ENGINEER IN SOCIETY

MPE 319

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGY
It is quite necessary to be familiar with the term “Technology” before digging into Engineer in society.

DEFINITION OF TECHNOLOGY

Technology can be viewed or defined in different ways for the purpose of this course “technology is the
corpus of knowledge and set of techniques, acts, methods and processes which a given society use to
manipulate and control the physical world to satisfy her wants.

This means that every society has its own technologies, which are employed to satisfy her requirements in
term of food, goods and services. The types and levels of sophistication of these technologies vary from
one society to the other and are a measure of development

Since inception, man has been discovering his environment tried to solve encountered problem

HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY
The history of technology can be traced back to be probably pre-admit age and to when man was created
by God and put in garden of Eden to tend and maintain it, historical records and Bible records showed
that the occupation of man during ante diluvia age were agriculture, shepherding and hunting. These
showed that man must have used some tools and technique in subduing his environment to carry out his
occupation, period is being described by some historians as prehistorically earlier than 4000 years before
the birth of Christ.

i. The prehistorically period

There are obviously no definite document or written text on the development of technology about 4000
years before the birth of Christ. Knowledge of man’s techniques in achieving the tasks in pre-historical
times has been by examining tools and buried objects that were found by Archeologist in prehistoric sites
in different part of the world. Other findings relation prehistoric times consist of articles made of stone,
wooden objects, bones, pottery, leather, few line cloth, metals and basketry which seldom survived the
period the passage of time. Another source of knowledge of prehistoric period comes through the stones,
vessel, ornaments, and remains of paintings found in tombs, caves and other sites that have been explored
by archaeologists. All these showed cases of existence of early technology developed for various
purposes at very early dates. We can as well remember the building of Noah’s Ark with wood in
antediluvian age and men building of tower of babel almost 4000 years before the birth of Christ.
The terms ‘the stone age’, ‘the bronze age’ and ‘iron age’ refer to various periods relevant to the historical
development of technology. These terms refer to the materials that were commonly used for making of
tools and weapons by ancient in different parts of the world at these various times.
Therefore, no definite universal date can be given for the stone age; culture might have been achieved in
Egypt of Babylonia by 3000BC while stone age culture persisted later for another 1000 years in the other
parts of the world. A striking example of these times taken for a particular technique to travel the world is
given by who quotes the following dates for the first appearance of vases made on a potter’s wheel
Samaria, 3.250 B.C. Egypt 2750 B.C. Southern England, 5000 B.C Scotland A.D. 400, The Americans
A.D.1750

ii. STONE AGE

Stone age was the earliest age of man using rocks to achieve his aims-defense, shelter and other
construction. It was the period when stone was used in making all weapons, tools and other domestic
utilities. Stone was the first material used along with wood by man. The early man most commonly used
stone and wood. Though, these must have been supplemented by the uses of other materials such as
animal bones, Ivory skin and gut. The greatest members of prehistoric objects that have survived are
those of stone and by studying them a great deal have been learned of man’s first steps in making tools.
Early man used stone to make flint, which provided him with the hardest implements for cutting and
shaping other materials such as bone and wood.
During the period from about 4000-3000BC, the ancient Egypt had perfected the working on stone.
Stone was used not only for tools but also for other constructional works. By hammering stones on one
another in different ways the hardest stone could be chipped to produce knives, scraper, axes and saw.
Small flutster are with semated teeth were made for cutting pieces of wood, animal skin and meets.
Grinding stones were also produced. Bows and arrows for hunting were produced, woods were also used
for principal constructions such as carts, buildings and bridges. Bow drills were also made from stone.
The bow drills in various forms were used not only for drilling and boring but also for making fire.

iii. BRONZE AGE

This was the period when bronze was used in making weapons, tools and domestic utilities. It was the
first hard metal to be used by man. Bronze is a mixture of tin and copper. Copper was first discovered,
mined, melted and used before bronze. Copper smelting started in Mesopotamia before 300BC. And was
just commonly used in Egypt from 2600 BC. The casting and working of copper seen gave place to the
making of bronze. Bronze was easiest cast and much stronger in use. Both copper and bronze were
becoming hardened by cold working which is by repeated hammering of the metal on an anvil while it is
cold.
The periods during which copper and bronze were the materials used for making tools and weapons
covered about 2000 years in Egypt and Mesopotamia. During this age, there was adaptability of surplus
slaves in Egypt resulting in cheap labour for building roads, cities and harbor. The technical advances in
the previous stone age helped in this new age and thus caused great social changes and development.
Technical innovations in the bronze age led to the introduction of tongs for handling small pieces of hot
metal, the development of war process for castings, the introduction of bellows for metal logical
processes. The copper’ smiths made axes, chisels, tongs, drills, knives, saws, nails, clamps, needles,
razors, etc. the carpenters made holts, chariots, furniture, etc. However, by the year 250 B.C the first
technological revolution came to an end due to lack of progressive technological inspiration.
 iv. IRON AGE
The iron age began about 1300 B.C while the discovery of iron is generally attributed to the Hittites, who
lived in the mountainous region of what is now known as Asia minor. They produced iron from a cheap
economic manner. The crude method of casting iron at a hotter temperature of about 1500 0 (compared to
10860C for copper and about 10650 for silver) required that a number of tools have to be level such as
tongs for handling the red hot metal, hammers and an crucibles, furnaces and bellows. All these items or
equipment had reached an advanced stage of development by 1200 B.C.

Metallurgical discoveries during Iron Age

1. Steel making carbonizing, i.e. repeated heating of Iron billet in contact with charcoal;
2. The hardening of steel by quenching from a high temperature and
3. The tempering of hardened steel by slow heating to a moderate temperature to avoid brittleness.
The last two discoveries were made successively much late than the first, hardening of steel about 800
B.C the Greeks and tempering of steel in Roman times, cast iron was not known in ancient Egypt and in
Greece and Rome, probably because the furnaces had never reached a sufficiently high temperature
required really to liquefy the metal. Apart from the discovery of iron, there were several other
developments which further encouraged technological activities during the age. Such factors include
making vessels for cooking and storing cereals, building of machine for making textiles, water irrigation
in the valley of river Nile and meeting the needs of social groupings.

THE EGYPT
The history of technology can be traced to early contribution of the Egyptian empire between the periods
of 3000 B.C to 500 B.C. The invention of writing attributed to the Sumerians occurs sometimes about
3000 B.C to 500 B.C. Egyptians also developed hieroglyphic writing and uniform script. Live characters
are developed and inscribed with suitable tools of hard lucky surface and more develop the use of clay
tablets for writing, using a reed to make the marks in the soft fresh clay, which was then dried or baked to
last records indefinitely. Archaeologists discovered in theory excavations many important documents and
scripts written with clay.
Egyptians wrote mostly on papyrus made of various materials. The Sumerians originated a decimal and
algebraic system. They also had the achievement of understand and use of negative numbers. The
Egyptians also in about 300 B.C developed standards of length and weight. They standardized units of
length derived from parts of the human body e.g. the foot and the ‘cubit’. Historians show that weight
were used commercially in India, Mesopotamia and Egypt about 2500 B.C. Jewelers also used it for
weighing gold. Historical record also shows standard weight made of bronze, in the form of birds,
animals were used in conjunction with a balance. Smaller units were also developed which were known
as shekels, and large ones known as mints and talents. Horns were used as standard units of capacity or
volume for trading in oil, wine, gold and linen.
The ancient Egyptians perfected the use and working of stones within the periods of 3000 B.C to 500
B.C. stone was used for making various types of tools, and also for construction at work in large scale.
Stones was used in making statutes and vases, large blocks for granite were quarried in the mountain
around River Nile which were used in the construction works for building temples, pylons, and pyramids
which were striking architectural features of the Egyptian civilization.
The implement used in stone building were the lever, roses rollers, sleepers, plub lines, sledges rafts and
large manpower. Ramps were built stones for climbing and building high walls and story buildings.
Historical records showed that more than two million blocks of limestone were used in constructing the
Great pyramid in Egypt, and the largest block being more than one thousand tons. It was recorded the
Egyptians did not use pulley but about 10,000 men worked on this project for about twenty years.
In about 2800 B.C carpentry and wood working were flourishing in Egyptian Empire. This could be
traced to the metal tool developed during the Bronze Age. Plywood was invented in Egypt because of
scarcity of wood. At about 1200 B.C. Veneering was practiced and inlaying with ivory and ebony and
overlaying with gold, silver and copper had been perfected. Wood pegs were used as nail except on
delicate works was metal used as nails. The sectarians had many horses and had mastered the technique
of ridings. About eight horses were used for pulling the chariot and the carts for transporting goods. The
chariots and carts were developed during the Bronze Age.
Apart from wood and stone, other natural materials developed by Egyptian for technological works
were leather which was used for making ropes fastenings, bellows, hunting slings, buckets, choir chariot
floors, types, harness, bon, horn and ivory verse used for awl, rings, pints, needles, and handles for tools,
animal hair and glue were used for brushes, energy and price were used for polishing, quartz sand as a
common abrasive. In Mesopotamia bitumen occurred naturally as seepages, in valleys and as rich
sulphate in the mountains. In this early time, it was increasingly used for channels, water proofing, and
for the matrix for wall and floor decorations. It was also used as paint for water proofing porous bricks.

THE GREEKS EMPIRE

Technology witnesses a further development during the Greek civilization, a period between 600 B.C
and A.D 400. It was a period of mathematical development, scientific discovery, and machinery
invention. The Greeks under Alexander, the Great overthrew the Persians who ruled Egypt from 525 to
323 B.C and they set up a government with Ptolemy as king at Alexandria. Alexandra became a centre of
learning attracting scholars from all over the world. To the east, civilizations are Persia, India end led to
the development of machinery, several important mechanical equipment were developed in China, and
many centuries before these were adopted in West. In the Mediterranean the study of science and
philosophy flourished under the Greeks in Alexandra and elsewhere for more than four centuries.
Patagonia, Euclid, pyrahimedes, Aristotle and Hero made a lot achievement and scientists discoveries.
During the Geek civilization period, weed was mostly used as materials for mechanical works because
of the accessibility to thick forests and the free use of wood was the basic of the economic. Wood was
then for heating, smelting and cooking before the coal was used, wood was the principal constructing
material used for making building furniture, machines and even pipes.
The Greeks introduced turnery with lathe to woodwork particularly for furniture. They also, by
applying heat, bent wood for use in producing original and artistic form of chairs and stools.
Iron and steel were used in an increasing scale for tools and weapons. Metal tools were made for
farmers and there greater output by agricultural workers. Agricultural implement developed and still used
to date includes plough shares, spades, forks, hoes, scythes, and sickles shears were invented for shearing
sheep, trimming herb and cutting cloths.
Welding of iron by hammering in the forge was discovered in the 7th century B.C onwards and were
used to make agricultural implements moulds for tools, statuary and weapons. Iron was used extensively
in building work, not only China but in Greece and China. For example, in constructing the parthenes is
Athens. In 500 B.C the Greeks uses wrought iron beams as cantilevers to support some of the heaviest
statues.
The Greeks made numerous small improvement to the kit of tools used by the carpentry. The Greece
invents screw, which reduce d the problems of the carpenter. The first screws were almost certainly made
of wood, through screw which reduced the thought the screws of metal were made in and in the
development of stamping for cottage, have started in the Greek cities about 700B.C. the merchants kept
precious metals for barter in small in or lumps as being, more convenient than weighing out quantities of
gold dust. There had also contribute to further develop and improve the instruments originated by
Egyptian, and they also invent drawing compasses.
The mechanical feature of the greatest interest was the wheels and bearings. One of the sample
machines developed during the Greek period was the one wheeled barrow, which was not kept western
civilization until the twelfth century, even though it was used in China in the A.D. 200. The Greeks
developed some missile weapons, which contained new machine elements that are still important up to
date. The Greeks made many mechanical toys and devices to promote wonder and astonishments among
worshippers in the temple

