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Psychology PSY 1011 / PSY 1022:

A Custom Edition
Compiled by Dr Shruti Mujumdar & Associate Professor Sean Cain
Psychology PSY1011/
PSY1022: A Custom Edition
Compiled by Dr Shruti Mujumdar & Associate
Professor Sean Cain
2nd Edition
Author: Douglas A. Bernstein, Julie Ann Pooley, Lynne Cohen,

Bethanie Gouldthorp, Stephen Provost, Jacquelyn Cranney
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Table of Contents
Sectioni Psychology PSYion
Chapter ! Introducing Psychology 4

Chapter i, Douglas A. Bernstein et al [2018]
Psychology: Australia and New Zealand [Cengage Learning Australia] (9780170386302 )
Chapter 2 Biological Aspects of Psychology 40

.
Chapter 3, Douglas A Bernstein et al [2018]
Psychology: Australia and New Zealand [Cengage Learning Australia] (9780170386302)
Chapter 3 Sensation and Perception 98

Chapter 4, Douglas A. Bernstein et al [2018 ]
Chapter 4 Learning 178

Chapter 5, Douglas A. Bernstein et al [2018]
Chapters Human Development 230

Chapter n, Douglas A. Bernstein et al [2018]
Chapter 6 Personality 304

Chapter 7 Culture and Psychology 350

.
Chapter 16, Douglas A Bernstein et al [2018]
Chapter 8 Indigenous Psychology 384

Section 2 Psychology PSYIO22
Chapter 9 Memory 434

Chapter 10 Psychological Disorders and Treatment 494

Chapter ii Social Cognition and Influence 594

Index 659
Psychology PSY1011
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology as a discipline has changed immensely since its humble beginnings. There is an amazing array of
professional and applied areas that people with psychological training now work in. In this opening chapter,
we provide an overview of psychology as a discipline and many of the more specialised areas in which
psychologists work. However, the main focus is on providing an understanding of the theoretical and applied
work of the discipline of psychology. It is important to note that the knowledge that you will gain from using
this book underpins much of human behaviour, which is relevant and may be applied to many other disciplines
and professions. We describe the linkages that tie these areas to one another and to other subjects, such
as economics and medicine, and how research in psychology is being applied in everyday life. We then tell the
story of how psychology developed and the various ways in which psychologists approach their work.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to:
1.1 define psychology 1.4 understand the diversity of psychology
1.2 understand the history of psychology 1.5 develop an awareness of the knowledge, skills and values
1.3 describe the role of the scientific method in the study that reflect the science and application of psychology,
of psychology and the possible career pathways in psychology.
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY
1 Can studying psychology equip you with skills such as good oral and written communication skills and numeracy
skills, well-developed computer skills, the ability to find and research information, and environmental awareness?
2 What other settings, other than psychological practice, do psychologists work in ?
t CourseMateExpress Bring your learning to life with interactive study and exam preparation tools that support your textbook.
CourseMate Express includes quizzes, videos, concept maps and more.
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Chapter 1: Introducing Psychology
INTRODUCTION
A diverse range of employment opportunities is on offer when you study psychology. Studying
psychology at an undergraduate level provides you with a range of skills and competencies that CHAPTER
enable you to work in many different fields. In addition, some people choose to pursue postgraduate OUTLINE
studies and become registered psychologists. In this book , we endeavour to provide you with the The world of
knowledge to consider different pathways for your future studies and employment. psychology: an
Here are a number of people who have used the skills and knowledge gained in their study in overview
psychology: A brief history of
1 Nadine completed an undergraduate degree in psychology and then decided to seek psychology
employment before pursuing further studies. She worked in events management , where she Approaches to
was able to effectively use her excellent oral and written communication skills, knowledge of the science of
human behaviour, and problem-solving ability in a timely and ethical manner. After a year in psychology
the workforce, Nadine decided to study counselling at a postgraduate level. Human diversity
2 Michelle found her dream job working as a regional training coordinator after completing her and psychology
undergraduate degree in psychology. She works in a remote location assisting people as part of Studying and
a mental health and drug service. Her teamwork and oral communication skills are invaluable working in
to her role. psychology in
3 After completing a four-year degree in psychology, Frank went on to complete a Graduate Australia and
Training Program in the public service. After developing his skills in human resources, Frank New Zealand
now manages a human resources department within a university.
4 Donna received an honours degree in psychology and was able to apply her high-level research
skills when she started work in a large metropolitan hospital’s sleep clinic. Using her knowledge
and understanding of psychological theories related to sleep, Donna has progressed in her place
of employment and now coordinates the sleep clinic.
5 Gerry completed a Master of Applied Psychology degree where he focused on community
psychology. He sought employment in a non-government organisation in a regional
location, where his role involves working with families to support children with learning
difficulties.
6 As a graduate with a Master of Applied Psychology with a clinical focus, Josey completed
supervised practice that enabled her to establish her own private clinical practice, which now
employs three clinical staff.
7 Following completion of her honours degree in psychology, Eleanor went on to do a PhD
during which she completed groundbreaking research into effective behavioural interventions
for children with autism spectrum disorder. She now works as an academic in a university and
also consults privately with other organisations.
The people described above are doing fascinating work in different areas, and some are employed
as psychologists in one or more of psychology’s many specialty areas, or subfields. Most of these
people took their first psychology course without realising how many of these subfields there are, or
how many different kinds of jobs are open to people who study psychology. But each of these people
—
found something in psychology — perhaps something unexpected that captured their interest , and
they were intrigued. And who knows? By the time you have finished this book and your course, you
may have found some aspect of psychology so compelling that you will want to make it your life’s
work too. At the very least, we hope you enjoy learning about psychology, the work of psychologists,
and how that work benefits people everywhere.
There are a number of perspectives that underpin the structure of this book . In each chapter, we
will highlight the application of psychological knowledge and skills through the appropriate Graduate
Attributes of the Australian Undergraduate Psychology Program: knowledge and its application,
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research skills , critical and creative thinking skills, values and ethics in psychology, communication
and interpersonal skills, and psychological literacy. An important aspect of this text is the focus on
using psychological knowledge and the development of psychological literacy.
1.1 THE WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY:

