time, and only currents carrying across
the path section are considered for finding the magnetic field (Morrish, 2001;
O’handley, 2000).
Table 1.1 The relationship between some magnetic parameters in cgs and SI
units.
Conversion factor
Quantity cgs units SI units (cgs to SI)
Magnetic induction (B) G T 104

Applied field (H) Oe A/m 103 4p
Magnetization (M) emu/cm3 A/m 103

Magnetization (4pM) G A/m 103 4p
Magnetic polarization (J) emu/cm3 T 4p 104
Permeability (m) Dimensionless H/m 4p 107
Susceptibility (c) emu/cm3 Dimensionless 4p
Magnetic flux (F) maxwell (Mx), weber (Wb), volt. 108
G.cm2 second (V.s)
where, A, Ampere; emu, electromagnetic unit; G, Gauss; H, Henry; J, Joule; Oe, Oersted; T, Tesla; Wb,
Weber.
1.3.5 Faraday’s law

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that time-varying magnetic fields could
generate an electric field. The following equation was obtained experimentally:
I Z
d
E$ds ¼ B$ndS (1.15)
dt
Circuit A
where A is a surface which has the circuit as its boundary, n denotes the normal vec-
tor, and E represents the electrostatic field. The phenomenon is known as electro-
magnetic induction. He demonstrated that the electromagnetic force (emf) ε
induced in a coil is proportional to the negative rate of changes in the magnetic flux:
ε ¼ dF=dt (1.16)
For a coil consisting of N loops, the emf is given by (Morrish, 2001; O’handley,
2000)
ε ¼ NdF=dt (1.17)
1.3.6 Lenz’s law

Lenz’s law determines the direction of an induced current. The induced current gen-
erates magnetic fields that tend to oppose variations in magnetic flux with the fields
imposing such currents. Consider a conducting loop placed in a uniform magnetic
field, with the positive direction of the normal vector defined. Then, by finding
the rate of flux change dF=dt through differentiation, three possibilities can be deter-
mined. If dF=dt is positive, then ε < 0; if it is negative, the induced emf is positive;
finally, considering dF=dt ¼ 0, ε ¼ 0. The right-hand rule is used to determine the
direction of the induced current. By pointing the thumb in the direction of the area
vector and curling the fingers around the closed loop, the induced current flows in the
same direction as the direction of fingers curl by considering positive induced emf,
while it is the opposite direction if ε < 0 (Cullity & Graham, 2011; Morrish, 2001).
1.3.7 Maxwell’s equations

In response to the experiments carried out by Ampere and Faraday, Maxwell devel-
oped the following equations:
V$D ¼ r (1.18)
V$B ¼ 0 (1.19)
vB
VE ¼ (1.20)
vt

vD
VH ¼ jþ (1.21)
vt
1.4 Classes of magnetic materials 7
where V$ and V are vector operators of divergence and curl, respectively. E is the
electrical field, D shows the displacement vector, j denotes the current density, r rep-
resents the electric charge volume density, and t is time. The displacement vector is
related to the electrical field by the following equation:
D ¼ ε0 E þ P ¼ εE (1.22)
12 1
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space (ε0 ¼ 8.85 10 F m ), P denotes the
polarization of electric dipole per unit volume, and ε is the dielectric constant
(Morrish, 2001).
1.4 Classes of magnetic materials

All materials can be classified in terms of their magnetic susceptibility into five ma-
jor groups (O’handley, 2000):
1. diamagnetism
2. paramagnetism
3. ferromagnetism
4. antiferromagnetism
5. ferrimagnetism
1.4.1 Diamagnetism
Michael Faraday discovered the diamagnetic nature in September 1845. Diamagne-
tism is the weakest form of magnetism. This magnetism is related to the orbital rota-
tion of electrons around the nuclei induced electromagnetically within an external
magnetic field. In diamagnetic substances, applying an external magnetic field in-
duces a magnetic moment that opposes the external magnetic field causing it;
thus, a negative magnetization is produced where the susceptibility of a diamagnetic
material is negative and very weak (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009). The susceptibility
in diamagnetic materials is temperature independent. Superconductors are an ideal
type of diamagnets that have great applications in modern industries. By applying an
external magnetic field, depending on field strength and working temperature, super-
conductors expel the field lines from their interiors. All noble gases, bismuth, and
pyrolytic graphite are diamagnets.
1.4.2 Paramagnetism
In many cases, paramagnetic materials contain magnetic atoms or ions with a mag-
netic moment due to unpaired electrons in partially filled orbitals. The spins are iso-
lated from their surrounding environment and can somehow freely align in the
direction of the applied field. The interaction between magnetic moments is very
weak, and the order of magnitude of magnetic susceptibility is 103 to 105.
In paramagnetic materials at finite temperatures, the spins are agitated, and ther-
mal energy causes misalignment of spins. With an elevation of temperature, the ther-
mal agitation will increase, causing vibration in atomic magnetic moments that
reduces susceptibility. This behavior is described by the Curie law, in which suscep-
tibility has an opposite trend to temperature. The Curie law is given by (Cullity &
Graham, 2011)
c ¼ C=T (1.23)
where T is the absolute temperature and C is a material constant called the Curie’s
constant. Later experiments demonstrated that the susceptibility of some materials is
fitted by CurieeWeiss law:
c ¼ C=ðT wÞ (1.24)
where w is a constant. In this equation, w can be positive, negative, or zero. Clearly,
when w ¼ 0, then the CurieeWeiss law equates to the Curie law. When w is nonzero,
then there is an interaction between magnetic moments of neighboring atoms, and
the materials are only paramagnetic above a certain transition temperature. If w is
positive, then the material is ferromagnetic below the transition temperature where
the value of w corresponds to the transition temperature (Curie temperature, TC). If w
is negative, then the material is antiferromagnetic below the transition temperature
(Néel temperature, TN), though the value of w does not relate to TN. Note that this
equation is only valid when the material is in a paramagnetic state. It is not valid
for many metals as the electrons contributing to the magnetic moment are not local-
ized. However, the law does apply to some metals, e.g., rare earth, where the 4f elec-
trons that create the magnetic moment are closely bound (Chikazumi & Graham,
2009).
Depending on the strength and direction of the external magnetic field, partial
alignment of the atomic magnetic moments occurs, resulting in a net positive
magnetization and positive susceptibility. After applying a magnetic field to a para-
magnetic system with no interaction between atomic magnetic moments, the poten-
tial energy UH is given by
UH ¼ mH cos q (1.25)
where q is the angle between the direction of applied field H and atomic magnetic
moment m. By considering cosq ¼ 1 and magnetic field strength of 106 A/m, the
magnitude of energy is on the order of 1023 J. The order of magnitude of thermal
energy kBT, where kB is Boltzmann constant at room temperature, is 4.1 1021 J.
When the two energies are compared, the thermal energy is larger by factors of 102
to 103 compared with the potential energy of the magnetic field (Chikazumi & Gra-
ham, 2009). This indicates that at room temperature for a noninteracting paramag-
netic system, the thermal energy causes random fluctuation of magnetic moments
and provides very weak magnetization. For reaching saturation in practice, the tem-
perature must be very low for freezing the spins, while the intensity of the magnetic
field should be very high.
Paramagnetic materials obey from important theories, including Langevin and
Pauli models. The Langevin model, which is true for materials with noninteracting
localized electrons, states that every atom has a magnetic moment that is randomly
oriented as a result of thermal agitation. By considering N atomic moments per unit
volume, the magnetization can be calculated based on the Langevin theory. In this
case, let nðqÞdq denote the number of atomic moments in the unit volume providing
an angle between q and q þ dq with the direction of the applied field, which is pro-
portional to the solid angle 2psinqdq and Boltzmann factor expððmHcosqÞkB TÞ ac-
cording to the following:
nðqÞdq ¼ 2pn0 eðmHcosqÞ=kB T sinqdq (1.26)
where n0 is a proportionality factor determined by considering that the total density
of atomic moment is N:
Zp Zp
nðqÞdq ¼ 2pn0 eðmHcosqÞ=kB T sinqdq ¼ N (1.27)
0 0
The intensity of magnetization is expressed by

Zp
M¼ m cosqnðqÞdq (1.28)
0
By combining the above equations, one can reach

Z 1
eax xdx a
e þ ea 1 1
M ¼ Nm Z11 ¼ Nm ¼ Nm cotha (1.29)
ea ea a a
eax dx
1
By setting mH=kB T ¼ a and cosq ¼ x, the following expression is obtained:

Z 1 0 1
eax xdx a þ ea
B e C 1
M ¼ Nm Z11 ¼ Nm@ A ¼ Nm cotha (1.30)
1 a
eax dx ea ea
1
a
The function in the parentheses is the Langevin function, L(a). For a << 1, the
Langevin function can be expanded as
LðaÞ ¼ a=3 a3 =45 þ /: (1.31)
Considering the first term in the above equation, the intensity of magnetization
can be simplified to
Nm2
M¼ H (1.32)
3kB T
The magnetic susceptibility can also be determined by the following:
M Nm2
c¼ ¼ (1.33)
H 3kB T
The above relation demonstrates that magnetic susceptibility has an inverse rela-
tionship with temperature, which is the well-known Curie law of a paramagnetic
substance. Note that in such calculations, it was assumed that each individual atomic
moment is considered in an arbitrary direction. On the other hand, for actual cases
where each atom contains gJ spins, where J is the total angular momentum number
including the spin and orbital angular momenta and g is the g factor, the total magne-
tization of substances becomes
P Jz Jz mH=JkB T
Jz e 2J þ 1 2J þ 1 1 a
M ¼ Nm P J J mH=Jk T ¼ Nm coth a coth (1.34)
Jz e 2J 2J 2J 2J
z B
The function in parentheses is called Brillouin function BJ(a), which is reduced

to the Langevin function at very large J (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009; Morrish,
2001):
M
¼ gJBJ ðaÞ (1.35)
NmB
The Pauli model of paramagnetism also works for materials in which the elec-
trons are free and interact to form a conduction band valid for most paramagnetic
metals. It is well described by the band structure theory of collective electrons.
1.4.3 Ferromagnetism
In a paramagnetic state, by considering a ¼ 7, the required field for magnetizing an
assembly of free atomic moments is on the order of 107 Oe, which is a very large
magnetic field. In ferromagnets, such as permalloys, the magnetic field required
to reach the saturation state is on the order of 0.013 Oe, and for Alnico, the typical
permanent magnet is about 630 Oe (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009). Clearly, the
external magnetic field for magnetizing a ferromagnet is far smaller than that for
a paramagnet substance. This is because the atomic magnetic moments in ferromag-
netic materials tend to align themselves parallel to each other, which is caused by the
inner field. This existence of a strong inner magnetic field was explained in classical
theory, which was first postulated by Weiss in 1907, based on the presence of a mo-
lecular field within the ferromagnetic materials (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009). The
molecular field Hm can be expressed as
Hm ¼ wM (1.36)
where w is the proportionality factor.
Heisenberg described the nature of molecular fields in 1928 (Chikazumi & Gra-
ham, 2009). Based on his theory, the force inducing parallel alignment of magnetic
moments is an exchange force. The exchange force is a quantum mechanical phe-
nomenon that results in the parallel alignment of moments, causing large net magne-
tization even in the absence of a magnetic field. The potential energy (wij) between
two atoms with spins Si and Sj is expressed by
wij ¼ 2JSi $Sj (1.37)