THE ROMANS CIVILIZATION PERIOD

During the conquest of Egypt, the Romans Empire also dominated Egypt and Mediterranean. The Roman
Empire civilization period was consequentially same period with the Greeks civilization period. They
contributed much to the development of technology; wood was used tremendously for architectural
constructions, buildings and bridges. The art of seasoning wood was well known to Romans who covered
up timber store with dung to slow up or control the seasoning process
Large water pipes of wood were made by Romans by hollowing out tree trunks and papering one end of
each section to fit into the next. The joints were often strengthening with iron collars. At about 410BC
wrought iron beams have been developed and were used under the architectures and hosting a vertical
stone pillars. Iron was also freely used in building for lighting tackle, and clamps. Brass are alloys of
copper and zinc and was the most important alloy during the times. It was made by a cementation process
by melting powdered zinc with copper and charcoal, pure metallic zinc was not produced until the
1600AD. The brass produced by the cementation process was known as white bronze and bronze was not
appreciated at that time. The Roman used brass for coinage, and brass ornaments and fittings were
exported to Egypt and other parts of Africa.
Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin was used extensively for fittings on elaborate buildings of the Roman
period e.g gilt bronze tales were used for covering the roof of the Parthenon and some of the churches had
bronze pillars and doors. In 100 BC brass and bronze were also used for some of the keys, and door locks
devised by the Greeks and Romans for pipe fittings.
Lead was produced in great qualities by Greeks and Romans. It was used in the form of sheet metal as a
roofing materials and for making pipes and lining water tanks. Lead was also used as solder and as wire.
Another engineering material developed in the Roman times was concrete from puzzling. The romans
also developed ladders with rungs let into the shafts which they used both for peaceful purposes, building,
construction, harvesting in orchards and vineyards, and also in warfare for sealing the walls of a fortress
during a siege.
The Romans also developed road construction technology and architectural constructions. They also
invented rotary hand mill period were water used for grinding corns. The mill was constructed with stones
as the grinding disks, further developments were made in increments and water supply system. Pipes of
copper, bronze and hollowed stone were also constructed. Pipe fittings were developed and water lifting
devices were constructed, for mining, irrigation and domestic purposes. Other machine invented during
Roman’s period were water pump, hydraulic and wind organ and Roman water heater.

HISTORICAL MATERIALS
Materials have contributed so much to the civilization of people through engineering and technology, this
needed to be discussed when talking about history and development of technology.
Man was able to discover fire in his attempt to search and understand his environment and natural
materials, he learned how to make fire by rubbing or striking stones and thereby able to protect himself
from cold and wild beasts. Also he could cook his diet with wood burned by fire and preserve it
During the prehistoric period, stone and wood were the naturally occurring materials used in engineering
work. They were used to make primitive knives, flints, scrappers and axes, grinding stones and small flint
saws with smarted teeth for cutting small pieces of wood or bone. Wood was used for making sledges and
cart primitive before 3000BC
Gold was the first metal to be discovered and cast, hammered into thin sheets and bows, drawn into wires
and joined together by soldering. The process of soldering has been in existence for almost 5000 year ago
in Ur.
During the years from 3000BC to 600BC the ancient Egyptians perfected the working of stone which was
used for tools which later gave way to use of copper, bronze and iron.
Quarry stones and limestone were used for building and pyramid construction. Bitumen were developed
and used to plastering, for lining domestic drainage system, bathroom floors and for outer costing of rain
bins.

Problems of early technology

There was numerous problems early technology suffered which are:
* There were no means of communicating the early inventions to other areas, this led to spending of
thousands of years back.
*Communication and transportation processes were slow and so many places took thousands of years for
transformation.
*Repeated wars among nations also led to losses of invention, techniques and destruction of technological
developments these took about 2000 years later before their scientific operations.
 CHAPTER TWO
HISTORICAL AND DEVELOPMENT OF ENGINEERING

The meaning of Science, Technology and Engineering

There are several definition of science, technology and engineering each professional and authority define
each term according to their professional views and experience.

Science
Science is the systematic study of structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through
observation, experimentation and the testing of theories against the evidence obtained.

This is defined as the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the natural and social
world following a systematic methodology based on evidence

According to Crimsons book titled “Teaching Science through discovery”, science can be viewed through
test in these three ways
1. It’s the ability to explain what has not yet been discovered
2. It’s the ability to predict what has not yet been observed
3. It’s the ability to test by further experimentation and to modify as required but acquisition of new data
Science is concerned with how the world works. Other views see science as a study that is concerned with
observation and classification of facts and especially with the establishment, or strictly with quantitative
formulation of verifiable general laws chiefly by induction and hypotheses. Science is technical know-
how.

Technology
Technology comes from two Greek words transliterated “techne and logos” Techne means art, skill, craft
or the way, manner or means by which a thing is gained.
Logos mean word, the utterance by which thought is expressed,
Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes or application. It is the
application of conceptual knowledge for achieving practical goals especially in a reproducible way.

Technology is the application and practice of science, which results in industrial and commercial product
of value for mankind. Nearly every form of wealth creation requires technical and its associated research
and development programs. Through technology it is possible to create wealth faster.

Engineering
It is a profession or art that deals with the creation of system designs and building of machines, devices
and structure. It involves creativity, imagination, logical thought and vision.
Orangu C.O (1981) defined Engineering as the art primarily based on training in mathematics and
physical science for economical utilization of materials of nature for the benefit of man.
The Engineers Council for Professional development defined Engineering as the creative application of
science principles of designs or develop structures, machine, manufacturing processes or works utilizing
them singly or in combination to construct, operate or preserve under specific operating conditions all as
respect on intended function, economic or operation and safety to life and properties.
In Great Britain, Engineering was defined as the manufacture or assembly of engines, machine tools and
machine parts including instruments and associated measuring control device.
Engineering is also defined in Britain Encyclopedia as a professional art of applying science to the
optimum conversion of the resources of nature to the use of mankind.

Appearance and development of Science

Early science arose as a result of the practical experience encountered by man in his struggle for
existence, science appeared on the historical science only after a large accumulation of such experiences
and evolved, first as an explanation of long-practiced arts and crafts. It was only after the technique of
analysis was sufficiently developed and articulate that science began to play an important role and to
influence invention and technological development. The simple balance (the balance used in weighing)
was employed in Egypt for more than 1000 years before even the first known former theory was put in
treatise form
The Greeks involved in science as it is known today. The ancient Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians,
Indians and Chinese and Galileo. Much of the fundamental technology on which classical and mid-level
economic life was based had been invented or discovered in pre-historic times. The use of simple tools,
fire, agriculture, domestication of animals, pottery, wearing, pigments, carts, ships, the architecture, the
pulley and other devices were well known and where normally foundations for the early science and the
more advanced technology.
The development of technology, as well as science was slow partly because of the fact that until 18 th
century most industrial machinery was constructed of wood, some precision instrument like clocks and
fire arms utilized metal parts. Alter development in metallurgy particularly iron and steel, led to a greatly
expanded use of metals and machines and the system of interchangeable parts manufactured and modern
mass production technology.

Appearance of Technology
The development of technical literature and activity reveal typically the period of first strange of
industrial mechanization which unfolded between the beginning of the 16 th and the beginning of the 18th
centuries from the point of views of history of technology. This suggest the role played in the general
progress of science and technology by individuals who were no longer craftsmen and inventors but who
were not yet scientists. These men were related to the modern engineers. Their training combined with the
rudiments of science, they had acquired, permitted them to eliminate the ensemble of problems particular
to their prospective dress of technology. They were able to transmit contemporaries a written body of
knowledge rationally presented. During this period men began to create a new form of activity
conventionally designated by the term “technology” as distinct from both simple applied techniques and
the science of discovery.
Technology falls between science and individual techniques and is characterized by their interpretation.
This term is used (by some authors) to designate, somewhat arbitrarily, a kind of higher forms of ethnicity
or better still, the science of ethnicity. This is to call the attention to that area of activity that is common to
the science and techniques but at the same time differs from each of them. The area within their contracts
and reciprocal collaboration is established for their greater individual benefit. The example above shows
that technology strengthened its importance in the formation of our modern industrial civilization.

The Role of Technology in engineering behavior

Most of the engineering invention and activities which are being carried out in the modern times are made
to be possible because of the solid foundation laid by technological provides the new engineering
invention. Initially, machine were made of wood and mechanically operated, as science as applied to
technology practices, it promotes the practice and discoveries of engineering.

The Relation between science and Technology

Science was of very little help to the progress of technology until around 15 th or 16th century of the
Christian era. Only in the course of the three centuries (15 th – 17th centuries) did mutual influence really
begin to develop.
A commonly hold opening claims that technological progress has solely a consequence of progress in the
science particularly the change in the rhythm of technological progress and production during the period
in which historians place the industrial revelation. In so far as those phenomena can be analyses, the seen
far more complex. Even in the modern era techniques are not only scientific application, and during the
preceding centuries the science learn much from technology as indeed they still do.

The period under discussion possessed an originality of its own, and its history makes possible a more
precise understanding of the nature and evolution of the relations between science and technology from
the beginning of prehistoric times to the present day. During this period of time, science and technology
began by developing independently.

Science, Technology and individual techniques

In order to make a complete understanding of the nature of this phenomenon, one can draw the examples
of a mysterious appearance, at the end of the 13 th century, of mechanical clocks and four centuries later
the invention of the measurement of time, whose history is very well known. Cgristian Hymen’s adoption
of the pendulum as a governor for cocks is one of the most frequently mentioned examples of the
reparation of a scientific discovery on achievement in an individual technique. At the end of the 17 th
century progress in both navigator and astronomers, the measurement of longitude in order to take
bearing at sea.

The relation between science, technology and engineering

When considering the definitions of each term i.e. science to technology and engineering critically, it may
be observed that both not only have relation with the either, but also have great impact in promoting the
greater development of each, and in supplementing one another greatly in the economic development and
civilization of the whole world.
History actually revealed that many discovered techniques and applied these techniques to solve his
immediate problems, as man continue in the use of techniques to solve problems, starts discovery more of
nature and his environment that is science.

The emergency of science influence greatly technological progress and development although man has
been applying some methods and techniques in solving this environmental problems before the discovery
of science.

If we look at engineering as an art of bringing scientific discovering into physical manifestation to meet
human needs to solve human problems then we tend to believe that the combination of science and
technology should be inferred to as engineering. The implication of this is that the application and great
involvement of scientific principles with technology led to what is referred to as engineering. Even
though science and technology can contribute or individually serve the society in a great measure but the
combination of both referred to as engineering plays a greater role in developing the society and changing
the world and its system at large.

Jet propulsion engine and nuclear power came into existence during the WWII, which German used in
flying bombs. Another great achievement in engineering during the period of 1940-1960 is the
construction of nuclear reactors and their use for generating electricity. Biotechnology and computers
were part of new technologies discovered in the 19th and 20th centuries

SOCIETY

TECHNOLOGY SCIENCE

ENGINEERING

Figure 1.1 A mode of relation between science, technology, engineering and the society

Significant Engineering discoveries, innovations and inventions in 19th and 20th century

There are numerous great discoveries in 19th and 20th century. Among the significant ones are:
*The famous Fecole Polytecnique in Paris officially founded in 1795 after the French revolution, The
Ecole des points et chauses for training Civil Engineers for government service, Movich, presden,
Stuttfard, Prague and Vienna.
The first professor was not established until 1849 (at Glasson) and others followed soon afterwards at
King’s college and university college.
In 1875, professorship of engineering came into being at Cambridge university.
The advent of steam engine gave a terrific impetus to grow rapidly after 1760, the canvas iron works
started casting large wheels.
In 1777 Abraham Darby built the first cast iron bridge over the River seven near Coalibrookeale
In 1829, the French Engineer, S.D Poisson made a discovery of fundamental importance to elastic theory
and as a result his name was immortalized.
Lathe machine tool was invented in 18th century. But was still made of wood in 1750
Some important improvement were made to the all-metal lathe in 1817 by Roberts and ingenious
mechanic who devised the self-acting mechanism to make crompton’s spinning mule automatic and also
made planning machine.
Between 1818 and 1832. Achievement steering gear and arm was invented and patented in 1832 in
England by Ackwavman.
In 1845, the Lancashire Boiler, for steam rising was the most popular type patent Sir William Fairborn in
England.
In 1667, G.H Babcock and S, Wilboe designated a better water tube boiler, which still retains its
popularity all over the world
Jet propulsion engines that can travel 7 miles/sec were invented between1940-1960. Similar machine with
axial flow compressors, such as the dehavill and comet alviliner went into service in 1952. Nuclear power
station and factor for generating electricity during this period.