AN OVERVIEW
psychology the science Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes, taking into account
of behaviour and mental physical attributes and the interaction with the environment. Generally, the goals of psychology
processes
are to understand, explain and predict human behaviour in different contexts. Psychology training
begins with an undergraduate degree, which enables students to develop psychological knowledge
and skills and apply them to a diverse range of areas, such as those described in the examples at
the beginning of this chapter. These provide insights into the different outcomes and pathways
that students of undergraduate psychology may take. Many students who begin an undergraduate
psychology degree utilise their skills and knowledge in different careers without formally completing
postgraduate studies to become a psychologist. A more detailed description of how to become a
registered psychologist in Australia and New Zealand is given at the end of this chapter and online
in Appendix A, ‘Careers for psychology graduates’.
To begin to appreciate all of the things that are included under the umbrella of behaviour and mental
processes, TRY THIS Si take a moment to think about how you would answer this question: Who are
you ? Would you describe your personality, your 20 /20 vision, your interests and goals, your skills and
accomplishments, your IQ, your cultural background, or perhaps a physical or emotional problem that
bothers you ? You could have listed these and many other things about yourself, and every one of them
would reflect some aspect of what psychologists mean by behaviour and mental processes. It is no
wonder, then, that this book’s table of contents features so many different topics, including some — such
—
as vision and hearing that you may not have expected to see in a book about psychology.The topics
have to be diverse in order to capture the full range of behaviours and mental processes that make you
who you are and that come together in other ways in people of every culture around the world.
Some of the world’s half-million psychologists focus on what can go wrong in behaviour and
—
—
mental processes psychological disorders, problems in childhood development, stress-related illnesses
and the like while others study what goes right. They explore, for example, the factors that lead
people to be happy and satisfied with their lives, to achieve at a high level, to be creative, to help others,
and to develop their full potential as human beings.This focus on what goes right , on the things that
positive psychology make life most worth living, has become known as positive psychology (Waterman, 2013; Wood &
a field of research that Tarrier, 2010) , and you will see many examples of it in the research described throughout this book.
focuses on people’s
positive experiences and
characteristics, such as
happiness, optimism and Subfields of psychology
resilience When psychologists choose to focus their attention on certain aspects of behaviour and mental
processes, they enter one of psychology’s subfields. Let’s look at the typical interests and activities of
psychologists in each subfield; more will be described in later chapters.
This section outlines many of the subfields of psychology. However, it is important to realise that
there are nine areas of psychology which have been endorsed (that is, recognised) by the Psychology
Board of Australia , and which also reflect the nine colleges within the Australian Psychological
Society; namely, clinical, clinical neuropsychology, community, counselling, educational and
developmental, forensic, health, organisational, and sport and exercise. In addition, there are currently
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47 special interest groups (for example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and psychology,
psychologists in oncology, and so on).The New Zealand Psychological Society has eight professional
institutes and special interest groups which members may join: clinical, community, counselling,
criminal justice and forensic, educational and developmental, organisational, health, and special
interest group (coaching).These groups provide members with opportunities to attend professional
development activities and meet with other psychologists who work in similar areas of practice.
The Australian Psychological Society and the New Zealand Psychological Society have a reciprocal
relationship. For more on these societies and the Psychology Board of Australia, see the upcoming
‘Studying and working in psychology in Australia and New Zealand’ section.
Let’s take a quick look at the typical interests and activities of psychologists in each subfield.
Please be aware that we are using the term ‘psychologist’ loosely to include psychological scientists
(who work in different subfields) as well as registered psychologists. We will describe their work in
more detail in later chapters.
Biological psychology
Biological psychologists, also called physiological psychologists, use high-tech scanning devices and biological psychologists
other methods to study how biological processes in the brain affect, and are affected by, behaviour and psychologists who analyse
the biological factors
mental processes (see Figure 1.1) . Have you ever had the odd feeling that a new experience, such as
influencing behaviour and
entering an unfamiliar house, has actually happened to you before? Biological psychologists studying mental processes; also called
this illusion of deja vu (French for ‘already seen’) suggest that it may be due to a temporary malfunction physiological psychologists
in the brain’s ability to combine incoming information from the senses, creating the impression of
two ‘copies’ of a single event (Brown, 2004) . In Chapter 3, ‘Biological aspects of psychology’ , we
describe biological psychologists’ research on many other topics, such as how your brain controls your
movements and speech , and what organs help you cope with stress and fight disease.
FIGURE 1.1 Visualising brain activity

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI ) techniques
allow biological psychologists to study the brain activity
accompanying various mental processes.
Science Photo Library /Zephyr
Cognitive psychology
cognitive psychologists
ITRYTHIS \i Stop reading for a moment and look left and right.Your ability to follow this suggestion, psychologists who study the
to recognise whatever you saw, and to understand the words you are reading right now are the result mental processes underlying
of mental, or cognitive , abilities. Those abilities allow you to receive information from the outside judgement, decision making,
world, understand it and act on it. Cognitive psychologists (some of whom prefer to be called problem solving, imagining
and other aspects of human
experimental psychologists ) study mental abilities such as sensation and perception, learning and thought or cognition;
memory, thinking, consciousness, intelligence and creativity. Cognitive psychologists have found, for also called experimental
—
example, that we don’t just receive incoming information we mentally manipulate it. Notice that psychologists
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the drawing in Figure 1.2 stays physically the same, but two different versions emerge, depending on
which of its features you emphasise.
FIGURE 1.2 Husband and father- in- law

Husband and father -in- law’ (Botwinick, 1961) because you can see either an old or a
This figure is called ‘
young man, depending on how you mentally organise its features. The elderly father-in- law faces to your right
.
and is turned slightly towards you He has a large nose, and the dark areas represent his coat pulled up to his
.
protruding chin However, the tip of his nose can also be seen as the tip of a younger man’s chin; the younger
.
man is in profile, also looking to your right, but away from you The old man’s mouth is the young man’s
neckband. Both men are wearing a broad - brimmed hat .
Image from American Journal of Psychology. Copyright 1961 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. Used with permission of the University of Illinois Press.
Applications of cognitive psychologists’ research are all around you . The work of those whose
engineering psychology
a field in which psychologists
—
special interest is engineering psychology also known as human factors has helped designers create
computer keyboards, mobile phones, MP3 players, websites, aircraft instrument panels, car navigation
—
study human factors in the
systems, nuclear power plant controls, and even TV remotes that are more logical, easier to use and
use of equipment and help
designers create better less likely to cause errors. You will read more about human factors research and many other aspects
versions of that equipment of cognitive psychology in several chapters of this book.
Developmental psychology
developmental Developmental psychologists describe the changes in behaviour and mental processes that occur
psychologists from birth through old age and try to understand the causes and effects of those changes (see
psychologists who seek to Figure 1.3).Their research on the development of memory and other mental abilities, for example,
understand, describe and
explore how behaviour and is used by judges and lawyers in deciding how old a child has to be in order to serve as a reliable
mental processes change witness in court or to responsibly choose which divorcing parent to live with.The chapter on human
over a lifetime development describes other research by developmental psychologists and how it is being applied in
areas such as parenting, evaluating day care, and preserving mental capacity in elderly people.
FIGURE 1.3 Where would you put a third eye?

In a study of how thinking develops, children were asked to show
where they would place a third eye if they could have one. Nine - year-
old children, who were still in an early stage of mental development,
drew the extra eye between their existing eyes, ‘ as a spare’. Having
developed more advanced thinking abilities, 11- year - olds drew the
third eye in more creative places, such as the palm of their hand ‘so I
can see around corners ’.
Images from Shaffer , D. (1985 ). Developmental Psychology: Theory, Research and Applications. Copyright © Wadsworth, o port ofCengage Learning Inc. Reproduced by permission, www.
cengage.com / permissions
personality
psychologists Personality psychology
psychologists who study the
characteristics that make Personality psychologists study individuality - the unique features that characterise each of us.
individuals similar to or Using personality tests , some of these psychologists seek to describe how your own combination of
different from one another personality traits, like your fingerprints, differs from everyone else s in terms of traits such as openness
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to experience, emotionality, reliability, agreeableness and sociability. Others study the combinations of
personality traits that are associated with the appearance of ethnic prejudice, depression or vulnerability
to stress-related health problems. And personality psychologists interested in positive psychology
are trying to identify and understand the human strengths that help people to remain optimistic, even
in the face of stress or tragedy, and to find happiness in their lives (Snyder & Lopez, 2009).
Clinical, counselling, community and health psychology