where J is the exchange integral. In the case of positive J, the energy is minimum
when the Si is parallel to Sj; by considering a negative value for J, the spins are ar-
ranged in antiparallel. Exchange forces are very large, equivalent to a field on the
order of 1000 T, or approximately 100 million times the strength of the Earth’s mag-
netic field. Although electronic exchange forces in ferromagnets are sufficiently
large, thermal energy at Curie temperature eventually overcomes the exchange
and imposes random arrangement of spins. Below the Curie temperature, the ferro-
magnet is ordered, while above it, the spin orientation is disordered.
By applying an external magnetic field in the direction of the magnetization vec-
tor of the system, the potential energy of an individual atomic moment is given by
UH ¼ mðH þ wMÞcos q (1.38)
The probability of atomic moment to have this energy is proportional to the
Boltzmann factor, eðUH =kB TÞ , with the average magnetization expressed by
Z p
eðmðHþwMÞcosqÞ=kB T cosqsinqdq
0Z H þ wM
M ¼ Nm p ¼ NmL m (1.39)
kB T
eðmðHþwMÞcosqÞ=kB T sinqdq
0
The analytical solution for finding magnetization versus magnetic field and
temperature is very difficult, where the best solution is to seek a graphical solution
(Chikazumi & Graham, 2009; Morrish, 2001).
1.4.4 Antiferromagnetism
Antiferromagnetic materials, similar to paramagnetic materials, have weak magne-
tism with small positive susceptibility. The curve of susceptibility versus tempera-
ture is characterized by the occurrence of a kink called Néel temperature. Fig. 1.1
reflects the Néel temperature. It should be noted that susceptibility for polycrystal-
line material is calculated by averaging parallel and perpendicular susceptibility.
Below the Néel temperature, the spin arrangement is antiparallel, and there are
two sublattices, namely A and B, where there is a strong negative interaction causing
the plus and minus spins to completely cancel each other. Above the Néel temper-
ature, the random spin arrangement causes diminished susceptibility versus temper-
ature and follows the CurieeWeiss law.
In the periodic table, the only element exhibiting antiferromagnetism at room
temperature is chromium (TN ¼ 37 C). MnO is also representative of antiferromag-
netic materials. Van Vleck and later Néel and Anderson proposed the theoretical
treatment of antiferromagnetism phenomena (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009).
Consider an A site occupied by positive spins and a B location arranged by negative
spins. According to the Weiss theory of ferromagnetism, the role of exchange can be
expressed by molecular field theory. The molecular field which acts at the A sublat-
tice HmA is expressed by
FIGURE 1.1
Variations of susceptibility versus temperature in antiferromagnetic substances.
From Böer, K. W., Pohl, U. W., Böer, K. W., & Pohl, U. (2014). Magnetic semiconductors (pp. 1e24). Springer
International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06540-3_9-1.
HmA ¼ wAA MA þ wAB MB (1.40)

where MA and MB are the magnetization of A and B sublattices, respectively. The
coefficient wAB is always negative. The molecular field for B site HmB is given by
HmB ¼ wBA MA þ wBB MB (1.41)
Since A and B sites are symmetrical in antiferromagnetism, it can be written for
simplicity as
wAA ¼ wBB ¼ w1 ; wAB ¼ wBA ¼ w2 (1.42)
On the other hand, in the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetiza-
tions of sublattices A and B are equal:
MA ¼ MB (1.43)
Through simplification, one can reach the following:
HmA ¼ ðw1 w2 ÞMA (1.44)
HmB ¼ ðw1 w2 ÞMB (1.45)
The thermal equilibrium values of magnetization in the A and B sites are
expressed by

Nm mðw1 w2 ÞMA
MA ¼ L (1.46)
2 kB T

Nm mðw1 w2 ÞMB
MB ¼ L (1.47)
2 kB T
where N is the number of magnetic atoms per unit volume and L is the Langevin
function. According to the equation, magnetizations in A and B sublattices decrease
with an increase in temperature, whereas at the Néel temperature, TN suddenly
disappears:
Nm2 ðw1 w2 Þ
TN ¼ (1.48)
6kB
By applying an external magnetic field, MA and MB are not symmetrical, and the
assumption of MA ¼ MB is not valid. In that case, by applying a magnetic field in
the plus direction, the magnetizations of both sites are given by (Chikazumi & Gra-
ham, 2009; Morrish, 2001)

Nm mðH þ w1 MA þ w2 MB Þ
MA ¼ L (1.49)
2 kB T

Nm mðH þ w2 MA þ w1 MB Þ
MB ¼ L (1.50)
2 kB T
1.4.5 Ferrimagnetism
As mentioned, the magnetization vectors of both sublattices in antiferromagnetism
cancel each other, and in the absence of an applied field, the net magnetization is
zero. Consider that the intensity of magnetization in one sublattice is larger than
in the other. In that case, although the spins in both sublattices are antiparallel,
the net magnetization is relatively large. Materials with such spin configurations
are called ferrimagnetic materials and have large susceptibility. In general, strong
magnetism is seen in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic substances. Ferrimagnetism
is normally observed in compounds with more complex crystal structures than
pure elements. The ferrimagnetic term was proposed by Néel to explain the mag-
netic nature of ferrites (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009). Various ferrites, including spi-
nels, hexagonal, and garnets, have a ferrimagnetic nature. Normally, in ferrite, the
sublattice A contains the plus direction of spins, while the B sites are occupied by
down spins. The number of magnetic cations along with the magnitude of spins
of individual cations is different on A and B sites; thus, spontaneous magnetization
is produced without applying an external magnetic field. At Curie temperature,
because of thermal agitation, the spins become completely random, and the sponta-
neous magnetization vanishes. Above the Curie temperature, the materials are trans-
formed into paramagnetic substances, and the susceptibility diminishes with an
increase in temperature (Coey, 2010). The variation in inverse susceptibility versus
temperature is plotted in Fig. 1.2, where the linear extrapolation of inverse suscep-
tibility at high temperatures would intersect the temperature axis on its negative side,
which is called the asymptotic Curie point (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009).
FIGURE 1.2
Variations of inverse magnetic susceptibility versus temperature in ferrimagnetic
substances.
From Morrish, A. H. (2001). The physical principles of magnetism.
The molecular fields for ferrimagnetic substances are similar to those of antifer-
romagnetic materials and can be given by
HmA ¼ wAA MA wAB MB (1.51)
HmB ¼ wBA MA wBB MB (1.52)
In this case, at equilibrium the wAB ¼ wBA as earlier; however, since the sublat-
tices are crystallographically inequivalent, then wAA swBB , and the magnetization in
both sublattices is not equal. By applying an external magnetic field of H, the mag-
netic fields at sites A and B are expressed by
HA ¼ H wAA MA wAB MB (1.53)
HB ¼ H wAB MA wBB MB (1.54)
Since the interaction between two crystallography sites is antiparallel, wAB has a
positive value. In principle, wAA and wBB could be negative or positive, though for
many ferrimagnetic materials, they are positive and usually smaller than wAB:
wAA ¼ awAB and wBB ¼ bwAB (1.55)
where a and b are the proportional constants. The magnetization of sublattice A in
thermal equilibrium is expressed by
X
MA ¼ Ni gi mB Si BSi ðxA Þ (1.56)
i
where
Si gi mB
xA ¼ HA (1.57)
kB T
2Si þ 1 2Si þ 1 1 xA
BSi ðxA Þ ¼ cot h xA cot h (1.58)
2Si 2Si 2Si 2Si
1.6 Fundamentals of ferrite crystal structures 15
The magnetization of site B is also written as

X
MB ¼ Nj gmB Si BSi ðxB Þ (1.59)
j
where Ni is the number of atoms per unit volume with a spin quantum number of Si,
with the expression of x and Bsi ðxÞ being similar for both sites (Morrish, 2001).
1.5 Importance of ferrites

Professor Takeshi Takei, with the collaboration of Professor Yogoro Kato, synthe-
sized the first ferrite compounds with promising properties in 1930 in Japan. In
1933, Kato and Takei produced cobalt ferrite by cooling it in a magnetic field. There-
after, in 1945, J. L. Snoek of the Phillips Research Laboratories in the Netherlands
provided a “soft” ferrite for practical applications.
Ferrite with a permanent feature, also called ferroxdure, was developed by
Went and marketed by Philips in 1952. Then E. Albers Schonberg reported micro-
wave ferrites in the United States. About 60% of soft ferrites were produced in
Japan in the 1970s, while in the 1980s, Western Europe and Southeast Asia entered
the supplier market. The large-scale productions of ferrites were used for TV tube
deflection yokes and high-voltage flyback transformers (Goldman, 2006). The
global ferrite market confirmed the growing global demand for ferrites. The iron
element claims about 5% by weight of the crust and is the most abundant element
overall in the crust (Coey, 2010). Thus, the cheapest metal claims a considerable
percentage of ferrites, making ferrite a suitable and available candidate for
many applications. This is in contrast to rare earth magnets, which normally
contain cobalt and rare earth elements 100 times more expensive and 1000 times
scarcer than iron.
International conferences on ferrites (ICFs) have provided a forum for contrib-
uting to the basic knowledge and the latest experimental information regarding
the nature and magnetic features of ferrites. Many scientists and professors, who
are experts in the field of physics, material science, chemistry, electronics and de-
vices, biology, and medical sciences, participate in and exchange information on
the latest knowledge and technological developments of ferrites. The earliest ICFs
were held in Kyoto (1970, 1980, 2000), Paris (1976), San Francisco (1984, 2004),
Mumbai (1989), Tokyo (1992), Bordeaux (1996), Chengdu (2008), Okinawa
(2013), and Boston (2019).
1.6 Fundamentals of ferrite crystal structures

Ferrites crystallize into four crystal types: spinel, magnetoplumbite, garnet, and
orthoferrites. The classification of various ferrites is shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Classification of various ferrites.