INTEGRATION OF ENGINEERING WITH OTHER KNOWLEDGE

Engineering and History
Generally, Engineers are forward looking and in love with the future but have very little interest in the
past. Although this makes for the engineers of his past and the history of his profession in a good and
necessary things to have, although, not all technological achievement can be credited to engineers, the
history of technology is closed enough to being the history of engineering for the engineers to feel
possessive towards it. And feeling positive he has reason to feel proceed about his history. When
speaking of stone-age, bronze-age, the iron age, the industrial revolution, the scientific revolution etc.
therefore we find, as one pre-historian proclaims, that the engineer has been and it’s the maker of history
Some historians believe tin the strong influence of civilization, as we know it today, owes its existence to
engineers. These are the men who down the long centuries have learnt to exploit the properties of matter
and the sources of power for the benefit of mankind. By an organized rational effort to use the material
world around them, engineers devised the myriad comfort and conveniences that mark the difference
between our lives and those of our forefathers thousands of years ago. The story of civilization is in
essence the story of engineering, that long and arduous struggle to make the forces of nature or nature
work for man’s good, it is of course, necessary for engineers to know one another indeed engineering is
the key of history.

CHAPTER THREE
Historical development of modern technology
The concept of modern technology which lead to changes of the relevant technologies are developed in
the society between 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. The old machine which were developed in form of craft
had witnessed more imput of physical sciences and mathematical principles resulting to greater
improvement in the operation of the machine and equipment.
In the last centuries, there have been development in the area of telecommunication, computers,
aeronautic materials, energy, construction, transportation system and other broad technological trends.
Modern technology has greatly improved the civilization and industrialization of many societies in the
world. It has affected the standard of living of many people. Food, clothing and shelter have been
improved so also war weapons have been developed greatly.
Modern technology has given rise to industrialization and urbanization. Many manufacturing industries
are being set up and the society is a bit creative than ever before. More scientific discoveries is also
helping in the development of modern tools, materials and method of production.
The 16th and 17th centuries marked the birth of engineering science, until then, engineering has been an art
based on empirical rules handed down from one generation to another by work of mouth derived very
much from trial and error experiments
The scientific foundation on which the new engineering was built was laid down in this period by
scientist such as Galileo, who showed that bodies of different weights fall the same distance under gravity
in the same time and who observed of oscillation, by Newton, who formulated the laws of motion which
have served engineers so well during the succeeding centuries and who invented the infinitesimal
calculus.
15th and 16th centuries were also the era of pump. Pumping water and the ways in which it could be done,
occupied the minds of both the laboratory scientist and the practical mechanical mechanics. These
activities gave birth in 1712 to that triumph of mechanical engineering, the Newcome engine which was
not only a steam engine but also a successful self-setting pump that did not depend on wind or water for
its operation,
The establishment of latters patent(s), which were started in Vernice in 1474 and England encourage
rewards for inventors in 1516. The royal Society of London was set up in 1660 and started publication for
its philosophical transactions in 1665. The movement to found learned societies where scientific matters
could be discussed had begun a hundred years before in Naples, from where it spread to Rome in 1603
and later Flourescent the French Academy of Science started about the same time with Royal Society of
London and was followed by the founding of the Russian Academy in 1725 and the Byline Academy
1770. A number of most brilliant scientists of the period were English men who laid the foundation of
English supremacy in Engineering that endure throughout 17th, 18th and 19th centuries

Growth of new society

Most of the scientific discoveries of 16 th and 17th centuries led to the growth of new technologies or what
could be referred to as scientific technology. Between 1850 and 1990 there was a great upsurge of interest
in the training and education of engineers in all the industrialized countries of the world. Universities and
university college were established in some British towns, and in 1876, an engineering department was
established in University of Cambridge, City and Guide of London institute was founded in 1876 to
conduct examinations in technical subjects for workers studying in the evening institute. America also
established many universities, which promoted Massacheas Institute of Technologies, Technical Colleges
and Universities were enlarge all over Germany and engineering courses were established in institutes in
countries of Europe, the most famous for engineering being the Federal Polytechnic Institute in Zurich.
Even less developed countries such as Japan had established courses for engineers before 1990 as had
universities, in Australia, South Africa and Canada. All these educational efforts encourage researches
that led to the discovery and growth of new technologies, most of the scientific discoveries led to the
invention of steam engine, steam turbine, water transportation system, gas engine, aerospace and war
weapons and artillery
Among the notable inventions in 18 th, 19th and 29th centuries is the Daumley petrol engine in 1897,
Daumley designed high-speed petrol engine for motor vehicles using carburetor and ignited by electric
spark. Rudolf diesel successfully invented diesel engine in 1893. The introduction of the steam turbine as
practical heat engine by Sir Charles Persons in 1884 was another of the most important event in the
history of mechanical engineering in the role of engineering. They stated that engineers advance is vital as
one of the inter-dependent variables and it must be integrated with other knowledge and directed by
ethical principles.

Engineering and Science

Engineering must be integrated with scientific knowledge. Technological progress without compensating
scientific progress can be disastrous to a society. An example is the improvement of pumping equipment
making it possible for the engineer to supply water to cities from nearby sources using gravity over long
and costly aqueducts, i.e. water channels. Although the engineering accomplishments was remarkable, the
engineer may have caused innumerable facilities through supply of pollution drinking water before the
thorny of the Gern origin of infection diseases become known.
For many hundreds of cars, engineering and accidence went their separate ways if either had anything to
contribute to or learn from the other. Early engineers were proud and independent craftsmen who were
guided in their work not by scientific theories but by common sense and by practical rules learned from
experience. Also, scientific speculation and research developed along completely from independent line
so that even the great scientific and mathematical advances of the 17th century- the age of baton, Galilee,
loibaiz and Newton were not applied to contemporary engineering tasks.
It was the only 18th century that engineers look to science for solutions to problems of structures and
hydraulics. A prominent English Engineer as late as 1822 remarked, ‘the stability of a building is
inversely proportional to the science of the builder’.
Science and engineering eventually found that they had too much to offer each other for their latter
courtship so to inevitably and up in a wooding. They have so become interdependent that the one is
unthinkable without the other.
Quite often, though, there is a divorce-like doctors (physicians) after making use if procedure which
‘work’ although the scientific reasons for success are not yet completely understood, and scientific may
make discoveries for which engineers can find not apparent practical application. In the mean however,
science and engineering must progress side-by-side if either is to have a maximum positive effect in
history.

Engineering and Agriculture

Every society requires knowledge of effective agricultural techniques to sustain itself. Nomadic tribes of
pre-agricultural times showed great ingenuity and engineering ability. They made spears, axes, fish
hooks, bows and arrows, canoes, skins, sleds and other ingeniously conceived appliances. However, until
the developments of agricultural and animal husbandry, these clever technologists remained at the mercy
of underlain supply of wild game, living at a bare subsistence level. The development of a civilized
society is clearly dependent on the ability of a few to grow food for many, and without skilled farmers,
‘there can be no industry and no engineering worthy of the name. Engineers can contribute much to
agricultural efficiency through improvement of farm implement, development of chemicals (these
includes for weed and pest control) and an extension of irrigation.

Engineering and Politics (Government)

Even when engineering skill is integrated with scientific competence and agricultural efficiency, history
shows us that success is not guaranteed. Another form of knowledge of government i.e. politics. For an
orderly and functioning community, there must be organization, cooperation and self-discipline. Without
these the fine engineering talent is ineffectual in any community. The French who were the first to
combine science and engineering were political bankrupt and unstable; and hence lost their leadership in
engineering to England while the later through the industrial revolution dominated the world of industry
and commerce.

Political instability, when dependent on ultra-conservative political tradition as in most African and Asian
countries, can stifle creative engineering effort. Here cumeak of superstition and apathy, which runs
strong, kills creativity. Similarly, corrupt and greedy leadership as in Latin America and Africa, where
interest appear best-served.

CHAPTER FOUR

Industrial Revolution
A primitive society is one in which the members are responsible for the maintenance of every aspect of
their own bodily needs. They hunt or grow their own food, make their own clothes, build their own
houses, tools, pottery and weapons, and defend themselves against attack. Specialization between these
different functions is at a minimum, every family being virtually self-sufficient and as the level of bare
subsistence is rarely passed in the struggle to keep the society in existence, there is no surplus to spare for
trade with other societies in valuable raw materials and manufactured goods. Such primitive societies
have been the normal pattern of human existence in this planet during the million years in which our
species has inhabited it.
Only in the last few thousand years have techniques been acquired for producing more than basic food
requirements, and of using the result surplus for the construction of the more advanced society which we
call “civilization:. There are industrial societies of which our own is the latest and by far the most
sophisticated.

The characteristics of industrial society

In the first place, they all represent an advanced condition of political integration, ensuring the social and
economic security without which trade and industry cannot develop. A strong state, in short is a necessary
pre-condition of industrialization. The rise and fall of the great historical civilization provide many
graphic illustration of this fact
The 2nd outstanding characteristics of the industrial societies are the development of town life or
urbanization. In a primitive society, the village is the normal unit of settlement, position being frequently
determined by strategic considerations such as a river force or a feasible hill. The provision of force for
security may remain a factor in the early development of two lines, but it will be gradually superseded by
other functions as the centre for trade, in a market place, the encouragement of manufacturing industry,
and a seat for industrial grows and prospers. These additional function are the provisions of a centre local
or national government. These stages of development can be clearly seen in revolution of any media town
such as London or Bristol,
The growth of towns both encourages and is encouraged by the confluence of other factors of
industrialization. Specialization as a factor is a level of social organization which is reached when there is
sufficient surplus wealth available to encourage the potential specialist to concentrate his energy on the
production of one particular type of article- food, clothing, metal-ware, woodwork and thus to become
craftsman.
The emergence of the specialist as a notable feature of medieval town life. Men specializing in a
particular craft grouped themselves together in the craft guilds, which represent the first stage in the
development of modern industries organization. With their insistence on high standard of workmanship,
and the jealous protection of their skills simple family organization. One of their institutions apprentice
by which young men were initiated into the craft is still with us today.
Also involved with the growth of towns was the extension of trade. Primitive societies have nothing
available for systematic trade, and any exchange, which might be carried out, would be conducted by
barter. An industrial society can be distinguished by the volume of its trade. The richer the society, the
greater the amount which will be exchanged, so that the degree of industrialization of a country can be
roughly measured by the amount of money resided in it. As trade has expanded, monetary transactions
have become ever more sophisticated, with the development of elaborate banking and credit organization
The flow of trade soon establishes “trade route” and stimulates a demand for improvements of transport.
The roman roads had a primarily military purpose, built for centuries they provided the best means of
 inland transport, apart from navigable rivers, in Western Europe. The greatest improvements in transport
in early modern ties were in sea traffic, as benefitted a large mechanized civilization with settlements in
all parts of the world. By the 18 th century, as it can be seen, dramatic developments were beginning in the
whole field of transport.
Political, security, specialization, trade and improved transport are characteristics of any industrial of
Egypt and china as in the medieval civilization of Western Europe and the mercantile civilization of
Tudor England. Our own industrial society however as it has developed in the last two centuries of
“industrial Revolution” possess two additional features which have raised it to unique pitch of
industrialization, for above, the material achievements of any previous civilization. These are first, the
vice of science and technology to positions of crucial influence and second, the emergence of an idea of
progress.

Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution describe the economic and resulting social change originating in Great Britain
in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, associated principally with the introduction to mechanical
inventions, especially steam power and of the factor of steam in the industry. Similar changes occurring
in other countries are frequently called industrial revolutions or are regarded as part of one industrial
revolution nature. It was sufficiently fundamental in characteristics and extensive in scope for most
historians to justify it.

Great Britain

The following factors were responsible for the industrial revolution of Great Britain
1. A series of mechanical inventions, especially in the weaving and spinning of cloth. The flying shuttle of
John Kay in 1833, the spinning Jemy of James Harglay in 1764, the water frame of Richard Ark height in
1769. The spinning made of Samuel Common in 1779 and the power loom of Edmuald Cart Wright in
1785, (spinning started before weaving). Invention such as Elit Whitlys Cottongin (for scrubbing) in the
U.S in 1972 made possible easier and cheaper production of fibre for the new machines. The steam
engines developed by James Wlat about 1765, provided a new source of power.
2. Availability of a labour force to work the new machine. Changes in English agriculture left many farm
labourers unemployed, more fundamentally, the late 18 th century was an age of population growth in
Britain.
3. Existence of a ready capital to support the development of new industries and the expansion of
established industries, the result of commercial and colonial expansion
4. Capital was largely concentrated in the hands of the Aristocracy and landed gently (in the hands of
Knights) or of closely associated merchants and banker classes (Aristocrat) and these groups were willing
to invent.
5. There were markets for a greatly expanded production in the increased population at home and in British
trade with the rest of the world
6. Generally favourable attitude of the society, especially the classes with social and political power
7. Requirement activities.

The new machine as these were improved and developed, provide too large and cumbersome to be placed
in pottage and too expensive to be purchased (maintained) by the ordinary cottager. The result was the
development of the factory system; workers men, women and children were hired to work on machines
 housed in a factory. The machine and factory belonged to single owner or to a few joined in partnership
or cooperation. The machine in turn required other factories to manufacture them and developments in
mining and metallurgy to permit necessary improvements.

EFFECT OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

Socially, the full development of the revolution had significant effects.
(a) The balance of population shifted from agriculture to industry, and fro the century (rural area) to cities as
the workers gathered about factories in hurried, build accumulations of buildings.
(b) The difference between owners and workers, between those who be owner productive property and the
secretariat who did not were accentuated.
(c) The machines in many instances made traditional skills unnecessary, reducing or eve eliminating the
distinction between skilled labor and unskilled labor. Many skilled laborers found both their position and
their livelihood diminished, and some, in revolt, attempted to destroy the machines (Luddile Plots)
The use of children women in factories was common because the addition income was necessary to
maintain the family, and the employers main censers were the production of as-much-goods as possible at
as-low-as cost.
Protects against the conditions of the workers, especially against child labor; grew more generally
towards the middle of 19th century; and eventually revolted legislation by parliament restricting the hours
of children in the factories and later those of women as well as the conditions for their health and safety.

EXPANSION OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Before the restrictive legislative had been adopted, the evolution had achieved fundamental changes in
Britain and was expanding. During the 19th century, mechanical inventions and stream power were
applied in more and more industries particularly in metal goods and in another textiles, following the lead
of the cotton industry- and in agriculture as well, with inventions such as the reaper (or reaping tubers),
other factories were enlarged and older inventions and devices improved Rail and steam ship lines carry
raw materials to factories in Britain the ret the world and carry way manufactured products.
The degree to which continental countries were delayed in industrialization depended not so much on
mechanical inventions as other factors. In many countries sufficient capital was not sensible or the labour
force was not adequate or free from the equality. Also the legal, political and social structure was not
favorable as in Britain. By the early 19 th century, however, the industrial change was gradually effected in
the low countries (much as Belgium and in Northern French), the governments of Louis Philips and
Napoleon III encourage industrial development and the building of rail roads in France, and the ancients
clothing trade of Belgium formed a basic for expansion there.
GERMANY
Industrialization was slower in Germany, the reasons for this include:
(a) Political divisions in the country
(b) Inability to invest or take risk
(c) The conservation of the landlords.
By 1860, factories and railroads were being build and expanded in Germany. The Ruhr District became
notable for Iron and steel production, was fostered to support military development in Frussian (part of
North-East Germany conquest area). Later Chemical and Electrical developments extended industrial
power. By the 20th century, Germany was challenging Britain (these was indicated by 1939-1945 world
wars).
 UNITED STATES

Most mechanical inventions of the early industrial development in Britain were brought to the United
States in the early 19 th century and American Inventors developed others. Commercials policies
processing the war of 1812 and the war itself encouraged American industrials by restricting imports.
This was first noted in new England (U.S.A) in the 1830s. The greatest development came after the civil
was driving its impetus partly from the demands of the war for which plants and methods were
developed.
American industrial growth was remarkable for its rapidity. As in Britain and German during this
especially concerned with the use of farm machinery.

THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY

Even with peculiar regional difference by the 20 th century certain characteristics results and
accompaniments of the industrial revolution were in evidence throughout Western Europe the US and a
later extends to other parts of the world.
(a) More people were employed in factories and mills and were regarded as a district class (the middle
working class).
(b) Consciousness of class and common interest led to growth of trade of unions in most countries, often
under difficulties.
(c) Although some unions were dominated by groups with specialist ideas of class struggle and eventual
triumph of the parliamentary, more often the numbers of industrial workers and the importance of the
problems of industry led non-socialist government to enact measures to encourage industrial development
and to regulate industry especially to further the health and welfare of industrial workers. (having gone
through the industrial revolution of Britain Germany and the United State these phenomena followed).
EASTERN EUROPEAN
The establishment of industry was the dominant force in West Europe in the 20th century. It becomes
increasingly significant in the rest of the world. Most areas and populations were encompassed in the
industrial world, at least as supplies of raw materials and market for finished products. Increasingly
industrialization itself was introduced into Eastern Europe and Asia especially RUSSIA and JAPAN, by
1897, CZARIST RUSIA had some 2 million people employed in Industry (The CZA were like kings and
emperors) by the 1897, most of them got freedom to work and establish industries) programs were
uninitiated up to world war 1 for building Rail roads, factories and mills especially for iron and steel
production.
After the war (world war 1) and the Bolshevik Revolution (Russians revolted, they didn’t want CZAs
anymore) a new accelerated and enforced industrialization marked by 5 years plans and largely
emphasizing capital goods took place. After the SING JAPANESS (Red Chinese Japanese) in 1895,
JAPAN, which had been opened-up to and had initiated industrialization Western civilization, saw large-
scale expansion assisted by war indemnities.
Factories manufacturing cotton, yam and cloth increased in the early 20 th century. During and after the
world war, with raw materials scarce and unavailable in the home inlands, Japan expanded its positioning
ASIATIC markets and developed factories in Manchuria.

LATER DEVELOPMENT
During and following WWII, industrialization accelerated rapidly in Asian countries especially in India
with the support of government and financial and technical aid from other developed countries, large
 scale and rapid industrial developments embarked on by Asian countries also were projected in some of
the new Africans nation communist China, assisted by Soviet Russia, put into operation a program of
enforce industrialization.
Industrialization change as it spread worldwide. In 19 th and 20th centuries, new power-especially
electricity and gasoline engine- came to overshadow of supplement steam (as a source of power). Mass
production and large scale operations began especially in the United State.
Development of the sciences had notable effects in the new techniques and the products. Chemistry,
especially developed new alloys and metal products. New fabrics and plastics. The development of
physics, especially Nuclear physics, after World War II provided atomic energy as a new source of
power, and that of electronics brought a wide variety of uses. Scientist and Engineers provided industry
with greater precision and efficiency. More and more, operation of industrial processes cause to be by
automation, the main promise and problem of the industrial future. Social scientists were concerned with
the problem of a society largely industrialized and with the personal relations developed by such a
society.
NOTE: Britain Germany, U.S, France, East of Europe, Africa. How personal conflict has increased the
impact of industrialization Automation has provided some problems. Engineers have to solve those
problems brought what has the engineer to do to provide a better environment in the world either as an
Engineer, scientist, and technician has contributed to what the world has been.

The Effects of the industrial revolution to human life:

Good consequences of industrial revolution
Industrial revolution has improved human life immensely, it raises the quality of life of the individual and
those, which are merely status symbols. Quality of life can be taken as meaning those things which enable
people to develop their bodies, their minds and their feelings without restrictions due to shortages or
compulsion.
1. Food: by producing agricultural machinery, fertilizers, pesticides, high yielding crops and good transport
system. The industrial revolution has given plenty of nourishing and varied food of good appearance to
root people in those countries, which have had the benefits of it.
2. Homes: it has provided possible to build homes of such as price that a person with a responsible job in a
developed country can afford a comfortable, convenient, draught free, well decorated home with good
window and furnished with comfortable furniture
3. Health: the expectation of life has increased vastly, particularly because infant mortality has been so
reduced. This is partly the result of the development of specific drugs but much more the result of
preventive medicine in the form of hygiene and sanitation, which are consequence of engineering
4. Education: engineering has made a very real contribution to the improvement of education first by
improvement in system such as films. Television and tape recorders, which can access to information
about the whole world and the problems to all people
5. Leisure: there is increase in labour productivity of a factory of farm worker from an hour work which is
10-100 fold than before the industrial revolution. This enables the people to earn their living and have
enough energy and leisure time to have creative hobbies.
There was other improvement in the area of transportation system, which brought more comfortable ride
to the people. The discovery of electricity helps the people to enjoy better music; people are able to wear
better clothing as better textile machineries were developed. Family mobility, especially convenient
movement of children and award hygiene are the good results
 Bad consequences of industrial revolution
Some of the bad consequences of the industrial revolution are;
1. The development of fast vehicles; has increased the nervousness of the people, nerve damage, noise,
traffic jam, accidents, pollution of the air through lead, carbon monoxide and partially burned
hydrocarbons
2. Damage to the environment: air pollution is the use of chlorofloro carbon (FC) aerosol propellants.
Sulphur dioxide from the combustion of fuels causes damage to vegetation and fishes as a result of
sulphur acid deposition on those countries which have an acid soil.
3. Noise, especially from road traffic and aircraft is one of the most suitable but really damaging
consequences of the industrial revolution.
4. Oil spills is also another damaging effects on soil and human life
5. Risk of war: this led to fast development of stoic weapons, dangerous artilleries
6. Lack of consideration for future generation because of capitalist system of life

CHAPTER FIVE

Structure of the Engineering Industry

At the start of the industrial revolution, private landlords and entrepreneur who provided the capital and
often the technical inspiration, owned most of the industries.
 However, the rapid developments outlined above led to expansion on a scale generally beyond resources
of the individuals. As invention continued taking place also we have various branches and divisions of
engineering developing

Across all these fields of engineering there is a need for maintenance engineering and servicing of
complex machines and plant systems are to work efficiently and reliably so as to give an adequate return
on the capital invented in the further maintenance engineering and servicing are equally important in
ensuring that the machinery and plant system works safely and do not pollute the environment.