Clinical psychologists and counselling psychologists conduct research on the causes and treatment clinical and counselling
of mental disorders and offer services to help troubled people overcome those disorders.Their research psychologists
is improving our understanding of the genetic and environmental forces that shape disorders ranging psychologists who seek
to assess, understand and
from anxiety and depression to schizophrenia and autism, and it is providing guidance to therapists change abnormal behaviour
about which treatment methods are likely to be most effective with each category of disorder.
community
Community psychologists focus on the prevention of psychological disorders by promoting
r ’s resilience and other r
people
r personal strengths.They also work with communities, non-government , , . , , ..
° 1
° psychologists who work with
organisations and neighbourhood organisations to reduce crime, poverty and other stressful conditions communities and individuals
that often lead to psychological disorders. That is, community psychologists try to understand the to prevent psychological
individual and systems interactions and work from a preventative systemic orientation. disorders by striving for
change in social systems
Health psychologists study the relationship between risky behaviours such as smoking or lack
of exercise and the likelihood of suffering heart disease, stroke, cancer or other health problems such health psychologists
as hearing loss (see the Snapshot ‘Psychology and health education’).They also explore the impact psychologists who study
the effects of behaviour and
that illnesses such as diabetes, cancer and multiple sclerosis can have on people’s behaviour, thinking, mental processes on health
emotions and family relationships. Their research is applied in programs that help people to cope and illness, and vice versa
effectively with illness , as well as to reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease and stroke by changing
the behaviours that put them at risk .
Psychology and health education

Have you ever thought about what hearing
loss sounds like? As we age, many of us will
.
suffer from hearing loss For some, our work
.
contexts affect our range of hearing However,
think of the impact of new technologies that
.
enable us to listen to mobile music 24/7 This
‘sonic silence’ exhibit has been developed
to educate people about hearing loss; it is a
listening booth that simulates different types
of noise -induced hearing problems.
In Australia and New Zealand, clinical, counselling, community and health psychologists have a
master’s degree or a doctorate in psychology. All of these psychologists differ from psychiatrists, who
are medical doctors specialising in abnormal behaviour (psychiatry) . You can read more about the
work of clinical, counselling, community and health psychologists in Chapter 12, ‘Health, stress and educational
psychologists
coping’, and in Chapter 14, ‘Psychological disorders and treatment’ .
psychologists who study
methods by which
Educational and school psychology instructors teach and
students learn, and who
Educational psychologists conduct research and develop theories about teaching and learning. The apply their results to
results of their work are applied in programs designed to improve teacher training, refine school improving those methods
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curricula , reduce truancy rates, and help students learn more efficiently and remember what they
learn. For example, they have supported the use of the ‘jigsaw’ technique, a type of classroom activity
in which children from various ethnic groups must work together to complete a task or solve a
problem. These cooperative experiences appear to promote learning, generate mutual respect , and
reduce intergroup prejudice (Aronson, 2004).
school psychologists School psychologists provide support to teachers and students, and they help to identify academic
psychologists who work problems and to set up programs to improve students’ achievement and satisfaction in school.They are also
with teachers and students,
involved in activities such as the early detection of students’ mental health problems, and crisis intervention.
assist in diagnosing students’
academic problems, provide
counselling to students, and Social psychology
set up programs to improve
students’ achievement Social psychologists study the ways in which people think about themselves and others, and how
people influence one another. Their research on persuasion has been applied to the creation of
social psychologists
safe-sex advertising campaigns designed to stop the spread of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
psychologists who study
how people influence syndrome) or quit smoking campaigns. Social psychologists also explore how peer pressure affects
one another’s behaviour us, what determines who we like (or even love; see the Snapshot ‘Got a match?’), and why and how
and mental processes, prejudice forms. They have found, for example, that although we may pride ourselves on not being
individually and in groups prejudiced , we may actually hold unconscious negative beliefs about certain groups that affect the
way we relate to people in those groups. Chapter 15,‘Social cognition and influence’ , describes these
and many other examples of research in social psychology.
e Harmony
"
Got a match ?
Get matched with people you’re truly compatible with
Some commercial matchmaking services. such as eHarmony
(eharmony.com.au), apply social psychologists’ research on interpersonal
relationships and attraction in an effort to pair up people whose
characteristics are most likely to be compatible. According to eHarmony,
it uses the data of over 200 000 couples globally to identify personality
dimensions which influence how well two people are suited to
one another.
organisational
psychologists psychologists Organisational psychology
who study ways to improve
efficiency, productivity and
Organisational psychologists conduct research on leadership, stress , competition, pay rates and other
satisfaction among workers factors that affect the efficiency, productivity and satisfaction of people in the workplace.They also
and the organisations that explore topics such as worker motivation, work team cooperation, conflict resolution procedures
employ them
sport psychologists
and employee selection methods. Learning more about how businesses and organisations work
—
or fail to work allows organisational psychologists to make evidence-based recommendations
—
psychologists who explore for helping them work better. Today, companies all over the world are applying research from
the relationships between organisational psychology to promote the development of positive organisational behaviour.The results
athletic performance and
include more effective employee training programs, ambitious but realistic goal-setting procedures,
such psychological variables
as motivation and emotion fair and reasonable evaluation tools , and incentive systems that motivate and reward outstanding
performance.
forensic psychologists
psychologists who assist
injury selection, evaluate Other subfields
defendants’ mental
Our list of psychology’s subfields is still not complete. There are sport psychologists, who use
competence to stand trial, and
deal with other issues involving visualisation and relaxation training programs, for example, to help athletes reduce excessive anxiety,
psychology and the law focus attention, and make other changes that let them perform at their best. Forensic psychologists
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(see the Snapshot ‘Linking psychology and law’ ) may assist police and other agencies in profiling
criminals, evaluating the mental competence of defendants, providing psychological reports for
court processes, and performing many other tasks related to psychology and the law. Environmental environmental
psychologists study the effects of the environment on people’s behaviour and mental processes. psychologists
The results of their research are applied by architects and interior designers as they plan or remodel psychologists who study
the effects of the physical
university residences, shopping malls, auditoriums, hospitals, prisons, offices and other spaces to make environment on behaviour
them more comfortable and functional for the people who will occupy them. and mental processes
Linking psychology and law

Forensic psychologists research the types of
training required to appropriately carry out an
investigative interview in the context of courts of
.
law With high representations of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander peoples in the Australian
judicial system, there is a need for forensic
psychologists to consider culturally appropriate
communication and interactions (Powell &
Bartholomew, 2003, 2011) .
—
More information about the subfields we have mentioned and some that we haven’t are
available on the websites of the Australian Psychological Society (www.psychology.org.au) and the
—
New Zealand Psychological Society (www.psychology.org.nz).
Where do the psychologists in all these subfields work? Table 1.1 contains a summary of where
the approximately 20000 psychologists in Australia and the 1000 psychologists in New Zealand find
employment , as well as the kinds of things they typically do in each setting.
TABLE 1.1 Typical activities and work settings for psychologists

The fact that psychologists can work in such a wide variety of settings and do so many interesting - and often well- paid - jobs helps
.
account for the popularity of psychology at universities Psychology courses also provide excellent background for students planning to
enter medicine, law, business, teaching and many other fields.
Work setting Typical activities

Universities and professional schools Teaching, research and writing, often in collaboration with colleagues from other disciplines
Mental health facilities (for example, Testing and treatment of children and adults
hospitals, clinics, counselling centres)
Private practice (alone or in a group Testing and treatment of children and adults; consultation with business and other
of psychologists) organisations
Business, government and other Testing potential employees; assessing employee satisfaction; identifying and resolving
organisations conflicts; improving leadership skills; offering stress management and other employee
assistance programs; improving equipment design to maximise productivity and prevent
accidents
Schools (including those for Testing mental abilities and other characteristics; identifying children with problems;
intellectually disabled and emotionally consulting with parents; designing and implementing programs to improve academic
disturbed children) performance
Other Teaching prison inmates; research in private institutes; advising legislators on educational,
research or public policy; administering research funds; research on effectiveness of
military personnel; and so on
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Linkages within psychology and beyond

We have listed psychology’s subfields as though they were separate, but they often overlap, and so
do the activities of the psychologists working in them. When developmental psychologists study
the changes that take place in children’s thinking skills , for example, their research is linked to
the research of cognitive psychologists. Similarly, biological psychologists have one foot in clinical
psychology when they look at how chemicals in the brain affect the symptoms of depression.When
social psychologists apply their research on cooperation to promote group learning activities in the
classroom, they are linking up with educational psychology. Even when psychologists work mainly
in one subfield, they are still likely to draw on, and contribute to, knowledge in other subfields.
LINKAGES
If you follow the many linkages among psychology’s
7k
chapter has a special Linkages section that discusses the ties
subfields as you read this book, you will come away not only between material covered in the chapter, or the interrelation
with threads of knowledge about each subfield but also with to another psychological subfield.
an appreciation of the fabric of psychology as a whole. Each
CHAPTER 1 Introducing psychology
r
Can subliminal messages
help you lose weight ?
LINKAGES
Does psychotherapy work ?