Crystal
Ferrites structure Composition
Spinel Cubic M2þ Fe3þ2 O4

M2þ ¼ Ni2þ, Mn2þ, Zn2þ, Mg2þ, Co2þ, Cu2þ, Cd2þ,
Fe2þ ions or a mixture of these ions
Garnet Cubic R3þ Fe3þ
5 O12
R ¼ Y3þ, Gd3þ, Sm3þ, Eu3þ, Tb3þ, Dy3þ, Ho3þ,
Tm3þ, Yb3þ, Lu3þ
Hexaferrite Hexagonal AFe12O19 M-type, AM2Fe16O27 W-type, AM2Fe23O46
magnetoplumbite X-type, A2M2Fe16O27Y-type, A3M2Fe24O41 Z-type,
A4M2Fe36O60 U-type, M2þ ¼ Fe2þ, Ni2þ, Mn2þ, Zn2þ,
Mg2þ ions or a mixture of these ions
Orthoferrite Orthorhombic R3þFe3þO3
perovskite R3þ ¼ Gd3þ, Y3þ, Nd3þ, Sm3þ, Lu3þ
From Kotnala, R. K., Shah, J., & Buschow, K. H. J. (2015). Chapter 4 e Ferrite materials: nano to
spintronics regime (Vol. 23, pp. 291e379). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63528-0.
00004-8.
1.6.1 Spinel ferrites

The chemical formula of spinel ferrite is MFe2O4. The M contains elements such as
Fe, Ni, Mn, Zn, Mg, Co, Cu, and Cd. The ions are placed at tetrahedral (A-site) or
octahedral sites (B-site) of the spinel structures. Fig. 1.3 displays the unit cell of a
spinel structure and the sites of the different ions. Ferrites with M2þ in tetrahedral
sites and Fe3þ in octahedral sites are known as normal spinel structures. Ferrites
in which the M2þ are on octahedral sites, and Fe3þ are equally divided between
tetrahedral and octahedral sites are referred to as inverse spinel structures, as shown
in Fig. 1.4.
The cation distributions on tetrahedral and octahedral sites are demonstrated by
2þ 3þ 2þ 3þ 2
Md Fe1d A M1d Fe1þd B O4 (1.60)
where d ¼ 0 for inverse spinel ferrites, d ¼ 1 for normal spinel ferrites, and 0 < d < 1
for mixed spinel ferrites. The ionic radii of the specific ions, size of the interstices, as
well as processing and sintering parameters define the filling of these sites, which in
turn influence the magnetic properties. The site preferences of ions in various kinds
of spinel ferrites are shown in Table 1.3.
1.6.2 Hexagonal ferrites

Ferrites with hexagonal structures are usually known as hexaferrites. The hexafer-
rites are classified into six various types according to chemical composition and
crystal structure, including M, Y, W, Z, X, and U. The chemical formula and stack-
ing order of various hexaferrites are reported in Table 1.4 (Pullar, 2012). The
FIGURE 1.3
The unit cell of a spinel structure and the sites of the different ions.
From Kotnala, R. K., Shah, J., & Buschow, K. H. J. (2015). Chapter 4 e Ferrite materials: nano to spintronics
regime (Vol. 23, pp. 291e379). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63528-0.00004-8.
building blocks of hexaferrites can be described as stacking sequences of three

blocksdS [M2Fe4O8], R [AFe6O11], and T [A2Fe8O14]das shown in Fig. 1.5.
The S block contains two spinel units with a unit formula of M2Fe4O8, where M
is a divalent metal cation. In a single S block, there are two layers of four oxygen
anions. The cations are in four octahedral sites surrounded by six nearest neighbors
of oxygen anion and in two tetrahedral sites where four oxygen anions surround the
cation (Pullar, 2012). To define the structure of R and T blocks, typical barium ferrite
is considered. The R block with a unit formula of BaFe6O11 is developed by three
hexagonally packed layers. Each layer contains four oxygen anions. The oxygen an-
ions in the middle layer are substituted by a barium cation of almost the same size to
form the unit formula. The block contains five octahedral sites and one
trigonal bipyramidal site. The T block consists of four oxygen layers, and for devel-
oping the unit formula of Ba2Fe8O14, the oxygen anions are substituted by barium
cations in two middle layers. This block contains six octahedral and two tetrahedral
sites.
The unit cells of hexagonal ferrites normally contain multiple molecular units.
The M, W, and Z-type ferrites contain two molecular units, while the X and Y-
type ferrites have three molecular units, and U-type ferrite involves one molecular
unit.
FIGURE 1.4
Schematic representation of crystal strcture inverse spinel.
From Deepapriya, S., Devi, S. L., Vinosha, P. A., Rodney, J. D., Raj, C. J., Jose, J. E., & Das, S. J. (2019).
Estimating the ionicity of an inverse spinel ferrite and the cation distribution of La-doped
NiFe two O four nanocrystals for gas sensing properties. Applied Physics A, 125(10), 683.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-019-2978-x.
1.6.2.1 The M structure

SrFe12O19, BaFe12O19, and PbFe12O19 ferrites contain magnetoplumbite (M-type)
structure. In the hexaferrites with an M structure, the Fe ions fill five crystallographic
sites. Three of them are octahedral sites (12k, 4f2, 2a), one is a tetrahedral site (4f1),
and one is a trigonal site (2b). The 12k sites are apportioned to the R- and S-units.
The 4f2 sites are found in block R, the 2a sites are in block S, and the 4f1 sites are also
found in block S. Fig. 1.6 depicts the typical unit cell of the M-type hexaferrite. The
arrows exhibited on the right in Fig. 1.6 demonstrate the direction of spin polariza-
tion of the magnetic structure of hexaferrites (Liu et al., 2019). The lattice parame-
ters of barium hexaferrite are c ¼ 23.17 Å and a ¼ 5.89 Å, while those for strontium
ferrites with a similar crystal structure and unit cell ordering, yet with a smaller size
of Sr2þ cations are c ¼ 23.03 Å and a ¼ 5.86 Å (Braun et al., 1957; Pullar, 2012).
Since the size of a Pb2þ ion is also smaller than that of Ba2þ, the lattice parameters
of lead ferrites c ¼ 23.02 Å, a ¼ 5.88 Å are also smaller than those of barium ferrite
(Adelskold, 1938).
1.6.2.2 The W structure

The crystal structure of W-type ferrite is shown in Fig. 1.7 (Pullar, 2012). It consists
of two S blocks and one R block. The two S blocks are placed above and under the R
block, and there is a mirror plane in the R block. The unit cell consists of
Table 1.3 Site preference of ions in spinel structure and magnetic moment of some ferrites.
Magnetic moment per
Ionic distribution molecule in (mB)
Tetrahedral Octahedral Magnetic moment of Magnetic moment of
Ferrites site site tetrahedral ions in (mB) octahedral ions in (mB) Theoretical Experimental
1.6 Fundamentals of ferrite crystal structures

Fe3O4 Fe3þ Fe2þ þ Fe3þ 5 4þ5 4 4.1
NiFe2O4 Fe3þ Ni2þ þ Fe3þ 5 5þ2 2 2.3
þ
Li0.5Fe2.5O4 Fe3þ 1.5 þ Li0.5
Fe3þ 5 7.5 þ 0 2.5 2.6
MgFe2O4 Fe3þ Mg þ Fe3þ
2þ
5 0þ5 0 1.1
CoFe2O4 Fe3þ Co2þ þ Fe3þ 5 3þ5 3 3.7
MnFe2O4 Fe3þ Mn2þ þ Fe3þ 5 5þ5 5 4.6
CuFe2O4 Fe3þ Cu2þ þ Fe3þ 5 1þ5 1 1.3
CdFe2O4 Cd2þ Fe3þ þ Fe3þ 0 5e5 0 1
ZnFe2O4 Zn2þ Fe3þ þ Fe3þ 0 5e5 0 1
From Kotnala, R. K., Shah, J., & Buschow, K. H. J. (2015). Chapter 4 e Ferrite materials: nano to spintronics regime (Vol. 23, pp. 291e379). Elsevier. https://doi.
org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63528-0.00004-8.
19
Table 1.4 The chemical formula and stacking order of various hexaferrite.
Hexaferrite
type Chemical formula Stacking order c (Å) Space group
M AFe12O19 RSR*S* w23 P63/mmc

Y A2M2Fe12O22 TSTSTS w43 Rd3m
W AM2Fe16O27 RSSR*S*S* w33 P63/mmc
Z A3M2Fe24O41 RSTSR*S*T*S* w52 P63/mmc
X A2M2Fe28O46 RSR*S*S* w84 Rd3m
U A4M2Fe36O60 RSR*S*T*S* w113 Rd3m
*Indicates a rotation of the corresponding block by 180 degrees about the c-axis.
SSRS*S*R* ordering. The three-dimensional model of the W-type ferrite unite cell
is shown in Fig. 1.7.
1.6.2.3 The X structure

The structure of typical Ba2M2Fe28O46 X-type ferrite, which is very similar to the
W-type, is shown in Fig. 1.8. Since the unit cell involves three molecular units of
M and W, the illustration is not a complete unit cell. The crystal structure contains
FIGURE 1.5
The cation and anion occupancies in S, R, and T blocks.
From Pullar, R. C. (2012). Hexagonal ferrites: a review of the synthesis, properties and applications of hexaferrite
ceramics. Progress in Materials Science, 57(7), 1191e1334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2012.04.001.
FIGURE 1.6
The unit cell of the M-type hexaferrite.
From Özgür, Ü., Alivov, Y., & Morkoç, H. (2009). Microwave ferrites, part 1: fundamental properties. Journal of
Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 20(9), 789e834. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-009-9923-2.
the sequence ordering of SRS*S*R*. In this crystal structure, the W block rotates
180 in relation to the M block (Braun et al., 1957; Pullar, 2012).
1.6.2.4 The Y structure

The crystal structure of typical Y ferrite (Ba2M2Fe12O22) is shown in Fig. 1.9. The
crystal structure is developed by one S and one T unit. It consists of six layers. The
unit cell is formed by three of these units, and the unit cell formula is 3(ST) (Braun
et al., 1957; Pullar, 2012). Note that the T block has no mirror plane, and a series of
three T blocks are required to fulfill the overlapping of hexagonal and cubic packed
layers.
1.6.2.5 The Z structure

The crystal structure of Z-type ferrite of Ba3M2Fe24O41 is shown in Fig. 1.10. The
crystal structure consists of Y þ M and is built by ordering ST þ SR with the mirror
plane placed in the R block and a repeated distance of 11 oxygen layers. A single
unit cell of Z ferrite is developed by two molecular units in which one unit rotates
180 degrees around the c-axis of another unit. The two molecular unit formula is
STSRS*T*S*R*.
FIGURE 1.7
Perspective view of typical BaM2Fe16O27 with W structure and three-dimensional model
of a W ferrite unit cell.
1.6.2.6 The U structure

The crystal structure of U-type ferrite (Ba4M2Fe36O60) is developed by Z þ M, or
M þ Y þ M, as shown in Fig. 1.11. As can be seen, it contains the block ordering
of RSR*S*T*S*. The unit cell forms from one molecular unit in which the blocks of
R and S rotate 180 degrees relative to the M block (Kohn et al., 1971; Pullar, 2012).
1.6.3 Garnet structure