Typical products and services provided by the engineering industry are as follows:

a. General components such as nuts, washers, pevils, pipe fitting

b. Subassemblies such as oil, fuel pumps for engines, coolant pumps for machine tools, printed circuit
boards for computers
c. Assemblies (complete engines, machine tools and computers)
d. Spare parts (bearings, exhaust systems, belts, cutch plates, brake shoes)

ENGINEERING PROFESSIONAL BODIES IN NIGERIA

Some of the engineering bodies in Nigeria instituted or organized profession are stated below:
1. The Nigerian Society of Engineers
2. The Nigerian Society of Chemical engineers
3. The Nigerian Society of Agricultural Engineers
4. The Nigeria Association of Metallurgy
5. Foundry Association of Nigeria
6. The Nigerian Society of Production Engineers
7. Energy Society of Nigeria
THE NIGERIAN SOCIETY OF ENGINEERS (NSE)
The Nigeria Society of Engineers is a professional body dedicated to the promotion of knowledge of
engineering and the practical application of such provide appropriate support and guidance for new
engineering graduates to attain such level of professionalism in engineering that will enable them to be
admitted as full members of the NSE. The society was established in 1958, since its formation in 1958,
the society has distinguished itself through progressive and imaginative activities to become the avenue or
professional development of its members and technological
Advancement of the country. The society promotes and enforces standard of professional conducts and
ethics in the practice of engineering.

Objectives of the society

Some of the objectives for which the society was established are:
a. To provide a central organization for engineers in Nigeria and generally to do such things as any from
time to time be necessary to maintain a stoic standard of professional ethics amongst its members and to
advance the interests of the engineering profession in Nigeria
b. To promotes, protects, encourage and maintain a high standard of engineering study and practice and to
encourage greater efficiency therein.
c. To represent to the government in Nigeria the views of the society on any subject of concern or interest to
engineers in Nigeria and if considered advisable to join with any other bodies in submitting such
representation.
d. To represent to any other individual or bodies or organization the views of the society on any subject of
concern or interest engineers in Nigeria or any appropriate subject on which the views of the society may
be divided
e. To provide a body to which the government or other official or unofficial authority or organization in
Nigeria can have resources for advices, assistance or the expression or view on any subjects or concern of
into engineering in Nigeria.
f. Visits to places of engineering interest, reading to facilitate the development and acquisition of
technology by conducting visits to places of engineering interest, reading technical papers, holding
meetings, conferences, publishing books, journals and periodicals on engineering matters
g. To subscribe or guarantee or otherwise use monies of the society for charitable or benevolent objects or
scholarships or bursaries or for any exhibition for any public, general or useful objects
h. To provide for the training and examination of students in engineering as well as the continuing
professional update and development of its members
i. To promote and pursue research in engineering science and practice with particular reference to local
condition
j. To collaborate with industry, commerce, academicals and other such national bodies as may be necessary
or convenient for the advancement of any of the object of the society
k. To maintain and enhance links with national, international and multinational organizations and bodies to
promote any of the objects of the society
l. To promote and enforce a high standard of performance and professional ethics among its members
m. To watch over, promote and protect the mutual interests of its members and to give advice to members
n. To do all or any such lawful things as are conductive to the attainment of the object and generally to
further the profession of engineering in Nigeria as well as enhance the status of engineers in Nigeria

Provided that the society shall support with its funds and objects nor endeavor to impose on or produce to
be observed by its members or others any regulations, restrictions or conditions which if an object of the
society, would make it a trade union.

Membership requirements
The following are guidelines for people who are aspiring to become members of the Nigerian Society of
Engineers. There are six grades of membership namely, Fellow, Honorary, Corporate member, Graduate
member, Associate member and student member.
The education and training required for each grade of membership are listed hereunder

a. Student Member
A student member shall be a person who is undertaking an approved engineering course of training
leading to a degree or diploma in an institution recognize by the council of the society for the purpose of
training professional engineers
b. Graduate member
A person seeking admission to Graduate membership shall possess an academic qualification acceptable
to the council of the society and remittable by the council for the regulation of Engineers Registration
 Decree (No.5) of 1970 or such amendments thereof post-qualification practical experience shall not be a
requirement for entry into is class
c. Corporate Members
Category A;
A1 Candidates who are holders of the Bachelor’s degree in engineering whose institutions’ programms
are accredited by COREN and with such candidates having been registered by COREN as professional
engineers
A2 Candidates who are already corporate members of engineering institutions, institutions (licensed as
professional chartered or Registered Engineers) recognized by COREN.
Category B
B1 Candidates who are holders of the Bachelor’s degree in engineering whose qualification are accredited
by COREN or any overseas accreditation. Boards recognized by COREN. Such candidates must have
acquired a minimum of 4 years post-qualification experience.
B2 candidates who are graduates of unaccredited engineering course from Nigeria universities and
acquired a continuous 6 years post-graduate experience in the practice of engineering. Such candidates
appear from the professional interview on their personal merit.
B3 candidates who have obtained full pass in the NSE Graduateship Examinations and have had
additional 2years of engineering practice.
B4 Candidates who obtained HND in engineering before proceeding to do a Masters Programme in
engineering or Post Higher National Diploma in Engineering membership committee shall ascertain that
the Master’s Programme or Post Higher National Diploma Programme has adequate corrected
deficiencies inherent in the earlier Programme.
CATEGORY C:
C1 Candidates who are holders of correct and adequate basic academic qualifications by COREN
standards and regulations who are 40 years above. Such candidates as at the time of application must have
a minimum of 15years post qualification graduate experience. Candidates who are holders of correct and
adequate basic academic qualification by COREN standards and regulations. Such candidates include top
executives in government of Parastatals, Industrials e.t.c who are not only 35years and above with respect
to age, but as at the time of application have minimum of 6years post-qualification/graduate experience
and may be accorded Presidentials interview on the recommendations of the Membership committee.

d. ASSOCIATE:
A Person seeking election, as an Associate of the Society shall possess an academic qualification at /of a
university degree in the science allied to engineering science or other qualification approved by the
Council of the Society. In addition, he shall have been engaged on work related to the practice of
engineering for a minimum period of five years.
e. FELLOW
Election of fellowship of the Society shall be either by invitation of the Executive Council of the Society
or by direct application by a member.
(a) A person to be invited to Fellowship of the Society shall have not less than fifteen years of experience in
the practice of engineering science and shall have satisfied the requirements for corporate membership of
the Society.
(I) In addition, he shall have valuable and selfless service to the Society over a period of time.
 (ii) Have been outstanding in his field of engineering. By outstanding is meant that such a person must be
a widely acknowledge authority in his field.
(b) A person seeking fellowship of the Society by application shall have had not less than ten years of
experience in the practice of engineering science and shall have satisfied the requirements for
membership. In addition, he shall meet one or all of the following conditions.
(i) Submit a dissertation containing valuable statistics on engineering practice in this country.
(ii) Submit a dissertation or thesis on original solution to a particular Engineering problem in Nigeria.
(iii) Submit a dissertation adjusted by Council to be a worthwhile contribution to engineering knowledge in
the country.

f. HONORARY FELLOW
The Council of the Society may at its discretion elect distinguish persons to Honorary Fellowship. Such
persons, though not necessarily engineers, would normally have their positions to render notable
assistance to the practice of engineering science.
Only Corporate Members and Fellows are entitled to vote and be voted for at proper constituted meetings
of the Society.
A person seeking to join the Nigerian Society of Engineers shall fill application form obtainable from
either the Society Headquarters National Engineering Center, Abuja or from any of the branches/ Online.
Two financial members who must be Cooperate or Fellow must normally sponsor an application.
All candidates shall be tested orally. In addition, candidates, except those in category C2, shall also take
compulsory objective tests.
Category “B” candidates shall present written reports, other post-qualification/graduation experience and
write essays during their interviews.

CHAPTER SIX

Characteristics of a true Professional

Professional development should be the characteristics of a true professional in engineering practice. This
will help a student/an engineer serving his pupilage the standards laid down by his professional body to
which he/she belongs.
 Dr. Christopher Kolade in 1995 referred to a writing of Michael d. Bales points to three distinguishing
features of professionals thus:

Features of Professionals
1. Professional usually involve extensive training, which consist of both study and practical learning some
of which may be available through apprenticeship
2. There is usually an important intellectual component in the professional’s preparation process. This is
found necessary because the professional is expected to advise others about matters which the average
person does not know or understand.
Engineers in our society produce both advice and action in matter such as:
a. The construction of physical structures which are both viable and functional
b. The best way of accessing and exploiting our mineral resources
c. The best cost effective production and use of energy; and
d. The best way of becoming comfortable with advancing technology and applying it in the solution of life’s
problems
3. The professional relationship with society is that he holds himself accountable for the eventual outcome
of his advice and action accountability which is a strong pillar of the professional’s effectiveness in
offering service to his clients.
The professional who willingly embraces accountability, makes it relatively easy for the client to trust
him. On the other hand, failure to cherish accountability tends to destroy the foundation of mutual trust
without which the relationship of professional and client is bound to collapse. After all, the client is not
usually a really competent judge of the value of the serviced, which he receives. The professional
themselves based on criteria, which can be fully appreciated only by those who have undergone the
appropriate discipline, usually set the standard specification.
This fact imposes an additional burden of responsibility on the professional as even the courts of law
cannot hold themselves superior to him in this regard.
A basic characteristics of a profession is the necessity for special training and education not easily
acquired. In the earlier days of engineering, this requirement was met through apprenticeships. Today, the
practice of engineering is limited by law (COREN) to be registered (Licensed) professional engineers.
Registration is obtained through professional interviews for qualified graduates from accredited
engineering schools as well as graduate ship examinations for holders of approved diploma (HND level)
from Polytechnics and similar institutes.
Graduation in itself does not ensure or confer professional status or satisfy the usual requirements pre-
requisite to a professional interview an examination upon graduation, and after Youth Service (NYSC),
the prospective engineer gains experience in drafting, design and other purely technical service in an
engineering office. The pupilage is a trial period in which the youth engineers has an opportunity to
acquire and demonstrate his qualification for professional interview.

COUNCIL FOR REGULATION OF ENGINEERING PRACTICE IN NIGERIA (COREN)

The only engineering body established by the Federal Government and representing the Federal
Government, and which is the Highest Engineering Council in Nigeria “(COREN)”. It was established by
decree No.55 of 1970, which stated that:
There shall be established on the coming into force of this Decree, body to be known as the council of
Registered Engineers of Nigeria (hereafter in the decree referred to as “the council which shall be a body
corporate by the name aforesaid and be charged with the general duty of:
 Duties of COREN
a. Determining who are engineers for the purpose of this Decree
b. Determining the standards of knowledge and skill are to be attained by persons seeking to become
registered as engineers and raising these standard from time to time as circumstances permit
c. Securing in accordance with the provisions of this decree the establishment and maintenance of a register
of persons entitled to practice as registered engineer and the publication from time to time of lists of those
persons
d. Performing the other functions conferred on the council by this decree
e. Regulating and controlling the practice of the engineering profession in all its aspect and ramifications.
Other issues that concern the council responsibilities are:
Registration of engineers, approval of courses, qualifications and accreditation of Institution for
engineering programme, supervision of instruction and examination leading to approval qualification and
maintain professional discipline
Decree 27 of 1991, and Federal Military Government Decree No 28 of 1992 amended the decree
establishing COREN. The name “Council of Regulation of Engineering Practice in Nigeria” (COREN)
COREN has identified four cadres in the practice of engineering in Nigeria. These are the engineer, the
technologist, the technicians and the craftsman.
The British engineering council (1990) defines each cadres as follows:
1. The Engineer
The engineer is the one who acquire and uses scientific, technical and other pertinent knowledge and
skills to create, operate or maintain safe, efficient system, structures, machines plant, professes or devices
of practical and economic value.
The work of an engineer is predominantly intellectual and varied. It requires the exercise of original
thought and judgement concerning the development of new systems and technologies, the ability to
supervise the work of others in due time, the maturity to assume responsibility for the direction of
important tasks, including the profitable management of industrial and commercial enterprises in
economic and environment impact of technical needs and changes.
2. Engineering Technologist
The nature of the post occupied by technologist is such as to demand a practical approach and a detailed
understanding of a particular technology. They require specific and detailed knowledge of the bases and
practices of current technology efficiently. They also need communication skills and awareness of
environment beyond the limits of their specific responsibility.