'i
What makes some people
so aggressive ?
* 4
CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15

Sensation and Psychological disorders Social cognition
perception and treatment and influence
So if you want to understand psychology as a whole, you have to understand the linkages among
its subfields.To help you recognise these linkages , we highlight three of them in a ‘Linkages’ diagram
at the end of each chapter — similar to the one shown here. Each linkage is represented by a question
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that connects two subfields, and the chapter numbers indicate where you can read more about each
question (look for ‘Linkages’ symbols in the margins of that chapter).We pay particular attention to APPLYING
one of the questions in each diagram by discussing it in a special ‘Linkages’ section. If you follow the PSYCHOLOGY
linkages in these diagrams, the relationships among psychology’s many subfields will become much What other
settings, other
clearer.We hope that you find this kind of detective work to be interesting and that it will lead you
than psychological
to look for the many other linkages that we did not mention. Tracing linkages might even improve practice, do
your results in the course, because it is often easier to remember material in one chapter by relating psychologists
it to linked material in other chapters. work in?
Links to other fields
^ Just as psychology’s subfields are linked to one another, psychology itself is linked to many
other fields. Some of these linkages are based on interests that psychologists share with researchers
from other disciplines. For example, psychologists are working with computer scientists to create
artificial intelligence systems that can recognise voices, solve problems and make decisions in ways
that will equal or exceed human capabilities (Haynes, Cohen & Ritter, 2009; Wang, 2007).
Psychologists are also collaborating with specialists in neuroanatomy, neurophysiology,
neurochemistry, genetics and other disciplines in the field known as neuroscience (see the Snapshot neuroscience the
‘Professor Harry Ellis Reef ’) . The goal of this multidisciplinary research enterprise is to examine scientific study of all levels
of the nervous system,
the structure and function of the nervous system in animals and humans at levels ranging from the
including neuroanatomy,
individual cell to overt behaviour. neurochemistry, neurology,
Many of the links between psychology and other disciplines appear when research conducted neurophysiology and
in one field is applied in the other. For example, biological psychologists are learning about the neuropharmacology
brain with scanning devices developed by computer scientists, physicists and engineers. Physicians
and economists are using research by psychologists to better understand the thought processes that
influence (good and bad) decisions about caring for patients and choosing investments. In fact, in
2002, the psychologist Daniel Kahneman won a Nobel prize in economics for his work in this
area. Other psychologists’ research on investigative interviewing has influenced how professionals Professor
in criminal investigations gather evidence in court proceedings (Powell, 2002). Psychological Harry Ellie
studies of the effects of ageing and brain disorders on people’s vision, hearing and mental abilities Reef
is shaping doctors’ recommendations about whether and when elderly patients should stop driving Professor Reef
cars.This book is filled with examples of other ways in which psychological theories and research was aneurologist
have been applied to health care, law, business, engineering, architecture, aviation and sports, to who studied the
name just a few.
relationship between
human behaviour and
the brain. He was a
leading researcher
Research: the foundation of psychology in brain- related
The knowledge that psychologists share across subfields and with other disciplines stems from the disorders and worked
research they conduct on many aspects of behaviour and mental processes. For example, rather than extensively in the
just speculating about why some people eat too much or too little, psychologists look for answers field of neuroscience .
by using the methods of science. This means that they perform experiments and other scientific
procedures to systematically gather and analyse information about behaviour and mental processes
—
and then base their conclusions — and their next questions on the results of those procedures.
To follow up on the topic of eating, consider what would happen if you had just finished a big
lunch at your favourite restaurant and a waiter got mixed up and brought you a plate of the same
food that was meant for someone else.You would probably send it away, but why? Decisions to start
eating or stop eating are affected by many biological factors, including signals from your blood that
tell your brain how much ‘fuel’ you have available. The psychologist Paul Rozin was interested in
how these decisions are affected by psychological factors, such as being aware that you have already
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eaten (Rozin et al. , 1998) . What if you didn’t remember that you just had lunch? Would you have
started eating that second plate of food?
To explore this question, Rozin conducted a series of tests with R. H. and B. R. , two men who
had suffered a kind of brain damage that left them unable to remember anything for more than
a few minutes. (You can read more about this condition, called anterograde amnesia, in Chapter 6,
‘Memory’.) The men were tested individually, on three different days, in a private room where
they sat with a researcher at lunchtime and were served a tray of their favourite food. Before and
after eating, they were asked to rate their hunger on a scale from 1 (extremely full) to 9 (extremely
hungry). Once lunch was over, the tray was removed and the researcher continued chatting, making
sure that each man drank enough water to clear his mouth of food residue. After 10 to 30 minutes, a
hospital attendant arrived with an identical meal tray and announced, ‘Here’s lunch’ .These men had
no memory of having eaten lunch already, but would signals from their stomachs or their blood be
enough to keep them from eating another one?
Apparently not. Table 1.2 shows that in every test session, R. H. and B. R. ate all or part of the
second meal and in all but one session ate at least part of a third lunch that was offered to them 10 to
30 minutes after the second one. Rozin conducted similar tests with J. C. andT. A., a woman and a
man who had also suffered brain damage but whose memories had not been affected. In each of two
test sessions, these people finished their lunch but refused the opportunity to eat a second one.These
results suggest that the memory of when we last ate can indeed be a factor in guiding decisions
about when to eat again. They also support a conclusion described in Chapter 10 , ‘Motivation and
emotion’; namely, that eating is controlled by a complex combination of biological, social, cultural
and psychological factors. As a result , we may eat when we think it is time to eat, regardless of what
our bodies tell us about our physical need to eat.
TABLE 1.2 The role of memory in deciding when to eat

Here are the results of a study in which brain -damaged people were offered a meal shortly after having eaten an identical meal Their .
—
hunger ratings (1-9, where 9 extremely hungry) before and after eating are shown in parentheses. B. R. and R H had a kind of . .
brain damage that left them unable to remember recent events (anterograde amnesia); J C and T A had normal memory These . . . . .
.
results suggest that the decision to start eating is determined partly by knowing when we last ate Notice that hunger ratings, too, were
more consistently affected by eating for the people who remembered having eaten .
Session B. R. (amnesia) R. H. (amnesia)
One
Meal 1 Finished (7/ 8) Partially eaten (7/ 6) Finished (5 /2) Finished (5/4)
Meal 2 Finished (2/5) Partially eaten (7/7) Rejected (0) Rejected (3)
Meal 3 Rejected (3) Partially eaten (7/ 7)
Meal 1 Finished (6 / 5) Partially eaten (7/ 6) Finished (7/2) Finished (7/3)