Garnet has the chemical formula 3M2O3$5Fe2O3. Four units of 3M2O3$5Fe2O3 form
the entire crystal structure. In the formula, M represents trivalent rare earth such as
yttrium (nonmagnetic cation) or magnetic rare earth ranging from lanthanum
through ytterbium. Garnet has a very complicated crystal structure, and compared
with the spinel structure involving two metallic sites of octahedral and tetrahedral,
it contains octahedral (a site), tetrahedral (d site), and dodecahedral (c site in which
trivalent cations are surrounded by eight oxygen anions). The 96 oxygen anions in a
unit cell exist in the h site, where the corners of a tetrahedron, octahedron, and two
large polyhedrals meet. Fig. 1.12 displays only an octant of the crystal structure of
1.7 Superexchange interaction 23
FIGURE 1.8
The X-type structure of Ba2M2Fe28O46 ferrite in which the arrows reflect the orientation of
magnetic moments.
garnet. The magnetic interaction between tetrahedral and octahedral sites is antipar-
allel. The net magnetic moment is antiparallel to the magnetic moment of rare earth
cations, and the final magnetic ordering is ferrimagnet (Özgür et al., 2009b).
1.6.4 Orthoferrite structure

The orthoferrite or perovskite structure is another type of ferrite with the formula of
MFeO3, where M represents a rare earth cation such as yttrium ion. The typical crys-
tal structure of gadolinium orthoferrite is shown in Fig. 1.13. In orthoferrites, the net
magnetization is weak due to canting alignment of antiferromagnetically coupled
ions (Goldman, 2006).
1.7 Superexchange interaction

Magnetic cations in ferrimagnetic substances, including ferrites, are separated by
oxygen anions, which are shown schematically in Fig. 1.14. In such materials,
FIGURE 1.9
The structure of typical Y ferrite (Ba2M2Fe12O22) and the related perspective view. The
arrows show the direction of the magnetic moments of the cations relative to the c-axis.
superexchange interaction is predominant, referring to the interaction of spin mo-

ments of metal cations on the opposite site of oxygen anion through the p orbit of
oxygen.
Consider that a system consists of two metal cations, Mnþ and Mmþ, separated
by the oxygen anions O2. There is the possibility that one electron of oxygen anion
is excited and transferred to the neighboring cation of Mnþ, and at the same time, the
unpaired left electron in the p orbit of anion interacts with Mmþ. According to Pau-
li’s principle, the two electrons in the p orbits must have opposite spins, and both
magnetic cations should have an antiparallel configuration to satisfy Hund’s role.
The interactions between A and B sublattice depend on the distances between two
metal ions and the oxygen ion and on the angle (F) between the two metal ions
and the oxygen ion. The superexchange interaction is expected to be strongest
when Mnþ O2 Mmþ lie along a straight bond. In this configuration, the p orbit
of the oxygen anion can overlap with the orbits of Mnþ and Mmþ. On the contrary,
when the bonding angle is 90 , the strength of superexchange interaction is weakest.
FIGURE 1.10
(A) The crystal structure of Z-type ferrite of Ba3M2Fe24O41 along with the orientation of
magnetic moments and related perspective view. (B) and (C) Perspective views of the
Z-type structure.
FIGURE 1.11
Structure of the U ferrite (Ba4M2Fe36O60) and the orientation of magnetic moment.
When the d orbital of the metal ions is half or more than half-filled, these super-
exchange interaction energies are negative and therefore enforce an antiferromag-
netic orientation. It has been empirically found that when the d orbital of the
metal ions is less than half-filled, these interaction energies are positive, thereby
inducing a ferrimagnetism orientation (Chikazumi & Graham, 2009).
1.8 Applications of ferrites

Ferrites have many applications in modern technology, such as automotive industry
and hybrid cars, radar-absorbing materials (RAMs), photocatalysts, energy harvest-
ing, satellite communication, power computer component and digital devices, sen-
sors, anechoic chamber tiles, ferrofluid, hyperthermia, delay lines, high-density
recording media, bubble memory, telecommunication component, microwave
1.8 Applications of ferrites 27
FIGURE 1.12
An “octant” of a garnet crystal structure.
From Özgür, Ü., Alivov, Y., & Morkoç, H. (2009). Microwave ferrites, part 1: fundamental properties. Journal of
Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 20(9), 789e834. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10854-009-9923-2.
systems, electromagnetic interference shielding, as well as TV and radio markets

(Valenzuela, 2012). Some important ferrite applications are briefly explained in
the following.
1.8.1 Applications of ferrites in microwave-absorbing media

Different approaches have been used to camouflage military vehicles including air-
planes and submarines. The most important method is to reduce the radiation cross-
section (RCS) of a vehicle by designing the shape of the object and eliminating the
unnecessary edges and sharp points (Knott et al., 2004). Another effective method is
utilizing electromagnetic wave absorbing materials, especially in the microwave re-
gion. As shown in Fig. 1.15, the combination of RAMs and designing RCS tech-
niques could be very effective for application in stealth technology. The first
research in this regard was carried out in 1936 by employing carbon black as an
absorber and titanium oxide with a large admittance coefficient for decreasing the
thickness of the absorber. Germans used carbonyl iron with a thickness of 3 inches
to enhance the absorption coefficient of submarine camouflage at 3 GHz in the sec-
ond world war. The important features for obtaining suitable absorbing media
include the optimized composition of the absorber, low thickness and density,
wide bandwidth, large reflection loss, suitable adhesion and corrosion resistance,
FIGURE 1.13
Crystal structure of gadolinium orthoferrite (GdFeO3).
From Mekam, D., Kacimi, S., Djermouni, M., Azzouz, M., & Zaoui, A. (2012). Ab initio calculations on
REeTMeO3 perovskites: A comparative study of cation effect. Results in Physics, 2, 156e163.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2012.09.008.
FIGURE 1.14
The schematic presentation of superexchange interactions of A and B sublattice via
oxygen anions.
From Kotnala, R. K., Shah, J., & Buschow, K. H. J. (2015). Chapter 4 e Ferrite materials: nano to spintronics
regime (Vol. 23, pp. 291e379). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63528-0.00004-8.
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During walks and rides Margery often talked of Clare, and at first regretted her absence.
As the days went on, she looked-for Clare's return with something like dread.
Hitherto the elder girl had seen people leave her own side to cluster round the chair of her
beautiful sister, and had taken it as a thing of course. "Every one must admire Clare, and
be attracted by her charming ways. It was the natural thing." And no person was so proud
of the fact as Margery, for Clare's sake.
But she felt differently about Captain Anstruther, and asked herself—
"When Clare comes, will he desert me, as others have done before? Does he follow me,
and listen to my words, and watch to anticipate my wants, because he has not seen Clare?
or does he really care for me?"
Not that Captain Anstruther had declared his affection for Margery. It was too soon for
such a decided step; but if ever looks and actions were eloquent, his told that sweet
Margery Austin had made a deep impression on his heart.
The girl had often spoken to Frank Anstruther about her lovely sister, and in her unselfish
way told him of the admiration she always excited, and that he would be sure to love
Clare.
"I shall," he replied, "if only because she is so dear to you."
The meaning tone and the look of frank admiration which accompanied these words, made
Margaret's cheeks flush and her eyes droop shyly. But she felt very happy, with a joy
hitherto unknown to her innocent heart, and she cherished her glad thoughts with reverent
thankfulness. It was so sweet to feel that she was beloved, and by one like this brave
young soldier! She thought he must be much like what her father was when he went with
his tale of love to her mother.
Margery had always been accustomed to open her heart to her mother; but of this new
happiness she could not speak even to her. Yet she thought that Mrs. Austin knew of it,
and sympathized with and blessed her child in the unselfish way that true mothers show
when they live their girlish days over again in those of their daughters.
When Margery went to rest that night she thought that her mother's arms had never
before held her with such yearning love, or her kiss been so tender. The girl, with quick
intuition, divined the reason. What if her mother were looking into the future, and
dreading the thought of a possible parting? Wealth could do much, but when a girl took
upon her such solemn new duties in another home the place in the old one must be
vacated.
Mrs. Austin was so looking at possibilities, but while thinking of the trial it would be for her
to part with Margery, she placed her child's happiness first of all, and would have rejoiced
in her joy. On the following day Clare returned to Monks Lea. She was looking paler than
usual, and there was an anxious, preoccupied expression on her face that no one had
noticed there before. It passed away during the evening; but the girl was very quiet, and
retired early, as many guests were expected on Christmas Eve, and she wished to be ready
to help in entertaining them.
"I must have a good night's rest beforehand," she said, "or I shall be fit for nothing to-
morrow. Christmas Eve is the most important anniversary in my life, for on it, eleven years
ago, I came to this dear mother, sister and home."
Clare laid her head on Mrs. Austin's shoulder to be caressed; she kissed Margery and
clasped her closely, as if she had forgotten the presence of Mrs. Anstruther and her son,
though it was to the lady she had spoken of her first coming. Then she turned suddenly to
Mrs. Anstruther, and lifted up her face to be kissed, saying—
"I know you are dear mamma's friend, so I hope you will adopt me as one of her children."
Lastly she extended her white hand to the captain, flashed a glance from her wonderful
eyes, and was gone.
And Frank Anstruther, who had been urging Margery to sing for him before this little scene
took place, remained in a dreamy state for some moments, replied to a remark of his
mother's in an irrelevant fashion, and would have forgotten all about the song he had
asked for, if Miss Austin had not recalled him to himself by beginning it.
He listened—no one could help it when Margery sang—thanked her, and mentally
reproaching himself for his momentary abstraction, asked for more music.
Margery sang a second time, and then she spoke with pleasure of Clare's home-coming.
"Without my sister, Christmas would not be at all the same happy time," she said. "Was I
not right when I said that Clare is lovely?"
"She is quite the most beautiful girl I ever saw," he replied enthusiastically. "Yet beautiful
is not the word. Miss Clare is that and more. I never saw any one at all like her." Then he
added, "In the face, I mean, of course. As yet all else is strange to me, except as revealed
by the charming picture I witnessed a short time ago."
Margery could hardly tell in what it consisted, but there was a difference between the
happy, frank intercourse of a few hours before and that of this evening. It seemed as
though an invisible barrier had come between Captain Anstruther and herself. He was
more silent than usual, and Margery went to her room with a sense of weight and pain that
she vainly strove to ignore.
"What will Christmas bring?" she asked herself. "It is a fateful season to me. Eleven years
ago it brought Clare and the beginning of a new life. Will this Christmas see a repetition of
what has happened before? Will Frank Anstruther leave my side for Clare's? I have never
envied her those who have gone before, and never cared except when they suffered. But if
he too should learn to love her, and be treated as others have been—how shall I bear to
see it?"
On her knees the girl pleaded—
"God give me grace to do right, patience to endure willingly, and to submit unselfishly and
silently, if need be!"
At first Captain Anstruther struggled against Clare's fascinations, and remained by

