Norms and Norm Groups Norms relate test scores to the performance of a group of test takers.

National
norms are based on drawing nationally representative samples of individuals at the age or educational
level for which a test is designed. National norms are typically developed using a sampling plan that
helps ensure that the sample accurately represents the population. National norms by age or grade are
often provided for educational achievement and aptitude tests. National norms by gender may be
provided for personality inventories and other noncognitive assessments. National norming studies are
used to estimate test score characteristics, such as means, standard deviations, and percentile ranks, for
a national population of test takers. User norms are based on test takers who happen to take a test
during a given time period or for a particular sample. These user norms cannot be viewed as nationally
representative because they depend on who happens to take a particular test. User norms can facilitate
score interpretation. For example, consider a student entering a college and completing the Learning
and Study Strategies Inventory (Weinstein & Palmer, 2002), which is designed to measure students’
awareness and use of learning and study strategies. The student’s scores on the inventory can easily be
compared with the national norms provided. However, also comparing the student’s scores to the
normative information for all students enrolled at the college (user norms) provides a closer reference
for interpreting and comparing the test taker’s scores and will help to identify areas in which the college
can best meet the test taker’s needs. Technical Issues in Development of National Norms National
norming studies are used to estimate test score characteristics, such as means, standard deviations, and
percentile ranks, for a national population of test takers. The development of national norms involves
drawing a representative sample of test takers from the national population. Sample survey
methodology (Thompson, 2002) is used to design norming studies. In this section, some basic sampling
concepts are considered. See Kolen (2006, pp. 180–183) for more details. The population of interest is
the population of test takers that the norms are intended to represent. The population characteristics or
population parameters, such as means and percentile ranks for scores on a test, are the estimated
quantities. A sampling design is the process that is used for sampling test takers from the population of
interest. Statistics are the estimates of the population characteristics found from the sample. Norming
studies typically use a combination of sampling plans. In simple random sampling, each test taker in the
population has an equal and independent probability of being included in the sample. In stratified
random sampling, the population is divided into strata on the basis of test-taker characteristics, such as
geographic region or public versus private school. A sample is drawn from each stratum. Statistics from
each strata are often weighted differentially to estimate the population characteristic. Stratification
reduces sampling error variance to the extent that the strata differ on the measured variable. In
systematic random sampling, every nth test taker is chosen from the population, after the first test taker
is randomly chosen from among the first n test takers. If test takers are ordered randomly, then
systematic random sampling is the same as simple random sampling. If the test takers are ordered on a
variable related to the measured variable, then systematic random sampling can result in substantially
lower sampling error than simple random sampling.

Cluster sampling involves sampling at the level of test-taker group. For example, schools might be
sampled and then all students within a selected school tested. To the extent that the clusters differ, on
average, on the test score of interest, cluster sampling requires testing more students than would be
required with simple random sampling to achieve the same sampling error variance. Most norming
studies use a combination of sampling strategies. Simple random sampling is usually not practical for
developing test norms. Specialists in sample survey design methodology also develop sampling designs
and weights, as needed, so that the statistics that are calculated accurately estimate the population
characteristics. In addition, indices of the precision of the estimates of the population characteristics are
provided.