3. Engineering Technician
Engineering Technicians are competent by virtue of their educational training and practical experience to
apply proven techniques and procedures to the solution of practical problems with an element of personal
responsibility, usually under the guidance of engineers or engineering technologist

4. Craftsman
The craftsman shall possess the skill to recognize and utilize engineering tools and materials to produce,
execute and maintain engineering plant and services.

Roles of Cadres
COREN has defined the various roles as follows:
 1. The Engineer
By his education and training the registered engineer shall have the ability to think in the abstract and be
able to synthesize view of events, which are not obviously linked together and demonstrates a sufficient
degree of practical knowledge in order to limit himself to theoretical consideration. Preparing plans,
teaching of engineering, research, design and development of products and project, and the professional
guidance of others in the executing of projects and in operations and maintenance of complex enquiring
plants, services and establishment.
2. The Engineering Technologists
The registered engineering technologist performs technical duties of an established or novel characters
either independently or under the general direction of a registered engineer or scientist. He requires the
power of logical thoughts and when in a managerial role, the quality of leadership. His work is at a higher
level of responsibility than that of an engineering technicians
3. The Engineering Technicians
The registered engineering technician shall have acquired sufficient engineering theoretical knowledge
and relevant practical skills such that he is able to undertake simple designs. His primary role within the
professional shall include the application of known and proven techniques, supervision of appropriate
details of project execution the diagnoses of faults, the day to day operation and maintenance of
engineering plants, devices and establishment, and the design and development of simple engineering
project.
4. The Craftsman
His primary role within the profession shall include the responsibility for the execution of specific jobs in
projects the use of engineering tools and materials applicable to his specific vocation in the high grade
production of engineering plant and service thus forming the essential support for the engineering
technician where appropriate.

Responsibility of Cadre
The British Engineering Council has not only defined roles similar to those of COREN quoted above, it
has also assigned responsibilities which are stated thus:

1. The Engineers
The engineer must be competent by virtue of his appropriate education and training
a. To apply scientific methods and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems
b. To develop a thorough understanding of the special features of a branch of engineering including inter-
diplomacy aspects, and closely and continuously following progress on a worldwide basis, assimilating
such information and applying it independently so as to be in position to make contributions to the
development of engineering science and its application
c. To assume personal responsibility as the occasion demands in research, design, construction,
manufacture, marketing, managing and in the education and training of engineers
d. To acquire a broad and general appreciation of engineering activity outside his own branch, together with
an understanding of the public context of an engineer’s work in social, organizational and economic terms
and the effective and beneficial management of resources.

2. The Technologist
The technologist must be competent by virtue of his education, training and experience,
a. To exercise technical judgement in and responsibility for duties in the engineering field
b. To understand by the application of general principles and establish techniques the reasons for and the
purpose of the operations for which they are responsible
c. To be aware of the business, management, safety, social and economic context of their work both within
the organization and in the wider environment.

3. The Engineering Technician

Engineering technician will have an understanding of their duties by reference to general engineering
principles applicable to their particular role, rather than relying solely in established practices or
accumulated skills. Engineering technicians requires communication skills and other personal qualities to
enable them work effectively as part of the engineering team.

4. Craftsman
The responsibility of a craftsman relates to the application of skills and it does not require being spelt out
here separately

The importance of Registration

Engineering registration is a means of protecting rights, health and property of the public, it permits only
those who can safely serve the public to practice and deny those who are proven incompetent.
This is achieved by prescribed minimum standard for registration and those who fall below this standard
are prevented from representing themselves to the public as engineers, technologists or craftsman, in the
process of being registered.
COREN is the only legal body that can register and give people license to practice engineering in
whatever form in this country. To get registered a prospective candidate must satisfy the educational
equivalent for technologists, the National diploma or its equivalent for technicians and crafts certificate
for craftsman
The candidate must have undergone a period of supervised training and acquired a period of responsible
experience before presenting himself for registration
In the presence of being registered, a candidate must satisfy council’s minimum requirements in all these
areas. Only this that satisfy theses minimum requirement have their names placed on the appropriate
register.
1. For the Public
a. Registration protects the public from quacks and the unworthy
b. It provides a strict yardstick against which an engineer, the technologist, a craftsman and technician
for that matter may be judged on his or her ability to undertake specific responsibility
c. Assume that an independent body has examined the registered person and found him/her worthy.

2. The Employer
a. Registration assures a skill basic to cope with new technology and market change
b. Shows investors, analyst and customers of well qualified staff
c. Assures customers of professional standard to meet legal requirements
d. The employers uses staff with qualifications recognized internationally
e. Demonstrates that the aspirations of new employees can be satisfied.
3. The Individual
Registration...
a. Provides proof of standard of education, training and experience
b. Provides qualification of international standing known and understood by employers and their
customers
c. Increase nobility across wide range of employment
d. Keep him/her abreast of latest development
e. Creates opportunities for satisfying work and tangible results for the individual

CHAPTER SEVEN

Engineering and Ethical Principles

Engineering will not flourish in any society even with its science, agriculture, government and skill in
trade and finance unless that society has ethical principles. One for instance, will like to know whether
engineers can be credited with abolishing delivery by discovering new sources of energy in nature to
replace slavery as a primary source of power or did mankind’s dissatisfaction with forced servitude create
 the climate of opinion in which the engineering obliged to develop new sources power? Did the engineer
or scientist get the idea first?

If a society’s aims are misdirected, its historical destiny is largely beyond the engineers control, Nazi
Germany boasted of any fine engineering accomplishment but its odious and revolting ambitions contain
the seed of self-destruction. Throughout history, whenever adequate moral goals have been lacking,
technologically competence has usually been wasted. It is quite clear that just as virtue (good character)
cannot prevail without some measure of virtue.

The role of the engineer in history turns out to be crucial but not self-sufficient. We may conclude that
both society and engineer stand to benefit by wholesome integration of technology into the total social
organism. Some of the ethical principle and codes of conduct under which engineers function may be
summarized as follows:

CODES (CANONS) OF ETHIC OF ENGINEERS

(a) Fundamental Principles of Professional Engineering ethics.

Engineers must uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering profession by:
(i) Using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare.
(ii) Being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity and devotion to the devotion to the public, their
employers and clients.
(iii) Striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession and
(iv) Supporting the professional and technical societies of their discipline.
(b) Fundamental Canons:
(i) Engineers shall uphold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance of their
professional duties.
(ii) Engineers shall perform services only in the area of their competence
(iii) Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner
(iv) Engineers shall act on professional matters foe each employer and client as faithful agents or trustees and
shall avoid conflict or interest
(v) Engineers shall build their professional reputation on their services and shall not compete unfairly with
others (tending to project, do you best without having going to meet people at home
(vi) Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall provide
opportunities for their supervision. (train your subordinate, send them for workshop)
In addition to the above codes, there are many other unwritten “codes of engineering” which its neglect or
violation of which more often, will get the engineer into trouble.
These unwritten laws may be classified as follows”

Engineer in relation to his work

a. However, menial or trivial his assignment may appear to him, the engineer must give them his
best efforts
b.There is always a premium upon the ability to get things done, this law can be reduced to a
combination of three basic characteristics:
i. Energy which is expressed in initiative to start things and aggressiveness to keep them moving
briskly
 ii. Resourcefulness or ingenuity i.e. the faculty of finding ways to accomplish the desired results
iii. Persistence (tenacity) which is the disposition to preserve in spite of difficulties, discouragement
or indifference.

c. In carrying out project, do not aid for foreman, vendors and others to deliver the goods, go after them
and keep everlastingly after them

d. Conform your instruction and the other person’s commitment in writing (always get things done in
writing)

e. When sent out on any compliant or others assignment, see it through to a successful finish
f. Avoid the very appearance of vacillation (changing of mind) eg let it not be said that your pinion at
anytime depend merely upon the last man with whom you talked.
g. Don’t be timid, you should speak up, express yourself and promote your ideas
h. Before asking for approval of any major action, have definite plan and programme worked out to
support it. i.e ensure you propose well considers instead of half-baked scheme
i. Strive for conscience and clarity in oral and written reports. Convey the maximum of significant
information in the minimum time
j. Be extremely careful of the accuracy of your statements

Engineers in relation with boss

1. Every executive must know what is going on his establishment. This is an elementary and
fundamental principle and states that a manger cannot successfully manage his business unless he knows
what is going on in the business
2. Do not overlook the fact that you are indeed working for your boss (i.e. your boss is your
immediate superior to whom you report)
3. You should be as particular as you can in selecting what your boss is (e.g. if interviewed by five
different companies to work you are free to choose which to work with, or if you are subordinate too
good to miss you may request for a change of boss) if the boss turns out to be somewhat less than half a
man he ought to be, then you have two option” (a).You may accept him as representative of a higher
authority and execute his policies and directives as effectively as possible (as long you have decided to
work with him look pass him, not thinking that he has less qualification)
(b).You transfer to some other outfit (division) at the very first opportunity you have
4. One of the very first thing an engineer owes his boss is to keep him informed of all the significant
developments (e.g if you are doing research or in the maintenance there is any sign of development you
ought to tell your boss) this is a corollary to the first
5. Whatever the boss wants done take priority (even over your own programme) when, in view, of
circumstances, you decide against contriving, doing something, inform your boss of your intentions and
reasons(you cannot just take laws into your hands)
6. Do not be too anxious to follow your boss’ lead (don’t always follow blindly or sheepishly what
your boss does wrong) remember an engineering organization is not an army. Tell the boss of any well-
considered deviations from his plans or any new projects that you may have conceived (if he gives the
wrong kind of order, you should be able to come out having fully worked out. Tell him to put anything he
insist in writing, no one will kill you for that)

Engineers in relation with his associates and outsiders

1. You should never invade the domain of any other division without the knowledge and consent of
the executive in charge (don’t go to another division, person to instruct)
2. Do not be too affable (pleasant) or trying to please everybody, be serious so that people do not
take advantage of you. To the extent of impairing discipline. Do not avoid necessary fight when the
objective is worth fighting for (like fighting for good working condition for your people)
3. Regard your personal integrity as one of your most important assets, your self-respect alone is
enough incentive to maintain standard of ethics
4. A little profanity goes a long way (using profane language goes a long way but should not generate
obscenity) while engineer could say “Damm” when needed and on appropriate occasion, give a healthy
expression of strong feelings by a good healthy bust of colourful profanity. He should always remember
that engineering is a gentleman’s profession and avoid the fitly variety obscenity.
5. Be careful of your personal appearance (we appear not to worry too much of our dressing. Doctors
and lawyers do not behave such a way. Appearance matters a lot.

CHAPTER EIGHT
Technological development and advancement in Nigeria
Historical background of technological development in Nigeria
The concept of technological development in Nigeria evolved through some decade of years age. After
Nigeria’s political independence in 1960, there were great concerns for economic independence. The air
was that Nigeria should gradually reduce her economic independence on Britain her colonial master that
dominated the production and distribution organization in Nigeria at that time. Economic development
 was however, it progress in an orderly manner and no dislocation to the system was to be allowed.
Appropriation of colonial firms did not take place. The existing companies were to be encouraged and
new ones were to be attracted to increase investments in Nigeria.
The thinking of Nigeria’s business – policy makers up to the end of the civil war in 1970 was that Nigeria
had a lot of resources i.e. land and man power, but lacked the capital to effectively developing them.
Nigeria was to be nonaligned so as to attract capital from both east and west. This, it was thought would
gradually reduce the grip Portain had on Nigeria’s economy. The Nigerian enterprises promotion
(indegenlization) decrees of 1972 and 1977 forced the foreign firms operating in Nigeria to sell a sizeable
portion of their ownership stock to the public were over-subscribed. Share capitals had to be allocated to
the people.
After the Nigerian civil war in 1970, capital for the government was given a big boost by favorable
development in the civil industry. The volume of oil produced in the country increased tremendously,
with the development of oil fields in the western delta of Nigeria. The Arab/Israel War of 1973 resulted in
the Arab oil embargo of th West. This was of great benefit to Nigeria and resulted in big oil revenue to
her. The experiences of this economic phenomena led Nigeria’s economic-policy makers to believe by the
1970s, that capital was no more the hindrance to Nigeria’s economic growth.
The bottleneck therefore had to be traced to other factors. This bottleneck that might delay Nigeria’s
economic take-off was traced to what Professor E.J. Kolade terms “Capital absorptive capacity” or a
country’s ability to absorb the capital available.
The creation of capital absorptive capacity can only be achieved through technology and managerial
proficiency, both of which Nigeria had to import. It was found, over theirs that the less developed a
country is the less the country is able to absorb capital. It also noticed that the effort and time required to
implant any imported technology is large a function of the technical and managerial sophistication or the
absorptive capacity one recipient country of firm. The above perhaps summarized the fact that indeed the
hindrance to Economic development in Nigeria was its capital absorptive capacity.
The economic squeeze started by the Military Government after the FESTAC festival in 1977 had today
culminated in the Federal Government austerity measure. This transits into Austerity Measure Nigeria.
The austerity measures have known that Nigeria’s industries are mainly assemblers and are really not yet
fully prepared in the production process. Lack of research into and development in the use of local
materials for local production has the most noticeable. It is now the fact that most of the factories in
Nigeria merely imported packed part to assemble and sell. Technological development of Nigeria is still
in a tortoise path since technology transfer is not properly taken place.