Margery's side, helping her with Christmas decorations, and apparently devoting himself to
her service. But before night came he was one of a little group round Clare, laughing at
her lively sallies and her almost childlike daring, and wondering at her marvellous beauty.
He took himself to task when he noticed Margery looking pale and distrait, though trying
hard to appear as if she were listening to an uninteresting story, which was being poured
into her ear by the one bore of the party. He resumed his attentions, remained by her side
after having succeeded in ridding her of her companion, and, but that Margery noticed his
eyes wandering towards the group he had left, the girl might have thought that no change
had taken place, and that she still held the foremost rank in his regard.
Clare rallied Margery about her captain.
"I see how it is," she said, "you have conquered the gallant soldier whilst I have been
away. I can understand his laying down his arms; but he is not half good enough for you,
Margery, darling."
HE RESUMED HIS ATTENTIONS, AND REMAINED BY HER SIDE.
"I do not know who is, for this sweet sister of mine is worthy the love of the best man in
the world."
"Captain Anstruther is good," said Margery, blushing. "A good son, a brave soldier, and a
true man; but you are mistaken, Clare, if you think he has ever spoken one word of love to
me."
"He looked a thousand to-night, if he did not utter them. You shall keep your soldier for
me, Margery, darling. He would not be my choice were he twenty times as good as you
say." And she ran laughing away.
If she could have seen Margery's face after this! It flushed with the daintiest colour, and
such a glad light came into the sweet eyes, that it was a pity Frank Anstruther was not
there to mark it.
"I was not wrong then." Margery rather breathed the words than spoke them. "Clare sees
that he cares for me best of all. She will not rob me of the one heart's love that I would
fain call mine. Thank God!"
The girl fell asleep with a thanksgiving on her lips, to be aroused from her rest only when
morning came, by Clare's light touch.
As each Christmas Day came round, it was the custom for the younger girl to awaken
Margery with a kiss, whilst she whispered, "Here am I, darling. Dorothy's Christmas gift,—
come with loving wishes for my sister."
Then they went together to Mrs. Austin's room to offer the season's greetings.
It was a happy Christmas after all. Clare had plenty of homage, but for that one day she
held herself aloof from Frank Anstruther, without appearing to do it purposely, whilst the
young soldier kept his old place near Margery.
So the weight was lifted from the loving heart, the cloud disappeared, and all at Monks Lea
told of joy, peace, and good-will.
CHAPTER VI.
FRANK ANSTRUTHER left Monks Lea immediately after Christmas, but was to return on the
last day of the year.
Mrs. Anstruther remained, as she had promised to spend the winter with her old friend,
and had no settled home. She was a great traveller, and had only come to England
because her son's regiment was ordered home, and she wished to be near him.
This arrangement involved the captain's frequent presence also, and it was understood
that he would come to Monks Lea as opportunity offered.
Margery would not have looked forward so happily to his coming again, if she could have
read his thoughts when he said farewell to her and the rest.
In fact, Frank Anstruther was far from feeling at ease. He knew that during the last weeks
he had done everything but speak of love to Margery Austin, and until Clare came, with
her bewitching face and manner, he had thought her the best, purest, most loveable of
girls, and had striven to win her heart as a treasure beyond all price.
Now, whilst hating himself for the dishonourable sentiment, he was rejoicing that he had
not committed himself in words, and would have given anything in the world to blot these
last weeks from Margery's memory and his own. He blushed at the thought. He knew it
was shameful to entertain it. He asked himself, "What will Mrs. Austin and my mother think
of me?" And yet he could see nothing, care for nothing but Clare, and felt that Margery,
mother, Mrs. Austin, and the world might judge him as they chose, if only he could win the
prize for which so many were contending.
Frank did not yield at once to this mad impulse.
He fought the sternest battle of his life during the interval between leaving and returning
to Monks Lea for the New Year; and he did not prove the victor, as on former occasions.
It was easier to slacken his attentions to Margery when they met again, for the Christmas
guests who were still there were now shaken together, and more than one amongst these
were ready to contend for the place he had occupied.
How gradually the change came about need not be fully described; yet Margery was the
first to see that the old experience was being repeated, but with this difference, that the
young beauty who had captivated so many hearts, only to reject them, had exchanged her
own with that of Frank Anstruther.
To Margery this knowledge was terrible. So true herself, the selfishness and treachery of
the girl to whom she had given an almost worshipping affection, and of the one man whom
she had elevated into a hero and on whose truth she would have staked her life, wounded
Margery to the core. She stole away to the old nursery, where she found her mother and
her faithful Barbara together, and dropping on her knees beside Mrs. Austin's chair, she
laid her head on her lap and wept bitterly.
It was so unusual for Margery to give way to strong emotion, that her mother was almost
frightened by it. But Barbara said, "Let her have the cry out, mistress dear. It will be a
relief. If tears and sobs were not given by God to ease overburdened hearts, they would
just break."
The nurse was right, and following the delicate instinct which told her that mother and
child would be better alone, she stole quietly from the room and left them together.
Not many words were spoken. Mrs. Austin's tears fell fast in sympathy with Margery's, and
now and then she stroked the girl's shining hair, and whispered—
"My darling! My precious child! What would I not do for you?"
"I know, I know you are true, mother, and sometimes I think there is no one else to be
trusted but you. Oh, mother, it seems that those who try to do right always come off the
worst!" she wailed in answer.
"Not so, my darling. It may seem so in the hour of trial, but not afterwards. Sorrow and
suffering dim our mental vision, as tears blind our outward sight. But God makes things
plain to us in His good time, and in the meanwhile we have to wait and trust."
There needed no words to explain the cause of Margery's trouble. The girl knew that her
mother had read her heart's story, and could divine the severity of the wound given not
only to her tenderest affections, but to her sense of self-respect.
She looked pitifully in Mrs. Austin's face, and in a tone that went to her mother's heart said
—
"Have I been to blame? You know all that passed before Clare came home. I am afraid
when I think of that time."
"You need not fear, my darling. Captain Anstruther may have changed, but when he looks
back and recalls that time, he can only feel that my Margery's words and acts were true,
pure, and maidenly. Believe me, I would not say this to soothe your wounded feelings, or
even to save your self-respect, were it not the truth. As to Anstruther and Clare—"
But here Margery's kiss closed her mother's lips.
"We will say nothing about them, dear. Such things are not premeditated, and our
affections are not under our own control. It would have been far worse if poor Frank had
learned to love Clare, and she had given him nothing but pretty speeches in return. You
will smooth their path for them, mother darling, will you not?"
"How can I ever forgive, when I think of you, my very own child, suffering so cruelly?"
"Go farther back, mother, and think how Dorothy's Christmas gift came to bring me new
life, and of all the blessed years we spent together before there was any question of rivalry
in love. There is none now."
"Oh, Margery! There is no girl like you for unselfishness. Mrs. Anstruther is dreadfully
pained; the knows your value, my darling, if Frank does not."
"I think he does, in a way, too. And in future I mean him to know it better still, by being
the best of sisters to him as well as Clare. He has none of his own. But do not let Mrs.
Anstruther know. I could not bear for any one but you, mother—"
Such a wistful, pleading look was Margery's, as the big tears gathered again, and the
trembling lips refused to form another word.
"No fear, my darling. Mrs. Anstruther, dear old friend as she is, must feel that hers is all
the loss. But how are we to hide our trouble?"
Margery smiled through her tears at the word "our."
It was true that she could have no pain her mother would not share.
"By trying to lighten some other trouble," she answered. "I will go to my room, bathe my
eyes and rest awhile. Then I will walk to the village and visit some of my poor friends
there. An hour by one bedside you know of, mother, will make my trial seem light."
Margery carried out her intention, and came back to Monks Lea in time for dinner, but she
did not join the rest at table. She pleaded weariness, and said she would go to Barbara in
the nursery, and have tea brought there instead. Later she might feel fit for society. At one
time Clare would have insisted on bearing her company, but conscience was not at rest,
and she could not muster courage to be alone with Margery, whose pallor was a mute
reproach, though she spoke in her usual tone and smiled in her sister's face.
But the girl had to run the gauntlet of her old nurse's sympathy. Barbara loved Clare, but
she regarded Margery as an impersonation of all excellences, and "her own real young
lady," who ought to be first in everything.
She placed Margery in the cosiest corner, waited on her and coaxed her with little tea-table
dainties, and then, seeing that she had only made a pretence at a meal, she broke down
and cried.
"I knew how it would be, my darling," she said. "Miss Clare has turned out a cuckoo in the
nest, as I told the mistress would happen if she took in the child of that fair-spoken, false-
hearted Edward Austin. The cuckoo turns out the young sparrows or tit-larks, and takes
their places, and Miss Clare has robbed you of yours."
"Not of my home, Barbara. I am more likely to stay in the old nest than ever. She cannot
help being so fair and stealing all hearts. Besides, I love her."
"She might help being false, though, and having her secrets and her meetings with people,
and getting letters unknown to you or my mistress. She has always been close and had
her secrets."
Margery thought Barbara alluded to meetings with Captain Anstruther, but the nurse
undeceived her.
"They have been going on ever since Miss Clare came back from her visit. She has gone to
the post office for letters, instead of having them brought in the bag to the house, and
only last night I saw her steal into the shrubbery all muffled up. I followed as quickly as I
could, but I had to go roundabout, so as not to be seen, and by the time I got near enough
she was just parting with two persons, a man and a woman. I did not go to listen, for I
was only afraid of Miss Clare coming to harm, but I did hear her say, 'Be at this same tree
to-morrow, at nine. I will come as soon as possible, and bring you all the money I have.'"
Margery's face turned pale as she heard nurse's story. In what trouble could Clare have
involved herself, that she should need to bribe these unknown persons?
"We must protect my sister from herself," she said. "I will send a message, and ask to be
excused from going to the drawing-room. My mother will be satisfied. Clare is certain not
to come here, and then you and I, Barbara, will muffle ourselves in wraps and be at the
meeting-place before the others."
Barbara agreed, and the plan was carried out, the thick shrubs and a moonless night
favouring concealment.
Margery and the nurse saw the strangers step into a little alcove, and shortly after Clare
came from the house and joined them. The watchers could only discern the figures, not
the faces, but they heard the chink of gold as Clare handed something to the man.
"Here are twenty-five pounds," she said, "all I have at present, but I will do my best for
you if you will wait a little. I may be wrong in giving you this, but, if you are really my
father—"
"Do you doubt it, pretty one, after all I have told you?"
"I don't know what to believe," said Clare, in a tone of distress. "You say you deceived
dear mamma with a tale of your death, because you wanted me to be brought up in her
beautiful home and have a child's place here, and you knew she would not adopt me if she
thought you were living."
"That is true, dear child," replied the man, softly. "I had not been the best of men or of
husbands to your poor mother, but I wanted my Clare to have what I could not give her. I
loved you dearly, and I always meant to reclaim you some day. It would be hard for me to
be deprived of you now, when I can have but few years to live, and I have a home, though
a very humble one compared to Monks Lea. Besides, now you are a grown-up young lady,
some suitor may be seeking your hand, and that shall not be given without your father's
sanction."
The girl gave a cry of distress when she heard this, but the man answered it by a mocking
laugh.
"What! Is there already a favoured one? Then no time must be lost. As to this trifling sum
you have given me, child, it is not worth naming. If Mrs. Austin wishes for your society
now, she will have to pay for it, and only retain it on my terms."
"You could not be so wicked as to take me from her," said Clare, in an agonized tone; "and
to want money, when I owe so many happy years to her and Margery. I will leave Monks
Lea and all—yes, all it holds—rather than be used as a means of threatening her or
extorting money from her."
Here spoke Clare's nobler nature, and Margery rejoiced that she was at hand to hear it.
But she and Clare were alike unprepared for what followed.
"You are right, my child, and I will take you at your word," said the man; and, seizing
Clare, he threw a thick shawl over her head, and with the help of his companion was going
to drag her away.
But in a moment Barbara's tall figure was behind him, and she pinioned the man with her
strong arms, whilst she called aloud for help.
This came sooner than she expected, in the shape of two of the gamekeepers, who were
on their rounds. Amongst them they secured the man, but the female had managed to
make her escape. Clare was supported to the house in an almost fainting state and taken
to her room.
As soon as Barbara saw the face of the prisoner in a full light, she exclaimed, "This is not
Miss Clare's father; I have seen Mr. Edward Austin too often to be mistaken."
She confronted the man, and though he at first tried to assert that he was Clare's father,
he soon found that this would be useless.
This evening's adventure cleared up once and for all the mystery of Clare's introduction to
Monks Lea.
After the death of his wife, Edward Austin lived for some months in a quiet country place a
few miles from London, where he had a cottage, and a respectable, middle-aged woman to
keep house and take care of the child—she was the Mary of whom Clare talked when she
came to Monks Lea.
The quiet, however, did not long suit a man like Edward Austin, and a considerable legacy
enabled him to resume his old life. He left Clare at the cottage, and went to Wiesbaden,
where he met a brother and sister, named Henry and Laura Marsh. They became intimate,
and eventually the lady became Edward Austin's second wife.
The money which had come to him was sufficient to make the marriage a desirable one to
Miss Marsh, who was dependent on her brother, especially as Edward Austin's tenure of life
seemed likely to be short. He was in delicate health, and during his one year of married
life, he never returned to England, but died suddenly whilst wintering in the Riviera.
His widow's first object was, with her brother's help, to get rid of Clare and turn everything
that was left into money.
The two knew of the distant relationship to Colonel Austin, and the death of all the children
at Monks Lea except Margery. Hence the letter, signed as if sent by Mrs. Allington, and
Clare's unexpected arrival at Newthorpe. No wonder Mr. Marsh and his sister made no
inquiry about the child, because, unknown to her, they saw her deposited on the platform,
having travelled from town in another compartment of the same train.
A singular chance, which need not be here related, had thrown Clare into company with
her father's widow, during her absence from home.