Meal 2 Finished (5 / 3) Partially eaten (7/ 6) Rejected (1) Rejected (3)
Meal 3 Partially eaten (5)a Partially eaten (7/ 6)
Three
Meal 1 Finished (7/3) Partially eaten (7/ 6)
Meal 2 Finished (2/3) Partially eaten (7/ 6.5)
Meal 3 Partially eaten (5/ 3) Partially eaten (7.5)
B. R. began eating his third meal but was stopped by the researcher, presumably to avoid illness .
From Rozin, P., Dow, S., Moscovitch, Al., & Rajaram, S. (1998 ). The role of memory for recent eating experiences in onset and cessation of meals : Evidence from the amnesic syndrome.
Psychological Science, 9, 392 -396. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.
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Rozin’s study illustrates the fact that although psychologists often begin with speculation
about behaviour and mental processes, they take additional steps towards understanding those
processes. Using scientific methods to test their ideas, they reach informed conclusions and
generate new questions. Even psychologists who don’t conduct research still benefit from it.They
are constantly applying the results of their colleagues’ studies to improve the quality, accuracy
and effectiveness of their teaching, writing or service to clients and organisations. For example,
practising clinical psychologists are combining their psychotherapy skills with research from
cognitive, organisational and sport psychology to help business executives , performing artists and
athletes excel ( Hays, 2009) .
The rules and methods of science that guide psychologists in their research are summarised in
Chapter 2, ‘Research in psychology’ . We have placed that chapter early in the book to highlight
the fact that without scientific research methods and the foundation of evidence they provide,
psychologists’ statements and recommendations about behaviour and mental processes would carry
no more weight than those of astrologers, psychics or tabloid journalists. Accordingly, we will be
relying on the results of psychologists’ scientific research when we tell you what they have discovered
so far about behaviour and mental processes and also when we evaluate their efforts to apply that
knowledge to improve the quality of human life.
IN REVIEW 0
The world of psychology: an overview
SUBFIELDS FOCUS
Biological Biological factors influencing behaviour and mental processes
The mental processes underlyingjudgement, decision making, problem solving,
Cognitive
imagining and other aspects of human thought or cognition
Seeking to understand, describe and explore how behaviour and mental processes
Developmental
change over a lifetime
Clinical Seeking to assess, understand and change abnormal behaviour
The study methods by which instructors teach and students learn, and who apply
Educational
their results to improving those methods
How people influence one another’s behaviour and mental processes, individually and
Social
in groups
Ways to improve efficiency, productivity and satisfaction among workers and the
Organisational
organisations that employ them
Other
• Forensic - issues involving psychology and the law
• Community - working with communities and individuals to prevent psychological disorders by striving for change in
social systems
• Personality - the characteristics that make individuals similar to or different from one another
• Health - effects of behaviour and mental processes on health and illness, and vice versa
• Environmental - effects of the physical environment on behaviour and mental processes
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1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

How did scientific research in psychology get started? Psychology is a relatively new discipline, but
its roots can be traced through centuries, especially in the history of philosophy. Since at least the
time of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in ancient Greece, philosophers had been debating psychological
topics, such as ‘What is the nature of the mind and the soul?’ , ‘What is the relationship between the
mind and the body?’ and ‘Are we born with a certain amount of knowledge, or do we have to learn
everything for ourselves?’ They even debated whether it is possible to study such things scientifically.
consciousness the A philosophical view known as empiricism was particularly important to the development of
awareness of external stimuli
and our own mental activity
— —
scientific psychology. Beginning in the 1600s , proponents of empiricism especially the British
philosophers John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume challenged the long-accepted
claim that some knowledge is innate. Empiricists argued instead that what we know about the
world comes to us through experience and observation, not through imagination or intuition.
This view suggests that at birth, our minds are like a blank slate (tabula rasa in Latin) on which
our experiences write a lifelong story. For well over a century now, empiricism has guided
psychologists in seeking knowledge about behaviour and mental processes through observations
governed by the rules of science.
Wundt and the structuralism of Titchener

The ‘official’ birth date of modern psychology is usually given as 1879, the year in which a
physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal psychology research laboratory at
the University of Leipzig in Germany (Benjamin, 2000). At around this time, a number of other
German physiologists, including Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Fechner, had been studying
FIGURE 1.4 A vision and other sensory and perceptual processes that empiricism identified as the channels through
stimulus for which human knowledge flows. Fechner’s work was especially valuable because he realised that one
introspection could study these mental processes by observing people’s reactions to changes in sensory stimuli.
TRY THIS 'Si Look at By exploring, for example, how much brighter a light must become before we see it as twice as
this object and try to bright, Fechner discovered complex but predictable relationships between changes in the physical
ignore what it is. characteristics of stimuli and changes in our psychological experience of them. Fechner’s approach,
Instead, try to which he called psychophysics, paved the way for much of the research described in Chapter 4,
describe only your
conscious experience, ‘Sensation and perception’ .
such as redness, —
Wundt , too, used the methods of laboratory science to study sensory perceptual systems , but
brightness and the focus of his work was consciousness, the mental experiences created by these systems. Wundt
roundness, and how wanted to describe the basic elements of consciousness, how they are organised , and how they
intense and clear the relate to one another (Schultz & Schultz, 2004). He developed ingenious laboratory methods
sensations and
to study the speed of decision making and other mental events , and in an attempt to observe
.
images are If you can
conscious experience, Wundt used the technique of introspection , which means ‘looking inward’
do this, you would
have been an (see Figure 1.4). After training research participants in this method, he repeatedly showed a light
excellent research or made a sound and asked them to describe the sensations and feelings these stimuli created.
assistant in Wundt concluded that ‘quality’ (for example, cold or blue) and ‘intensity’ (for example, brightness
Titchener’s or loudness) are the two essential elements of any sensation , and that feelings can be described in
laboratory.
terms of pleasure or displeasure, tension or relaxation , and excitement or depression (Schultz &
Schultz, 2004). In conducting this kind of research,Wundt began psychology’s transformation from
the philosophy of mental processes to the science of mental processes (see the Snapshot ‘Wilhelm
Wundt (1832-1920)’) .
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Wilhelm Wundt (1832 -1920 )

In an early experiment on the speed of mental processes, Wundt (third from left) first
measured how quickly people could respond to a light by releasing a button they had
been holding down. He then measured how much longer the response took when they
held down one button with each hand and had to decide, based on the colour of the light,
which one to release. Wundt reasoned that the additional response time reflected how
long it took to perceive the colour and decide which hand to move. As noted in Chapter 7,
‘Cognition and language’, the logic behind this experiment remains a part of research on
cognitive processes today.
Edward Titchener, an Englishman who had been a student of Wundt’s, used introspection in his
own laboratory at Cornell University. He studied Wundt’s basic elements of consciousness , as well
as images and other aspects of conscious experience that are harder to quantify. One result was that
Titchener added ‘clearness’ as an element of sensation (Schultz & Schultz, 2004).Titchener called his
approach structuralism because he was trying to define the structure of consciousness.
Wundt was not alone in the scientific study of mental processes, nor was his work universally
accepted. Some of his fellow German scientists, including Hermann Ebbinghaus, believed that
analysing consciousness through introspection was not as important as exploring the capacities
and limitations of mental processes such as learning and memory. Ebbinghaus’ own laboratory
experiments, in which he served as the only participant , formed the basis for some of what we know
about memory today.
Gestalt psychologists
Around 1912, other German colleagues of Wundt , including Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka and
Wolfgang Kohler, argued against his efforts to break down human experience or consciousness into
its component parts. They were called Gestalt psychologists because they pointed out that the whole
shape ( Gestalt in German) of conscious experience is not the same as the sum of its parts.Wertheimer
pointed out , for example, that if a pair of lights goes on and off in just the right sequence, we don’t
experience two separate flashing lights but a single light that appears to ‘jump’ back and forth. You
have probably seen this phi phenomenon in action on advertising signs that create the impression of
a series of lights racing around a display Movies provide another example. It would be incredibly
boring to look one at a time at the thousands of still images printed on a reel of film. Yet when
those same images are projected onto a screen at a particular rate, they combine to create a rich and
seemingly seamless emotional experience.To understand consciousness, then, said the Gestaltists , we
have to study the whole ‘movie’, not just its component parts.
Freud and psychoanalysis