STRATEGIES FOR TECNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ADVANCEMENT

It is obvious that our indigenous technology witness a bit of improvement through the influence of
foreign technology imported into the country. The rate of advancement is slow as compared with
advancement that is taken place in other developing nations such as Czechoslovakia, Brazil, etc. and
progressive nation such as Japan.
In order to experience technological development and advancement, certain factors must look into. They
are:
a. Effective transfer of technology through adaptation and absorption.
b. Effective manpower development and training in the areas of technology and management. This can be
achieved through formal education and training.
 Formal Education and training is the main and proper channel for the acquisition of manpower
development, technology and economic transformation and local industrial revolution desired. It is the
main avenue by which the industrialized nations achieved their greatness today.
The industrial revolution that started in Britain between 18 th century through early 19th century was given
the filling by many American discoveries later in that century. The industrial revolution was preceded by
the revolution in education in these countries. However, it is in the same guest for technological
developments that has led the Nigerian government to embark on the establishment of universities of
technology, Polytechnics, Colleges of technology and Technical Colleges.
a. Changes in attitude to technology and technological education. Proper technological development
and advancement to take place. Leadership attitudes and people’s attitude to technology, engineering’ s
and technical priority over development of arts and cultural
b. There must be proper people awareness and enlightenment on the usefulness of technology and
need for rapid technological education and revolution
c. There must be a consistent peacefully political atmosphere and stable government that is committed
seriously to the technological development of the nation and who will formulate and carry out with
seriousness technological policies that will promote rapid industrialization.
d. Research and development: it is hardly realized by the generality of people particularly in
developing economics that the progress made so far in technology which manifest itself in goods and
services that are now enjoyed by mankind albeit in varying degrees, has its roots in painstaking research
and development efforts are for intended in the product that the users, particularly those far removed on
scientific culture, do not possess the wherewithal to appreciate the scientific and technological
development progress that goes into making such product.
According to Bamiro, the major problems facing research and development in the country, which must be
addressed are identified as follows:
a. Faculty institutional framework for the conduct of R & D and use of R & D results where they exist
b. There is no clear policy on R & D due to lack of awareness of the needs for R & D. for example. It is not
until the 4th National Development plan (1981-1985) that the federal Government planning strategy by
allocating #600m for R & D activities
c. Government planning agency, public enterprise and industries which should normally, and do, generate a
lot of problems that should be addressed through R & D fail to encourage R & D activities for varied
reasons.
d. There is really a dearth of trained R & D personnel I Science, Technology and Engineering as well as
equipment and other facilities to carry out serious research
e. The acute problems of commercialization of R & D results. There are quite a number of R&D results
which require financial inputs to bring them to commercial stage.

NATIONAL AGENCY FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING INFRASTRUCTURE (NASENI)

The instrument of establishment of the agency Decree 33 of 1992 was later promulgated on the 13 th July
1992 to take effect from 1st January, 1992, NASENI is charged with the task of implementing a National
Science and Engineering Infrastructure Development Programme
The objective of the National Policy on Science and Engineering Infrastructure is two-folds namely:
a. To bridge the gap in conventional technology which exist between us and other countries, which is
due to our having missed the first industrial revolution. That first industrial revolution mechanized the
 productive activities of industrializes countries, making those countries highly productive, rich and
powerful, their economic compliant and their society reasonable stable. For Nigeria, the programme will
demonstrate conventional technology in order to achieve the local mass production of capital equipment
and industrial materials, through a collaborative initiative of the public and private sectors in Science and
Engineering Infrastructure complexes.
b. To ensure we do not also miss the boat of the second industrial revolution, which is now unfolding,
through the agency of the high technologies of micro-electronic and computers, biotechnology and
genetic engineering, space science and its applications, nuclear technology, new materials. The
programme will therefore create highly energetic and motivated basic and applied- science research
centre which will participate in the unfolding new technologies and make the commercial results of them
available to local industries.

FUNCTION OF NASENI
The National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure is the public sector organization, which
is charged with the responsibility for the National science and Engineering Infrastructure development
programme. An executive vice-chairman heads it, while the Chairman is the president, Commander-in-
chief of the Armed forces of the Federal Republic.
The agency and engineering infrastructure development complex will have private sector-owned
industries associated with it, which utilizes the technologies development by the complex, and mass-
produce the capital goods of the sector.
The statutory functions of the agency re to:
i. Formulate policies and advise government on the establishment of a national science and engineering
infrastructure
ii. Establish, maintain and supervise science and engineering infrastructure development complexes and
centers anywhere in Nigeria
iii. Render all necessary assistance to entrepreneur who embark on science and engineering infrastructure
development projects
iv. Execute in active collaboration with relevant Federal and State Ministries, strategies for the generation of
private sector Science and engineering Infrastructure development complexes
v. Develop facilities and capabilities, through its parasitical institution, or by the encouragement of
universities and Polytechnics, for the following activities:
a. Capital goods-oriented research and development work in engineering materials, chemical
materials, scientific equipment, engineering accessories, power equipment engineering tools,
environmental conservation etc.
b. Basic and applied research and development work in new and emerging areas of science and
technology, biotechnology, nuclear technology, space science and its application in remote sensing and
environmental monitoring, new materials etc.
c. Economic development oriented research in agriculture and forestry, environmental conservation,
fisheries and animal husbandry, nutrition, human and veterinary medicine, materials, building and
construction materials, local raw materials for consumer goods industries; and
d. Collaboration with institutions of higher learning and industrial organization in the research and
development of industrial raw materials and capital goods as well as in scientific and technical manpower
training.
vi. Manage resources for research and development in such a manner as to ensure the efficient use of grants
by institutions, corporate bodies and individuals;
vii. Encourage the growth of in-plant research and development activities in local industries
viii.Publicize the useful results of research on local industrial capital equipment and input materials and
collaborate with industries and investors to achieve their successful adoption.
ix. Provide the national focal point for international scientific, engineering and technological affiliations
which Nigeria and Nigerian scientific bodies subscribe and pay annual and other contributions, which are
due to such international bodies
x. Through the National council for Science and Technology (NCST) and the state and local government ,
elicit the act participation of corporate bodies, citizen purpose and individuals, in the establishment of a
National Science and Engineering Infrastructure.

Implementation Strategies
In the implementation by NASENI, of its science and engineering infrastructure development mandates,
for subjects will continuously form the centers of attention, namely;
i. Manpower development
ii. Science, Engineering and Technology Information Services
iii. Science and Engineering Infrastructure Development complexes and
iv. Independent Infrastructure Industries.

CHAPTER NINE
Technical Education System in Nigeria
National Philosophy
The philosophy of Nigeria’s education derives from the broad national objectives and it is well-
articulated in the national policy on Education for the nation. It is based on the integration of the
individual into a sound and effective citizen and provision of equal educational opportunities for all
 citizens of the nation at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels both inside and outside the formal
school systems,
The national philosophy of education has its objectives:
i. A free and democratic society
ii. A just and egalitarian society
iii. A united, strong and self-reliant union
iv. A great and dynamic economy
v. A land of bright and full opportunities for all its citizen
The policy sees education, among others as the acquisition of physical, which equip the individual to live
in and contribute to the development of his society.
In order to attain the national consciousness and national unity; the inculcation of the right type of value
and attitude for the survival of the individuals and of the Nigerian society, the training of the mind in the
understanding of the world and acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and competencies both mental
and physical as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of the society.

NIGERIAN NATIONAL POLICY ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION

The policy governing at the present band future development of Technical and Vocational
Education at secondary level and in higher education in Nigeria is embodied in the new National Policy
on Education (1981) which defines Technical Education as “that aspect of education which leads to the
acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge”.
Technical colleges were established to produce low level manpower i.e. craftsmen, while the federal
government established polytechnics to produce majority middle level manpower that I technicians and
technologists.
The polytechnics/colleges of technology award two diplomas:
a. The higher National Diploma (HND) which is awarded after a further advanced courses of 2years
duration. Students are expected to have at least one year industrial attachment experience before pursuing
the HND course. The HND program is to prepare graduates as technologists who eventually become an
engineer after few additional training.
b. The ordinary national diploma awarded after two years and to graduate the recipients as a technician.

Technical Teacher Education

In full awareness that an effective technical education and manpower is an essential pre-requisite to
the achievement of Nigeria’s objectives in Technical Education, the issue of production technical and
vocational teacher has always been seen as important by the Nigerian Government. Technical teachers are
being produced by Federal Colleges of education (technical) and other institutions of higher learning
which include colleges of technology, state levels, national in service staff development for technical
instructors have been established in order to train more technical teachers.

Historical Development of Polytechnic/Colleges of Technology

The development of technical education at the tertiary level had been a slow process. Prior to 1960,
four technical institutes located in Yaba (Lagos), Kaduna, Enugu and Ibadan (established by Federal and
Regional Governments) were first institutions for technical education at the post-secondary level. The
course was in-service, the candidates coming from the Public works department, the electricity
 corporation, other Government corporation, parastatals and large private companies. The students went
back to their employees for industrial attachment for one year. Some students took higher level courses
for a further two year. The curricula and examinations of the technical institutes were entirely British.

The aim and objectives of Technical Education in Nigeria are to:

a. Provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce particularly at sub- professional
grades.
b. Provide the technical knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental problems for the use
and convenience of man.
c. Provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental
problems for the use and convenience of man.
d. Give and introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technologies.
e. Give training and impart the necessary skills leading to the production of craftsmen, technicians and other
skilled personnel who will be enterprising and self-reliant, and
f. Enable out young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing complexity of
technology.

STRUCTURE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Technical education system in Nigeria is a form of functional educational for preparing young
Nigerians to skilled, have a gainful employment and/or to prepare them for the world of work to be able
to manage Nigeria industries and economy, the Nigeria technical education is structured in a way to
prepare skillful craftsmen, technicians, technologists
By early 1970s, al the technical institutions were renamed colleges of technology, and the Kaduna
Polytechnic. More Nigerian staff were recruited and the curriculum expanded to include environmental
and management courses. Steadily, the number of institutions of this type increase from nine in 1973 to
eight Federal and 18 state owned Polytechnic and colleges of technology as at 1986. By the end of 1983,
there were 62,000 students offering various courses in about 50 different types of field.
To be precise, Yaba College of Technology is the eldest Polytechnic in Nigeria and that it came into
being in 1948. When it was founded in 1948, it started as a Technical Institute called “Yaba Technical
Institute” for the training of Technician which academically is inferior to a polytechnic even though it
inherited superior facilities of the Yaba Higher College. It is the process of evolution that made Yaba to
become a polytechnic and the greatest one among all. To mention just a few, the college of technical
institute metamorphosed into the present Yaba College of Technology (1963), Kaduna Technical Institute
to Kaduna Polytechnic (1964), Ibadan Technical College to the Polytechnic of Ibadan (1970), the
Midwest Technical College to Auchi Polytechnic (1972), Maiduguri Technical College to Ramat
Polytechnic (1976), (NBTE Annual Report) (1980). By 1990, the number of Polytechnics in Nigeria arose
to 30.