Mr. Marsh, being in pecuniary difficulties, conceived the idea of passing himself off as her
father, with a view of extorting money from the girl first, and, if possible, from Mrs. Austin
also. He induced his sister to show Clare certain papers and articles, which left no doubt on
the girl's mind that her father had married Miss Marsh. She knew nothing of the
circumstances attending his death, and could only remember that she had been told of it
after he had been long absent from her and Mary.
Henry Marsh's trumped-up story and pretended claim upon her were an afterthought, born
of his impecunious condition. Mrs. Edward Austin first induced Clare to arrange for a
clandestine correspondence by mysterious allusions to a coming revelation; and then
brought her brother, whom the girl had not previously seen, to meet her in the shrubbery
at Monk's Lea, where he pretended that she was his daughter, and told his tale.
Thanks to Barbara's watchfulness and courage, the girl was rescued and the impostor
exposed.
As no good end would have been attained by punishing Henry Marsh, and there was no
possibility of his repeating the experiment, he was allowed to depart. Newthorpe saw him
no more, and all that had been mysterious in connection with Clare's coming was cleared
up to Mrs. Austin's satisfaction.
Clare was lying ill in her own room two days later, for the shock of that encounter in the
shrubbery had been such as to keep her in bed ever since.
Mrs. Austin and Margery were by her side, when all at once Clare looked at them with an
expression of pain and penitence on her face, and said, in a trembling voice—
"Can you ever forgive me? Mamma, I ought not to be here. I should not have experienced
the anxiety, or known the terror those dreadful people caused me, if I had been like
Margery, and always opened my heart to you. But I have done with secrets and
concealments. I have had a lesson which will last my life. Say you forgive me, dear, dear
mother!"
There could be no doubt the girl was in earnest, and Mrs. Austin pressed a forgiving kiss
on her lips.
"And now may I speak to Margery all by myself?"
Mrs. Austin assented, and left the girls together.
"Margery, darling, you know—you know!" cried Clare, and then, covering her face with her
hands, as if unable to look at her sister, she sobbed bitterly.
"Yes, I know," said Margery, softly.
"I could not help it, Margery, and he could not. It came upon both of us against our wills; I
do not know how he could care for me when you were near; for you are a thousand times
more deserving of love than I am. But if—if you thought him good, it is no wonder I
should, though it was hateful and wicked, after what I said to you, Margery darling. Now I
have quite made up my mind to ask mamma to send me away somewhere with Barbara,
so that I may not see Captain Anstruther any more. I give him up to you, Margery, and I
do hope you will be happy yet, and poor Frank, too."
"IT CAME UPON BOTH OF US AGAINST OUR WILLS."
"Hush, Clare; hush, darling. You must give up sobbing, and let me dry those tears," replied
Margery, calmly. "Think, dear. You may determine to run away from Frank; you might even
refuse the love he offers; but it would be his to dispose of still, not yours. I am sure he
cannot take it back, and if he could, do you suppose I should desire it? My sister, look at
me. If ever a thought crossed my mind that Frank Anstruther could be more to me than
another, it is gone; and if he—"
"I told him I thought he fell in love with you first, Margery, and he declared he had never
said a word about love to you. He never really knew what it meant till he saw me," said
Clare.
The words gave Margery a pang, but she did not show it.
"It matters little, dear," she said, "since now you love each other. You offered to give Frank
to me. You gave your dear child-self. You came to me long years ago, like an angel gift, as
if from Dorothy, and with you returned health and life. We have been very happy, Clare,
and now, I trust, you will be happier than ever. You are mine to dispose of, and I give you
to Frank, and myself to be his sister, as I have been yours in the past. Have no fears for
me, darling. If there were no Clare in the case, Frank Anstruther could never be more than
friend or brother to me."
"Miss Clare has got her own way, as usual," said Barbara Molesworth. "She always would
have it, by hook or by crook. The tale does not end as one would like; but I suppose it
cannot be helped, especially as my own dear lady says she would not have it different for
the world. There is one good thing—the cuckoo goes, and the proper nestling stays in the
nest. But Miss Margery would not be content till her mother gave a fine portion with Miss
Clare. And the captain says, and well he may, that he does not know whether he is most
fortunate in his wife or his sister."
Clare and her husband are considered a model couple as regards devotion to each other;
but the gallant captain tolerates no hangers-on, and his wife's love of admiration has to be
satisfied with what he gives in no stinted measure.
They have a baby-girl—Margery's namesake and god-daughter, and her great pet.
There is one worthier, nobler in himself, as well as in position, than was Frank Anstruther,
who is biding his time—one who knows Margery's value; and it is more than likely that
before Christmas comes round again, the real young lady of Monks Lea will have followed
the example of Clare, and changed her name.
HER MAJESTY'S MAIL-BAGS.
CHAPTER I.
Two children, a boy of eleven, a girl just twelve months younger, motherless and
neglected. Such were my brother and I, Norman and Bertha Savell.
Our home, King's Court, ought to have been equally beautiful, well-ordered, and
abounding with everything that could promote the happiness of those who dwelt under its
roof. For many a generation past, it had been one of the show places of the county, and
brought many a tourist out of his way to inspect the art treasures and heirlooms that had
been gathering for centuries within its walls.
As children, Norman and I knew little of the glories of King's Court. They had been waning
ever since our mother's death, which even my brother could not remember. We knew in
after days that she had been alike good and beautiful—a woman of culture, refinement,
and strong religious principle, whose faith was manifested by her daily life. Our father had
been used to lean on her, rather than she on him, for, though noble looking and most
devoted to his wife, he was weak-willed, and easily led either for good or evil. After having
lost the love of his life, he cared little what became of home, self, or even the children she
had bequeathed to him.
A season of violent, unreasoning grief was followed by years of reckless living. The stately
man became a wreck of his old self, and all his surroundings changed for the worse.
King's Court was robbed of all the treasures its owner had the power to dispose of, and old
friends held aloof from its master, whilst they shook their heads and looked pityingly after
the children who ran almost wild, and scarcely heeded by the one parent left to them.
It was said that Mr. Savell would have married again for money rather than love some six
years after his wife's death, but that Norman and I were the obstacles.
The lady would have accepted the owner of King's Court, and dedicated her wealth to the
paying off of mortgages and re-purchase of its scattered treasures, if there had been no
son to whom the broad acres must eventually pass. But she did not care to redeem the
estates for another woman's child to inherit, so this plan fell through.
Norman and I could remember how, once, in a fit of passion, our father used hard words
to us, called us "clogs" and "incumbrances," and uttered some wish, the purport of which,
happily, did not reach our ears.
Such hard words were exceptional. As a rule, we were only neglected. But for our vicar, Mr.
Pemberton, we might have grown-up with less education than many of the village children
received, but he pleaded for permission to teach Norman with his own boys, and induced
my father to place me under the governess who instructed his own little Lucy.
When I was ten and Norman eleven years old, a new era began in our young lives. Our
father had gone out with the hounds in the early morning, and, after a hard run, had
indulged too freely at table. Refusing the offered hospitality of the neighbour at whose
house he dined, he insisted that he must sleep at King's Court, and started homeward in
the darkness and alone.
At midnight, the waiting servants heard the clattering of a horse's feet as it galloped down
the avenue. It was their master's hunter, but riderless, and a brief search resulted in the
discovery of our father's dead body on the road. He had been thrown from his horse, and
his temple having struck on a sharp stone, he had died instantly.
In this emergency our uncle, Bernard Savell, was summoned. Many a long year had
passed since he last crossed the threshold of King's Court, for he had grievously affronted
his father and brother by investing his own slender patrimony in trade, at the instance of
his godfather. Eventually, he became first the partner, then the heir, of this gentleman, and
was at forty, wealthy and a bachelor. My father was very little Uncle Bernard's senior—only
a couple of years—and the two had been much attached to each other as boys; but family
pride severed and kept them apart. Now the younger came to grieve over the long-
estranged brother, and to take charge of his orphan children. He brought his fine business
talents to bear on the tangled web presented by the state of affairs at King's Court, and
soon reduced it to something like order.
"The squire has imperilled the broad acres," said Uncle Bernard; "the tradesman shall
redeem them. Your father has scattered many of the treasures which were the glory of
King's Court; but I have had my eyes and ears open, and I know where they are to be
found."
We knew afterwards that Uncle Bernard had long been aware of what was going on in his
old home, and had employed agents to purchase what his brother was only too willing to
sell; so that before many months were over the house was renovated, its treasures
restored, lands were redeemed, debts paid, and King's Court was once again the pride of
the county.
Norman and I, the neglected boy and girl, were placed under careful supervision, yet
treated with such infinite tenderness by our good uncle that we were happier than we had
ever been before. As to the kind and generous relative who had brought about these rapid
changes, he found his own happiness in the knowledge of ours, and the almost
worshipping affection we gave him in return.
I think there never was such a large-hearted and loving guardian as Uncle Bernard, and
yet he was equally generous and prudent. He made no secret of his intentions towards
Norman, who was already heir of King's Court—but not of unencumbered acres; for
everything had been done according to law, and our uncle was sole mortgagee, in place of
several different ones to whom our father was indebted when he died.
"It will all be yours, my boy, if you deserve it. But you must prove yourself fit to own and
rule the old estate before I quite loose my hold on it," said my uncle to Norman; and as
the years passed on he became satisfied of my brother's fitness to manage the estates and
do honour to the old name.
He was very good and generous to me also—almost too lavish; for he petted his "Berty,"
as he preferred to call me, and was ever ready to bestow new dresses, new jewels, new
everything that could please a girl's taste. But after each instance of prodigality, he would
say, "Remember, Berty, I expect Aunt Bella to give you your dowry. She has plenty of
money, which came by our grandmother; and as I have made things smooth for Norman, I
consider it only reasonable that she should provide for you."
"Depend upon it, Aunt Bella will do nothing of the kind. She was angry at my father
because he wanted to borrow from her, though she declined to lend. She never could
endure me, because I was not called after her, though I could not be responsible for the
action of my sponsors at such an early age as four weeks. She will leave her money to
somebody who has already more than enough, after the fashion of spinster aunts."
"And what of bachelor uncles, Berty? Are they not often cross-grained and contrary?"
"I only know one, and he is the best and kindest darling in the world," I replied, kissing the
dear face, which seemed to me goodness personified.
"Though he vows he will leave you no money," continued Uncle Bernard, after returning
the kiss, as he held me encircled with his arm.
"Yes, though he will leave me no legacy. I do not want him to leave money to anybody, but
just to live on and take care of me."
"Ah, lassie, I know a certain young maiden's mind better than that. She will soon prefer
the care of a younger bachelor than Uncle Bernard. Do you think I was blind when Stephen
Hastings spent last Long Vacation at King's Court? I could see that somebody's bright eyes
grew brighter, and the colour on her cheek deepened, when that young man's firm step
came within hearing."
Again I stopped Uncle Bernard's mouth with a kiss, and then placed my hand on his lips to
prevent further tale-telling.
"I will allow no such insinuations," I said. "To come back to the previous question, let me
ask if you have not acted unpardonably by encouraging extravagant tastes, giving me
dresses fit for a princess, and then threatening me with Aunt Bella's tender mercies? I
have a great mind to sell off all my finery, invest the proceeds against a rainy day, and
dress for the future in blue and white prints of the milkmaid pattern. Far better do this
than foster habits of luxury which cannot be continued in the future."
"Do all these things, darling," replied my uncle, composedly, "and prove the truth of what I
have often told you."
"What do you allude to?"
"That you owe nothing to dress, Berty, but are equally attractive in shimmering satin or
humble print. Still, I hope Aunt Bella will ensure you the choice of materials."
"I do not care a straw for Aunt Bella's money; Norman will always take care of me," I
replied.
"That is what I call comfortable confidence, Berty; but you have good reason for it.
Norman would not be dear as a son to me if he were not a good, unselfish brother. I do
believe that whilst he owns a shilling you will be certain of sixpence."
I had like faith in my brother, and there was also a hidden consciousness that if I stood
otherwise alone in the world, I could claim the devotion of a true heart and the protection
of a strong arm to bless and shield me in my journey through life, if I so willed it.
True, Stephen Hastings had not spoken to me of love, except by those eloquent eyes of
his, and all the thoughtful, tender attentions which it was possible for him to pay me
during his visit to King's Court. I think I knew why he hesitated to speak. Stephen was a
younger brother, with small means, and his way to make; but he had first-rate abilities,
and great energy and perseverance, with friends also who desired to help him into a
position where he could find scope for all these.
It was only to wait and trust, and I felt that Stephen deserved all confidence and was
worth waiting for.
CHAPTER II.
WE lost our kind uncle six months after Norman came of age. He had come to stay with us
suddenly one day, and had been delighted by the manner in which my brother realized the
responsibilities of his position, and predicted a bright future for us both.
"You will not disgrace the old name, my boy," he said, "and I trust you will soon bring a
fair young wife to occupy your mother's chair. I picture you both—Berty and you, I mean—
fittingly mated, and the sooner my dream becomes a reality the better."
Afterwards, he whispered something about Stephen Hastings, and said, "Even if he should
take my pet without a penny, he would never regret it."
"He has not asked for me yet, Uncle Bernard," I replied.
"But I can see as far into the future without spectacles as my neighbours can, and I have
bought you a wedding present on the strength of my prophetic vision. I mean to give it
you now, but you must not wear it till your wedding-day."
"I believe you rack your brains for excuses to buy me things; but you must keep back your
wedding gift till the proper time comes, Uncle Bernard," I replied.
"No, dear. You must indulge me by taking it from my own hand. If I should live to give you
away to—spare your blushes, Berty, I will mention no name—a husband, well. If not, you
will remember that I actually gave you these little souvenirs. Come with me."
Uncle Bernard led us to a quaint-looking piece of furniture, ornamental outside, but really
a strong iron safe, and took from it a case containing a beautiful suite of diamonds, then