While Wundt and his colleagues in Leipzig were conducting scientific research on consciousness,
Sigmund Freud was in Vienna, Austria , beginning to explore the unconscious. As a physician, Freud
had presumed that all behaviour and mental processes have physical causes somewhere in the nervous
system. He began to question that assumption in the late 1800s, however, after encountering several
patients who displayed a variety of physical ailments that had no apparent physical cause. After
interviewing these patients using hypnosis and other methods, Freud became convinced that the
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causes of these people’s physical problems were not physical. The real causes, he said , were deep-
seated problems that the patients had pushed out of consciousness (Friedman & Schustack , 2003).
—
He eventually came to believe that all behaviour from everyday slips of the tongue to severe forms
—
of mental disorder is motivated by psychological processes, especially by mental conflicts that occur
without our awareness , at an unconscious level. For nearly 50 years, Freud developed his ideas into a
body of work known as psychoanalysis , which included a theory of personality and mental disorder, as
well as a set of treatment methods. Freuds ideas are by no means universally accepted , partly because
they were based on a small number of medical cases, not on extensive laboratory experiments. Still,
he was a groundbreaker whose theories have had a significant influence on psychology and many
other fields.
William James and functionalism

Scientific research in psychology began in North America not long after Wundt started his work in
Germany. William James founded a psychology laboratory at Harvard University in the late 1870s,
though it was used mainly to conduct demonstrations for his students (Schultz & Schultz, 2004). It
was not until 1883 that G. Stanley Hall at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore established the
first psychology research laboratory in the United States. The first Canadian psychology research
laboratory was established in 1889 at the University of Toronto by James Mark Baldwin, Canada’s
first modern psychologist and a pioneer in research on child development.
Like the Gestalt psychologists, William James rejected both Wundt’s approach and Titchener’s
structuralism. He saw no point in breaking down consciousness into component parts that never
operate on their own. Instead, in accordance with Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, James
wanted to understand how images, sensations, memories and the other mental events that make up
our flowing ‘stream of consciousness’ function to help us adapt to our environment (James, 1890 , 1892).
This idea was consistent with an approach to psychology called functionalism , which focused on the
role of consciousness in guiding people’s ability to make decisions, solve problems and the like.
James’ emphasis on the functions of mental processes encouraged North American psychologists
to look not only at how those processes work to our advantage but also at how they differ from
one person to the next. Some of these psychologists began to measure individual differences in
learning, memory and other mental processes associated with intelligence, made recommendations
for improving educational practices in schools , and even worked with teachers on programs tailored
to children in need of special help (Kramer, Bernstein & Phares, 2014) .
John B. Watson and behaviourism

Besides fuelling James’ interest in the functions of consciousness, Darwin’s theory of evolution led
— —
other psychologists especially those in North America after 1900 to study animals as well as
humans.These researchers reasoned that if all species evolved in similar ways, perhaps the behaviour
and mental processes of all species followed the same or similar laws and they could learn something
about people by studying animals.They could not expect cats or rats or pigeons to introspect , so they
watched what animals did when confronted with laboratory tasks such as finding the correct path
through a maze. From these observations, psychologists made inferences about the animals’ conscious
experience and about the general laws of learning, memory, problem solving and other mental
processes that might apply to people as well.
John B.Watson, a psychology professor at Johns Hopkins University, agreed that the observable
behaviour of animals and humans was the most important source of scientific information for
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psychology. However, he thought it was utterly unscientific to use behaviour as the basis for
—
making inferences about consciousness, as structuralists and functionalists did let alone about
the unconscious, as Freudians did. In 1913, Watson published an article titled ‘Psychology as the
behaviourist views it’ . In it , he argued that psychologists should ignore mental events and base
psychology only on what they can actually see in overt behaviour and in responses to various stimuli
(Watson, 1913, 1919) .
Watson’s view, called behaviourism , recognised the existence of consciousness but did not
consider it worth studying because it would always be private and therefore not observable
by scientific methods. In fact , said Watson , a preoccupation with consciousness would prevent
psychology from ever being a true science. He believed that the most important determinant
of behaviour is learning and that it is through learning that animals and humans are able to
adapt to their environments. Watson was famous for claiming that , with enough control over the
environment , he could create learning experiences that would turn any infant into a doctor, a
lawyer or even a criminal.
The American psychologist B. F. Skinner was another early champion of behaviourism.
From the 1930s until his death in 1990 , Skinner worked on mapping out the details of how
rewards and punishments shape, maintain and change behaviour through what he termed ‘operant
conditioning’ . By conducting a functional analysis of behaviour, he would explain, for example, how
parents and teachers can unknowingly encourage children’s tantrums by rewarding them with
attention and how a virtual addiction to gambling can result from the occasional and unpredictable
rewards it brings.
Many psychologists were drawn to Watson’s and Skinner’s vision of psychology as the learning-
based science of observable behaviour. In fact , behaviourism dominated psychological research from
the 1920s through the 1960s, while the study of consciousness received less attention, especially in
the United States. (The section ‘In review: A brief history of psychology’ summarises behaviourism
and the other schools of thought that have influenced psychologists over the past century.)
Psychology today
Psychologists continue to study all kinds of overt behaviour in humans and in animals. By the end
of the 1960s , however, many had become dissatisfied with the limitations imposed by behaviourism
(some, especially in Europe, had never accepted it in the first place) .They grew uncomfortable about
ignoring mental processes that might be important in more fully understanding behaviour (for
example, Ericsson & Simon , 1994) . The dawn of the computer age influenced these psychologists
—
to think about mental activity in a new way as information processing. Computers and rapid
progress in computer-based biotechnology began to offer psychologists exciting new ways of
studying mental processes and the biological activity that underlies them. As shown in Figure 1.1,
for example, it is now possible to literally see what is going on in the brain when a person reads or
thinks or makes decisions.
Armed with ever more sophisticated research tools, psychologists today are striving to do what
Watson thought was impossible: to study mental processes with precision and scientific objectivity.
In fact, there are probably now as many psychologists who study cognitive and biological processes
as there are who study observable behaviours. So mainstream psychology has come full circle,
— —
once again accepting consciousness in the form of cognitive processes as a legitimate topic
for scientific research and justifying the definition of psychology as the science of behaviour and
mental processes.
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IN REVIEW 0
A brief history of psychology
SCHOOL OF THOUGHT EARLY ADVOCATES GOALS METHODS
Edward Titchener,
To study conscious
Structuralism trained by Wilhelm Experiments; introspection
experience and its structure
Wundt
To describe the organisation
of mental processes: ‘The Observation of sensory
Gestalt psychology Max Wertheimer
whole is different from the perceptual phenomena
sum of its parts’
To explain personality and

behaviour; to develop
Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Study of individual cases
techniques for treating
mental disorders
To study how the mind works
Naturalistic observation of
Functionalism William James in allowing an organism to
animal and human behaviour
adapt to the environment
To study only observable
Observation of the relationship
John B. Watson. behaviour and explain
Behaviourism between environmental stimuli
B. F. Skinner behaviour through learning
and behavioural responses
principles
Check your understanding
1 Darwin’s theory of evolution had an especially strong influence on .ism and .ism.
2 Which school of psychological thought was founded by a European medical doctor?
3 In the history of psychology, was the first school of thought to appear.
1.3 APPROACHES TO THE SCIENCE