NATIONAL BOARD FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION (NBTE)

The national board for technical education was established by the federal military government decree 9 of
1977.
The functions of the board as contained in its enabling decree are as follows:
 a. To advice the federal government on and coordinate all aspects of technical and vocational education
falling outside the universities and to make recommendations on the National Policy necessary for the
training of technicians, craftsmen and other middle level and skilled manpower.
b. To determine after consultation with the National Board on the Industrial Training fund and such other
bodies as it considers appropriate, the skilled and middle-level manpower needs of the country in the
industrial, commercial and other relevant fields for the purpose of planning periodic master piece for the
balanced and coordinate development of Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology and such plans shall
include
i. The general programs to be pursued by Polytechnics in order to maximize the use of available facilities
and avoid unnecessary duplication while ensuring that they are adequate to manpower needs of needs of
the country.
ii. Recommendations for the establishment and location of new Polytechnics and where considered
necessary.
iii. To inquire into and advice the federal government on the financial needs, both recurrent and capital of
Polytechnics and other technical institutions to enable them meet the objectives of production the trained
manpower need of the country.
iv. To receive block grants from the Federal Government and allocate them to polytechnics in accordance
with such formula as may be laid down by the federal external aide to Polytechnics in Nigeria.
v. To advise on and take steps to harmonize entry requirement and duration of courses at technical
institutions.
vi. To lay down standards of skill to be attained and to continually review such standards as necessitated by
technological and national needs.
vii. To review methods of assessment of students and trainees and to develop a scheme of national
certification for technician, craftsmen and other skilled personnel in Polytechnics and to make
recommendations thereon to the federal government.
viii. To collate, analyze and publish information relating to technical and vocational education;
ix. To consider any matter pertaining to technical or technological minister;
x. To carry out such other activities as are conducive to the discharge of functions.

The Board gives accreditation to programs of the polytechnics, college of technology, etc. for the purpose
of award of national certifications and diplomas and other similar awards and for entry into national and
zonal examination in respect of such institutions.

THE ROLES OF THE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES OF TECHNICAL PERSONNEL AN

ENGINEER

Present-day technology is generally directed by engineers whose function is to apply science to the
economic fulfillment of human needs and desires. Accordingly, the engineers must be able to preview the
present and future human need, translate it unto technical terms, apply available technology to obtain a
practical solution and communicate these facts to his followers. Three procedures can be carried out only
by a highly educated, thinking individuals working with a well-coordinated and cooperating team of
technicians who ultimately convert the engineer’s ideas and discoveries into useful products and services.
Such a team is made up of the average of one engineer and technicians.
The engineer, to qualify for his role, must have had an engineering education and in addition, must have
been exposed to sufficiently varied experiences so that he can efficiently perform his assigned tasks. The
complex society of the nuclear and space age has placed more stringent demands upon the Engineer, and
even post-graduate study for advanced degree has become a requirement for the more technical
engineer’s occupations. An engineer is one who acquires and use scientific, technical and other pertinent
knowledge and skills to create , operate of maintain safe, efficient systems, structures, machines, plant,
processes or devices of practical and economic value.

The work of an engineer is predominantly intellectual and varied. It requires the exercise of original
thought and judgment concerning the development of new systems and technologies the ability to
supervise the work of others and in due time, the maturity to assume responsibility for the direction of
important tasks, including the profitable management of industrial and commercial enterprises. In their
work, engineers have a responsibility to the society with regard to the ethical, economic and
environmental impact of technical needs and changes.

THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGIST/TECHNICIANS

The technologist/ technicians and engineering aid as they are sometimes called are special kind of
employees. They assist the engineer in planning and development works as a draught men, estimator,
taster, or research technologists. Even within a single sector, a technician or technologist may perform a
wide variety of jobs ranging from simple inspection to tasks which require a high degree of creative and
technical talent. The technologist and the technician occupy an important role, functioning between the
engineer and the craftsmen in the industry

There are many categories of technologists and technicians as there are areas of industry, commerce and
agriculture. The training and education of technicians and technologists is usually obtained in a special
type of post-secondary known as technical institute, Polytechnics or Colleges of Technology. Length of
training varies from 2 to 4 years according to the nature of particular technical specially. Most types of
technologists and technicians are in great demand today and industry is requiring them in ever increasing
numbers

Technologist

Fundamentally, the nature of the posts occupied by technologists is such as no demand a practical
approach and detailed understanding of a particular technology. They require specific and detailed
knowledge of the based and practices of current technology and are concerned with maintaining and
managing existing technology efficiently. They must be competent by virtue of his/her education and
training. He is to be competent in technical judgement and assumes responsibility for duties in the
engineering field.

The Engineering Technician

Engineering technicians are competent by virtue of their educational training and practical experience to
apply proven technique and procedures to the solution of practical problems with an element of personal
responsibility, usually, under the guidance of engineers and engineering technologists.

Craftsman

The craftsman shall possess the skill to recognize and utilize engineering tools and materials to produce,
execute and maintain engineering plants and services. His primary role within the profession shall include
the responsibility for the execution of specific jobs in projects and also providing the essential support for
the engineering technician where appropriate.

CHAPTER TEN

Transfer of Technology
There are so many views as to what definition should technology carry, most Nigerian still regard
technology either as a single professional term, some sees it as accumulation of machines and equipment
while others sees it as an abstract phenomenon. Some assume that technology is limited to science-based
machines system only.

Some authors sees technology as “the systematic method or techniques for doing something”

E.J.H Kolade defined technology as the development and implementation of formats and formulas as set
out in blue prints, process charts materials, specifications, and the operating instructions required for the
manufacture of products and/or services plug the technical and managerial capabilities required to operate
facilities, and the management of the men, machines, money and materials in the process of producing the
final item.

Federal Ministry of Science and Technology (1986) gave the following definitions: it sees technology as
the way of doing things through the application of knowledge derived from systematic investigations of
natural forces and materials. It leads to the development of processes and devices indispensable to the
stable commencement of the quality of life to human progress.

Meaning of Transfer of Technology

Transfer of Technology as defined in the 1992 document of the organization of American State is “the
process through which the production system of a country (public and private enterprise) acquired the
technology produced in another country for incorporation in their enterprise”. Federal Ministry of Science
and Technology define Technology transfer to mean the absorption of technology knowledge or skills
based on the experience of others through the systematic study of devices and/or specific methods of
approaches to resolution of problems with the sole purpose of utilizing the resultant acquired knowledge
for replication of similar devices and methods in a different location. A prequalification for technology
transfer is the involvement on the indigenous skilled manpower in the absorption process.

Transfer of Technology

Technology is a method that needs to be known and therefore we need information on it to produce or
process it in attempt to transfer it. It requires to be understood and there must be means of carrying it out.
Therefore, information and means of technology can be transferred from one place to other easily. The
possessor of it must be willing to release it with adequate information and support while the receiver must
be willing to accept with engineers, discipline and commitment.

Transfer of technology involves the taking of technical skill from a nation where it is already established
to another nation where it is unknown.

The demand for and the price of any particular technology are, however, closely related to its productive
capacity. The most profitable forms of technology will appear to be those that are related to economic
development. These are the ones that are closely guarded, restricted and are therefore generally
expensive. Technology for development which Nigeria really needs is therefore an expensive bundle of
property covertly being monopolized by industrialized countries.

Technology does not belong to government alone and cannot all be transferred through government.
Some if not most technology belong to private business, such privately-owned technology may not be
 made available to outsiders except through direct investments or through other methods which will ensure
that profit to the owner company can be maximized.

Channels for transfer of technology

Seldom as a transfer of technology being accomplished except by the actual migration, temporary or
permanent of one or more skilled persons. Through multiple and complex means of impersonal
communication and rapid international travel, this element of the transfer of technology may not be
readily apparent, but transfer still depend largely upon the migration of skilled persons

The most critical era in the transfer of technology to the United State was the period extending from about
1790 to 1850, by the immigration of skilled Europeans and as a result of trips abroad by her new citizens.
America kept abreast of the rapid industrialization of Britain and Western Europe.

Moreover, by the judicious modification of what was imported and the substantial contributions of native
mechanics and crafts people, the United State created its own technological tradition, which was soon
admired throughout the world.

Other channels by which technology can be transferred include the following:

a. By studying the lives of past men (inventors, originators who dedicated themselves in participating in the
process of transferring technology to developed nation)
b. Formal education and training
c. Copying and modifying items already in the market
d. Industrial espionage
e. Direct purchase and management contracts
f. Production sharing arrangements
g. Licensing and franchising

Phases of technology transfer

Technology transfer can be effected by the recipient in phases or in following processes. By acquisition,
adaptation, absorption and assimilation. Also there must be diffusion of technology in the society to
which the technology is being transferred. Federal Ministry of Science and Technology (1963) defines
some process of technology transfer:
Technology acquisition: means the total and active absorption of technology into the miles and differs
from technology transfer only in terms of intensity and quality
Technology Adaptation: as competent modification required for a device to be efficiently functional in
the environment different from the one of initial production.
Technology development as the translation of research results into goods and services as well as an
improvement on existing technologies based on close and effect equation

Advantages of technology transfer

a. It helps to acquire techniques and discovery of new technology
b. It helps in the selection of appropriate technology
c. It speeds up the utilization of natural resources for the benefit of mankind
d. It enhances generally, global development of technology in both developed, developing and under
developed nations
e. It helps to provide actual goods and services
f. It speeds up the rate of civilization in the recipient country
g. It encourages and speeds up self-dependence in the era of technology
h. It helps the development of all the sectors of the nation’s economy
Disadvantages of technology transfer
a. High initial cost of its acquisition
b. Tendency to acquire irrelevant technology that will not help the people culture
c. The innovation rate of recipient country may be deterred
d. Environmental pollution and negative social actions

The federal Government created “the Division of Technology Transfer and Science Education in the
Ministry of Education” to achieve the goals of technology transfer

The mandate of the division was the initiation and coordination of activities in Technology Transfer and
to examine closely the importance of science and related disciplines for the development of appropriate
technology transfer. The division has focused attention on popularization of science and technology. One
of the activities the division has developed is the National Young Scientists Competition which has the
objective of:

a. Popularization of science and technology amongst students in the secondary school

b. Stimulation of the sense of inquisitiveness in individuals in order to understand and explain natural
phenomenon
c. Stimulation of the interest of the general public in science through radio and television
d. The establishment of National Science and Technology center

The Nigerian technology Policy

The national office of industrial Property (NOIP) is one of the main instruments to carry out Nigeria
Technology Policy, which in turns is a basic expression of the overall development policy. Nigerian
Technology Policy has several goals that are being considered with transfer of technology agreements are
being analyzed. The principal goals of those technological policies to be achieved are the following:
i. To encourage the flow of technology into country in order to strengthen industrial development
ii. To encourage domestic enterprise to acquire foreign technologies that may be suitable to the indigenous
requirement. In this sense , it is considered particularly important that the technology contributes to the
creating of employment to fully use Nigerian Labour Force
iii. To assist Nigerian enterprise in the selection of foreign technology
iv. To strengthen the negotiating capacity of Nigerians so that they may obtain the appropriate technology
they need, at the best terms conditions, especially concerning prizes
v. To achieve a more efficient process for a rapid absorption and assimilation of foreign technology by
Nigerian Technicians
vi. To gradually develop local technologies
vii. To encourage future exportation of the locally developed technologies to other markets especially those
of the neighbouring countries.