some other jewels, and a purse with gold and notes. Besides these, he showed us a sealed
packet, addressed, as I thought, to myself.
"Now, Berty, you see these ornaments; put them on that I may know how you will look on
your bridal morning. Why, child, you seem quite awe-stricken. I thought you had
experienced your old uncle's whims long enough to be able to laugh when he breaks out in
a new direction."
Somehow, I could not laugh, and my eyes filled with tears as my uncle persisted in
hanging the shining necklace round my neck, and clasped the bracelets round my arms.
"Put on the rest yourself, dear. I am a clumsy substitute for a tire-maiden," he added.
I obeyed, and Uncle Bernard looked admiringly as he said, "My darling is like a little queen,
and now she must give me a kiss in payment."
I clasped my arms round his neck, and kissed the kind face of my more than father again
and again; then whispered, "I wish I could tell you how much I value your love and
tenderness, which are better than all the jewels in the world."
He passed his hand caressingly down my hair, as he said that Norman and I had been son
and daughter to him, and filled a void in a solitary life.
"Uncle Bernard," said I, "you were never meant for a bachelor."
"I had other dreams once, darling, but the bright visions faded without becoming realities.
It was, however, neither cruel parents nor faithlessness that came between me and
marriage. Death parted my love from me, and soon he will cancel his work by reuniting
us."
Then, quickly changing his tone, Uncle Bernard said, "We will lock up these pretty things
with the purse. It contains some pocket-money for you to start housekeeping with; but so
long as you are Bertha Savell you must not have a single gold piece out of it."
"But what other mystery is hidden in that sealed packet, uncle?" I asked, affecting great
curiosity.
"That, my dear, contains certain instructions for the benefit of your future husband,
whoever he may be. I have had some experience in managing you, and I wish him to
profit by it. The packet, observe, is addressed to 'Bertha's husband,' and is to be opened
only when some one has a right to the title. Were he to learn what sort of a person you are
beforehand, he might decline to accompany you to church."
We all laughed at this speech; and then the articles were replaced in the safe, and we
returned to talk together round the fire till bedtime.
Then Uncle Bernard was ill for some time, and kept his room; and it used to be my
pleasure to go and chat with him as he sat in his invalid chair. But one morning the poor
darling was found dead.
We knew afterwards that he had long expected such an end, for he suffered from an
ailment against which medical skill could avail nothing. Tender in everything, he concealed
the worst from our knowledge, only hinting at the possibility of an early call from our
midst, in order to make it seem less sudden when it should come.
CHAPTER III.
A YEAR had gone since Uncle Bernard's death, and Norman and I were looking forward to
the coming Christmas season with happy anticipations.
My brother had wooed sweet Lucy Pemberton, my dear friend and old schoolfellow, and
expected to bring his bride to King's Court early in the new year.
My engagement to Stephen Hastings had fulfilled Uncle Bernard's prophetic hopes, and I
was waiting eagerly for news from my betrothed, who was a candidate for an Indian legal
appointment. There were many competitors, but if Stephen were successful, our wedding
was to take place on the same day as Norman's.
My brother and I had spent some time in watching and waiting for the all-important letter
which was to decide whether this matrimonial programme could be carried out or no. In
these days, when people "wire" to each other about comparatively trivial things, our
patience would not have been called into exercise. But I am telling of what happened
about twenty years ago, when King's Court was eight miles from the nearest telegraph
office, and a special messenger had to be sent on horseback when a telegram came to
Overford, our village, or the Court itself.
Our letters came to the railway station, which was also the post office, and were fetched
thence by one of the servants. We were looking for his return, and Norman was pacing up
and down and gazing from the window in turns, chafing at the delay.
"That mail train is always late!" he exclaimed.
"Like every other that calls at Overford," said I. "Did you ever know one arrive
punctually?"
"Yes," replied Norman. "It was when I was going to town last spring, and, relying on its
being at least regular in its irregularities, I reached the station two minutes after the time,
and was left behind."
"When you ought to have met Aunt Bella at London Bridge Station, and she waited,
bewildered and indignant, but firm in her determination to guard her luggage at the risk of
her life."
Norman burst into a hearty laugh. "Shall I ever forget that scene?" he said. "Aunt Bella
amid mountains of luggage, of which her parrot's cage formed the apex. She had guarded
her belongings for two hours against all corners. She has never forgiven me, and never
will. Here comes the train, thirty-five minutes late. I will rush across the park, get your
letter myself, and save you at least ten minutes of suspense, Berty."
The train was only just in sight, a little puff of white vapour indicating its whereabouts, and
my fleet-footed brother would reach Overford Station as soon as it would; but I implored
him not to go.
"Parks will bring the letters," I said. "He took a trap down to convey the new housemaid
and her luggage to the house. He will lose no time."
"But that stupid Frith will keep him waiting, if only to annoy me," said Norman, hastily; for
a quick temper was my darling brother's besetting sin. He had fought and struggled
against it, and often mourned with bitter penitence over its results; but the enemy was
strong still, and the day of complete conquest seemed as yet in the distant future.
I cried to my brother as he was leaving the room, "Norman, do not touch the mail-bag, or
you will get into trouble; and think how dreadful it would be for me to feel that I was the
cause of it to you. Frith is not like old Joynson."
"He is a conceited fellow, who needs to be taught his place," returned Norman, his face
flushing as he spoke. "But no fear of my being tempted to give him a lesson to-day. I shall
be too late."
Norman darted across the hall, and, scorning the regular paths, quickly reached a short
cut used only by our own family to facilitate our passage to the station when we walked
thither. I knew that his impatience was all on my account; but I was not a little troubled
about possible results. I hoped he might be late; for I dreaded a collision between him and
our new station-master, Edward Frith.
Everybody knows what kind of position is occupied by the great man in an agricultural
village—the squire who owns every foot of land for miles, and is literally monarch of all he
surveys. He is generally beneficent and patriarchal, and there is a kindly familiarity
between him and his people; but his sway was a pretty absolute one in my young days.
Such a position had Norman been early called on to fill, and through Uncle Bernard's
generosity he had more talents to account for than those who preceded him, and less of
the experience which comes with well-spent years than might have been desired.
Old Joynson, the first station-master at Overford, was a man who believed in the
infallibility of the squires of King's Court. Had not his ancestors been tenants on the estate
for ages? Did he not owe his post to their influence? And was not the word of him who
ruled at the Court as law to the old retainer, in whom something of the ancient feudal spirit
survived, despite the reforms and changes of the nineteenth century?
During the last years of Joynson's life, he allowed Norman to take liberties which no one in
his position could permit without a gross breach of trust. If my brother were expecting
letters of importance, he would seize the mail-bag, break the seal, open it, and select from
its contents his own particular share.
It not infrequently happened that all the letters were for residents at King's Court, and
though Norman insisted that old Joynson should look at the addresses, the man deemed it
almost superfluous, remarking, often enough, "Of course, squire, you'd only take what is
your own, or for the Court."
Joynson's successor was a man of another stamp; a smart, active, city-bred clerk, married
to one of our Overford girls, but with none of his predecessor's feudal prejudices, and
rather proud than otherwise of not exactly hitting it with young Mr. Savell. He would have
scorned to call Norman "the squire."
Very unwisely, my brother attempted to continue his old practice; but the first time he
lifted the mail-bag, Frith courteously but firmly requested him to put it down.
Norman did not heed this intimation, and would have proceeded to break the seals, but
Frith seized the bag, wrenched it from him, and angrily desired him not to repeat what he
must know was a breach of the law.
"Nonsense, Frith," said Norman, "I have opened the bag scores of times, and you may be
sure I should only take what belongs to me."
"Probably not, but your act is unlawful, and whatever others may have done, I shall do my
duty."
For the moment, Norman forgot himself. He was so little used to contradiction that his next
words were wanting both in good sense and good temper. "Do you not know that I own all
Overford, and am master here?" he asked.
"You are not my master, I am glad to say," was Frith's cool reply. "Neither do you own this
railway station. I am answerable to my employers of the Post Office and the railway; and if
you hinder me in the performance of my duty, you have to answer to them—not to me."
Frith waited for no reply, but passed into the little office, and subsequently handed Norman
his letters through the usual aperture, with an unmoved face.
My brother came home angry both at Frith and himself. He related what had passed, and
continued, "How I do hate myself for uttering that foolish boast about owning the whole
place! It was a piece of idle self-assertion, and Frith put me down in the coolest way, by
proving that I had no authority over him. I hardly know whether I am most vexed at
myself or him."
"At yourself, I hope," said I. "You forget your place, dear, and Frith had right on his side.
Were I you, I would never repeat the offence, and I would make Frith respect me, by
frankly owning that I was in the wrong."
"What! Apologize, and promise not to do so any more?"
"Not exactly. But, Norman, dear, there is true dignity in owning a fault, especially one
committed against an inferior in position. It shows that we do not wish to take advantage
of our own, but would act simply as man to man."
Norman could not at once agree to this, or shake off the long-received notion that the
owner of Overford ought to receive unquestioning homage from all around him. He was
not free from class prejudices, and he showed his displeasure by entirely ignoring the
young station-master.
Frith was not above feeling some exultation at having "taken down" Mr. Savell. He
remarked to his wife that he had taught that youngster a lesson.
"If he thinks he can ride rough-shod over me, or play the tyrant because he owns King's
Court, and all the Overford clodhoppers are cap in hand to him, he is mistaken. Let him
beware of touching Her Majesty's mail-bags again, or he will pay for his obstinacy."
"He may be a little hasty, but he is kind and generous. Everyone gives him a good name,
Edward," replied Mrs. Frith, anxious to act as peacemaker, while conscious that her
husband's temperament was only too much like Norman's.
Weeks passed on, and my brother waited for the delivery of the letters at the Court. But
when the day came on which we expected the all-important news from Stephen, his
patience was sorely tried by the tardiness of the train.
At the station a further delay had to be faced. The train must be shunted for the express to
pass it.
Frith and the one porter were engaged in effecting this, and the letter-bag lay on the
platform. Norman felt waiting very hard work, and a half-threatening glance from Frith
made it harder still.
The shunting had only just been completed when the express dashed through, and then
the tardy train had to be brought back to the platform and started on its way.
Everything was against Norman. Frith's look worst of all. He determined to brave the
consequences, and, snatching up the letter-bag, he broke the seal just as the starting of
the train set Frith at liberty to attend to post office duties.
"Put that bag down!" he shouted.
Norman did not obey, but seizing the looked-for letter, he turned away with a light laugh,
then said, "I have only helped myself to one. You may look at it, and my servant will bring
any others."
Frith's reply was addressed to the bystanders. Pointing to the broken seals, he said, "I call
you all to witness that Mr. Savell has unlawfully opened and abstracted a letter from the
mail-bag. He will hear further about this act, and you will be called to prove my charge."
The persons spoken to included Frith's wife, who stood in the doorway, the porter, Parks,
our servant, and the new housemaid he had come to meet, with two or three of the village
people.
Then Frith sorted the remaining letters, counted their number, which would have been
correct with the addition of the one taken out by Norman, and, having copied out all the
addresses, sent them to their several destinations, and completed his task by writing an
account of the affair to the Postmaster-General. Later in the day he said to his wife, "Mr.
Norman will get a lesson he little expects."
"About taking that letter? Well, it was his own. He would never touch what belonged to any
one else."
"That makes no difference, as he will find out to his cost."
"Don't send a report to head-quarters. Mr. Norman will be sorry, I know, and will tell you
so. Just think of Miss Bertha, and pretty Miss Pemberton. She is to marry Mr. Savell after
New Year. Why, if this foolish affair caused trouble, it would break the dear young ladies'
hearts, and I do think it would break mine."
"The letter is gone, Mary. I could only do my duty, and I am afraid there will be no choice
between a very heavy penalty and acquitting Mr. Savell. They could not acquit him in the
face of such evidence, so he will have to pay."
"It was very hard of you to write, Ned," sobbed Mrs. Frith, who was very pretty, and a
bride of only three months' standing. These were the first tears her husband had made her
shed, and in spite of an approving conscience, Frith felt anything but comfortable. He
paced the platform to get out of sight of Mary's sorrowful face, and could not help thinking
that he might have done his duty without painting Mr. Savell's conduct in quite such dark
colours. There are different ways of putting things, and if only he had not written when he
was angry, Frith realised that the truth might have been told in a milder way.
As to Mrs. Frith, she consoled herself with the thought that the young squire had plenty of
money, and would not feel the fine as a poorer man might. She never dreamed that a far
heavier penalty had been incurred which money could not pay.
CHAPTER IV.
STEPHEN HASTINGS had passed triumphantly, and would follow his letter immediately.
There was just a chance that he would reach Overford by the last train. This was the news
contained in the letter.
There was great sympathy between Norman and me, and we rejoiced in each other's joy,
but the thought of approaching separation was the one drawback. When I became
Stephen's wife, I must bid farewell to my only brother, perhaps for many years to come.
He, dear fellow, forgot this, I think, as he said, "We shall have the double wedding, and
you will look like a princess in Uncle Bernard's bequest. You will outshine Lucy, who will
wear no jewels on her marriage day."
I turned from the subject of wedding bravery to speak of Stephen. I was naturally very
proud of the position he had won, and I said so, while from my heart went up thanksgiving
to God for the success vouchsafed him.
Again came words of joyous congratulation from Norman, and a proposition that we should
go together to the station, on the chance of meeting Stephen.
"We will start early, for I want to make things right with Frith," added Norman. "He is a
good fellow, though a little overbearing, and I am too happy to remain at enmity with any
one."
I took alarm at these words, and exclaimed, "Surely you did not touch the mail-bag again,
after being warned!"
"Yes, dear, I did. The shunting of the train took so much time that I lost patience and
helped myself to your letter. Frith was in a rage, but I shall make things straight with him
by a handshake and a promise not to offend again."