OF PSYCHOLOGY
We have seen that the history of psychology is, in part, a history of differing ways in which
psychologists thought about , or ‘approached’ , behaviour and mental processes.Today, psychologists no
longer refer to themselves as structuralists or functionalists, but the psychodynamic and behavioural
approaches remain, along with some newer ones known as the biological, evolutionary, cognitive and
humanistic approaches. Some psychologists adopt just one of these approaches, but most are eclectic
they blend aspects of two or more approaches in an effort to understand more fully the behaviour
—
and mental processes in their subfield (for example, Cacioppo et al. , 2000) . Some approaches to
psychology are more influential than others these days, but we will review the main features of all of
them so you can more easily understand why different psychologists may explain the same behaviour
or mental process in different ways.
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The biological approach What can

As its name implies, the biological approach to psychology assumes that behaviour and mental processes brain mapping V
are largely shaped by biological processes. Psychologists who take this approach study the psychological tell us?
effects of hormones, genes and the activity of the nervous system, especially the brain (see the Snapshot Biological
‘What can brain mapping tell us?’). So if they are studying memory, they might try to identify the psychologists
are able to
changes taking place in the brain as information is stored there ( Figure 6.15, in Chapter 6, ‘Memory’,
shows an example of these changes) . If they are studying thinking, they might look for patterns of brain provide further
understanding
activity associated with, for example, making quick decisions or reading a foreign language.
to many areas
Research discussed in nearly every chapter of this book reflects the enormous influence of the of psychology,
biological approach on psychology today.To help you better understand the terms and concepts used such as reasoning
in that research, see Chapter 19 (online) , ‘Behavioural genetics’ , and Chapter 3, ‘Biological aspects and decision
of psychology’. making, because
of technology’s
increasing
The evolutionary approach sophistication.
Biological processes also figure prominently in an approach to psychology based on Charles Darwin’s
1859 book On the Origin of Species. Darwin argued that the forms of life we see today are the result
—
of evolution of changes in life forms that occur over many generations. He said that evolution
occurs through natural selection, which promotes the survival of the fittest individuals. Those
whose behaviour and appearance allow them to withstand the elements, avoid predators and mate
are able to survive and produce offspring with similar characteristics. Those less able to adjust (or
adapt) to changing conditions are less likely to survive and reproduce. Most evolutionists today see
natural selection operating at the level of genes, but the process is the same. Genes that result in biological approach
characteristics and behaviours that are adaptive and useful in a certain environment will enable the an approach to psychology
in which behaviour and
creatures that inherit them to survive and reproduce, thereby passing those genes on to the next
behaviour disorders are seen
generation. According to evolutionary theory, many (but not all) of the genes that animals and as the result of physical
humans possess today are the result of natural selection. processes, especially those
The evolutionary approach to psychology assumes that the behaviour and mental processes of relating to the brain and
to hormones and other
animals and humans today are also the result of evolution through natural selection. Psychologists
chemicals
who take this approach see cooperation as an adaptive survival strategy, aggression as a form of
territory protection, and gender differences in mate selection preferences as reflecting different ways natural selection the
evolutionary mechanism
through which genes survive in future generations (Griskevicius et al. , 2009). The evolutionary
through which Darwin said
approach has generated a growing body of research (for example, Buss, 2009; Confer et al., 2010); in the fittest individuals survive
later chapters, you will see how it is applied in relation to topics such as helping and altruism, mental to reproduce
disorders, temperament and interpersonal attraction. evolutionary approach
an approach to psychology
that emphasises the
The psychodynamic approach inherited, adaptive aspects
of behaviour and mental
The psychodynamic approach to psychology offers a different slant on the role of inherited
processes
instincts and other biological forces in human behaviour. Based on Freud’s psychoanalysis, this
approach assumes that our behaviour and mental processes reflect constant and mostly unconscious psychodynamic
approach a view
psychological struggles within us (see Figure 1.5) . Usually, these struggles involve conflict between
developed by Freud that
the impulse to satisfy instincts (such as for food, sex or aggression) and the need to follow the rules emphasises the interplay
of civilised society. So psychologists taking the psychodynamic approach might see aggression, for of unconscious mental
example, as a case of primitive urges overcoming a person’s defences against expressing those urges. processes in determining
human thought, feelings
They would see anxiety, depression or other disorders as overt signs of inner turmoil.
and behaviour
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FIGURE 1.5 What do you see?

TRY THIS \JTake a moment to write down
what you see in these clouds. According to
the psychodynamic approach to psychology,
what we see in cloud formations and other
vague patterns reflects unconscious wishes,
impulses, fears and other mental processes.
In the personality chapter, we discuss the
value of personality tests based on this
assumption .
Photodisc
Freud’s original theories are not as influential today as they once were (Mischel, 2004a), but you
will encounter modern versions of the psychodynamic approach in other chapters when we discuss
theories of personality (see Chapter 3, ‘Personality’), psychological disorders and psychotherapy (see
Chapter 14, ‘Psychological disorders and treatment’).
The behavioural approach

behavioural approach The assumptions of the behavioural approach to psychology contrast sharply with those of the
an approach to psychology psychodynamic, biological and evolutionary approaches. The behavioural approach is rooted
emphasising that human in the behaviourism of Watson and Skinner, which, as already mentioned , focused entirely on
behaviour is determined
mainly by what a person observable behaviour and on how that behaviour is learned . Accordingly, psychologists who take
has learned , especially from a strict behavioural approach concentrate on understanding how past experiences with rewards
rewards and punishments and punishments act on the ‘raw materials’ provided by genes and evolution to shape observable
behaviour into what it is today. So whether they are trying to understand a person’s aggressiveness,
fear of spiders , parenting methods or drug abuse, behaviourists look mainly at that person ’s learning
history. As they believe that behaviour problems develop through learning, behaviourists seek
to eliminate those problems by helping people replace maladaptive habits with new and more
appropriate ones (see the Snapshot ‘Why is he so aggressive?’) .
Why is he so aggressive?
Psychologists who take a cognitive - behavioural approach suggest that behaviour
is not shaped by rewards and punishments alone. They say that children’s
aggressiveness, for example, is learned partly by being rewarded (or at least
not punished ) for aggression but also partly by seeing family and friends acting
aggressively. Furthermore, attitudes and beliefs about the value and acceptability
of aggressiveness can be learned as children hear others talk about aggression
as the only way to deal with threats, disagreements and other conflict situations
(for example, Cooper, Gomez & Buck , 2008; Wilkowski & Robinson , 2008).
Recall, though, that the peak of behaviourism’s popularity passed precisely because it ignored
everything but observable behaviour. That criticism has had an impact on the many behaviourists
who now apply their learning-based approach in an effort to understand thoughts , or cognitions ,
as well as observable behaviour. Those who take this cognitive-behavioural , or social-cognitive , approach
explore how learning affects the development of thoughts, attitudes and beliefs and, in turn, how
these learned cognitive patterns affect overt behaviour.
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The cognitive approach