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Magnetic Ferrites and Related

Nanocomposites Ali Ghasemi

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CHAPTER 1 Fundamentals of ferrites.......................................... 1

CHAPTER 2 Ferrite characterization techniques ........................49

2.13 BeH tracer......................................................................91

CHAPTER 4 Magnetoelectric ferrite nanocomposites ............... 301

6.4 Types of carbon materials ................................................ 438

CHAPTER 8 Ferrite synthesis methods..................................... 587

my deep appreciation to all individuals who helped me promote my knowledge of

1.2 Brief history of magnets

1.3 Basic science of magnetism

1.3.1 Origin of magnetism

1.3.2 Coulomb and Lorentz forces

1.3.3 Definition of fundamental magnetic parameters

1.3.4 Ampère’s law

Magnetic induction (B) G T 104

1.3.5 Faraday’s law

1.3.6 Lenz’s law

1.3.7 Maxwell’s equations

1.4 Classes of magnetic materials

The intensity of magnetization is expressed by

By combining the above equations, one can reach

By setting mH=kB T ¼ a and cosq ¼ x, the following expression is obtained:

The function in parentheses is called Brillouin function BJ(a), which is reduced

wij ¼ 2JSi $Sj (1.37)

HmA ¼ wAA MA þ wAB MB (1.40)

The magnetization of site B is also written as

1.5 Importance of ferrites

1.6 Fundamentals of ferrite crystal structures

Table 1.2 Classification of various ferrites.

Spinel Cubic M2þ Fe3þ2 O4

1.6.1 Spinel ferrites

1.6.2 Hexagonal ferrites

building blocks of hexaferrites can be described as stacking sequences of three

1.6.2.1 The M structure

1.6.2.2 The W structure

1.6 Fundamentals of ferrite crystal structures

M AFe12O19 RSR*S* w23 P63/mmc

1.6.2.3 The X structure

1.6.2.4 The Y structure

1.6.2.5 The Z structure

1.6.2.6 The U structure

1.6.3 Garnet structure

1.6.4 Orthoferrite structure

1.7 Superexchange interaction

superexchange interaction is predominant, referring to the interaction of spin mo-

1.8 Applications of ferrites

systems, electromagnetic interference shielding, as well as TV and radio markets

1.8.1 Applications of ferrites in microwave-absorbing media

"I shall," he replied, "if only because she is so dear to you."

On her knees the girl pleaded—

At first Captain Anstruther struggled against Clare's fascinations, and remained by

Clare rallied Margery about her captain.

HE RESUMED HIS ATTENTIONS, AND REMAINED BY HER SIDE.

M AFe12O19 RSRS w23 P63/mmc