The growth of the cognitive-behavioural perspective reflects the influence of a broader cognitive
view ofpsychology.This cognitive approach focuses on how we take in, mentally represent and store cognitive approach a
information; how we perceive and process that information; and how all these cognitive processes way of looking at human
behaviour that emphasises
affect our behaviour. Psychologists who take the cognitive approach study the rapid series of mental research on how the brain
events — including those outside of awareness — that accompany observable behaviour.So in analysing, takes in information,
say, an aggressive incident in a cinema ticket queue, these psychologists would describe the following creates perceptions, forms
series of information-processing events: first, the aggressive person (1) perceived that someone has and retrieves memories,
processes information
cut into the ticket queue, then (2) recalled information stored in memory about appropriate social
and generates integrated
behaviour, (3) decided that the other persons action was inappropriate, (4) labelled the person as rude patterns of action
and inconsiderate, (5) considered possible responses and their likely consequences, (6) decided that
humanistic approach
shoving the person is the best response, and (7) executed that response. an approach to psychology
Psychologists who take a cognitive approach focus on these and other mental processes to that views behaviour as
understand many kinds of individual and social behaviours, from decision making and problem controlled by the decisions
solving to interpersonal attraction and intelligence, to name but a few. In the situation just described, that people make about
their lives based on their
for example, the persons aggression would be seen as the result of poor problem solving, because
perceptions of the world
there were probably several better ways to deal with the problem of queue jumping. The cognitive
approach is especially important in the field of cognitive science , in which researchers from psychology,
computer science, biology, engineering, linguistics and philosophy study intelligent systems in
humans and computers. Together, they are trying to discover the building blocks of cognition and to
determine how these components produce complex behaviours such as remembering a fact, naming
an object , writing a word or making a decision (see the Snapshot ‘Cognitive science at work’ ) .
The humanistic approach Cognitive

science at
Mental events play a different role in the humanistic approach to psychology (also known as the work
phenomenological approach ). Psychologists who favour the humanistic perspective see behaviour as
Some cognitive
determined primarily by each person’s capacity to choose how to think and act.They don’t see these
psychologists
choices as driven by instincts, biological processes, or rewards and punishments but rather by each undertake work
individual’s unique perceptions of the world. So if you see the world as a friendly place, you are likely in cognitive skill
to be optimistic and secure. If you perceive it as full of hostile, threatening people, you will probably acquisition, where
be defensive and fearful. the main interest
Like their cognitively oriented colleagues, psychologists who choose the humanistic approach is in how practice
would see aggression in a cinema queue as stemming from a perception that aggression is justified. leads to improved
Whereas the cognitive approach leads psychologists to search for laws governing all people’s thoughts performance
and knowledge.
and actions, humanistic psychologists try to understand how each individual’s unique experiences
This has obvious
guide that person’s thoughts and actions. In fact, many who prefer the humanistic approach claim implications for
that because no two people are exactly alike, the only way to understand behaviour and mental education in general
processes is to focus on how they operate in each individual. Humanistic psychologists also believe and specifically the
that people are essentially good , that they are in control of themselves, and that they have an innate development of
tendency to grow towards their highest potential. educational software
The humanistic approach began to attract attention in North America in the 1940s through the for children .
writings of Carl Rogers, a psychologist who had been trained in, but later rejected , the psychodynamic
approach. We describe his views on personality in Chapter 13, ‘Personality’, and his psychotherapy
methods in Chapter 14 , ‘Psychological disorders and treatment’ . Another influential figure of the
same era was Abraham Maslow, a psychologist who shaped and promoted the humanistic approach
through his famous hierarchy-of-needs theory of motivation, which we describe in Chapter 10,
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‘Motivation and emotion’, and Chapter 13, ‘Personality’. Today, the impact of the humanistic
approach to psychology is limited, mainly because many psychologists find humanistic concepts and
predictions too vague to be expressed and tested scientifically. It has, however, helped inspire the
theories and research in positive psychology that are now becoming so popular (Snyder & Lopez,
2009). (For a summary of all the approaches we have discussed , see the section ‘In review: Approaches
to the science of psychology’.)
IN REVIEW o
Approaches to the science of psychology
APPROACH CHARACTERISTICS
Emphasises activity of the nervous system, especially of the brain; the action of hormones
Biological
and other chemicals; and genetics
Evolutionary Emphasises the ways in which behaviour and mental processes are adaptive for survival
Emphasises internal conflicts, mostly unconscious, which usually pit sexual or aggressive
Psychodynamic instincts against environmental obstacles to their expression
Emphasises learning, especially each person’s experience with rewards and punishments; the
Behavioural cognitive - behavioural approach adds emphasis on learning by observation and the learning of
certain ways of thinking
Emphasises mechanisms through which people receive, store, retrieve and otherwise process
Cognitive information
Emphasises individual potential for growth and the role of unique perceptions in guiding
Humanistic
behaviour and mental processes
Check your understanding

1 Teaching people to be less afraid of heights reflects the approach.
2 Charles Darwin was not a psychologist, but his work influenced the approach to psychology.
3 Assuming that people inherit mental disorders suggests a approach.
1.4 HUMAN DIVERSITY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Today, the diversity seen in psychologists’ approaches to their work is matched by the diversity in
their own backgrounds. This was not always the case. As in other academic disciplines in the early
20th century, most psychologists were white, middle-class men (Walker, 1991) . Almost from the
beginning, however, women have been part of the field (Schultz & Schultz, 2004); see the Snapshot
‘MaryWhiton Calkins (1863— 1930) ’ .Throughout this book , you will find discussions of the work of
their modern counterparts, whose contributions to research, service and teaching have all increased
in tandem with their growing representation in psychology (see the Snapshot ‘Professor Carmen
Mary Lawrence’) .
The Psychology Board of Australia publishes a statistical breakdown of registered psychologists in
the country. Currently, women comprise 79 per cent of this group and men 21 per cent (Psychology
Board of Australia, 2016). The most represented age group is that between the ages of 30 and
34 years (15 per cent) . In 2010 , the New Zealand psychologist workforce comprised approximately
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Mary Whiton Calkins (1863 -1930 )

Mary Whiton Calkins studied psychology at
Harvard University, where William James
brilliant’. Because she was a
described her as ‘
woman, though, Harvard refused to grant her a
doctoral degree unless she received it through f£
RadclifFe, which was then an affiliated school for _s-
women. She refused but went on to do research Io.
on memory and in 1905 became the first 1
-5
woman president of the American Psychological <
Association (APA). Margaret Washburn (1871-
^
5
1939) encountered similar sex discrimination at sociocultural factors
S'
social identity and other
Columbia University, so she transferred to Cornell J
£ background factors, such as
and became the first woman to earn a doctorate ‘s
gender, ethnicity, social class
.
in psychology In 1921, she became the second s and culture
woman president of the APA . u1
culture the accumulation
of values, rules of behaviour,
forms of expression, religious
70 per cent women and 29 per cent men, with 16 per cent of psychologists in the over-60 age group
beliefs, occupational choices
(the largest age grouping) ( NZ Ministry of Health, 2016) ; a breakdown in terms of cultural identity and the like for a group of
indicated that about 5 per cent were Maori psychologists.With respect to Australian Aboriginal and people who share a common
Torres Strait Islander peoples, 39 Indigenous psychologists were registered in 2009, which was less language and environment
than 1 per cent of total registrations (Rickwood , Dudgeon & Gridley, 2010). Only two had doctoral
—
qualifications, and both were women Dr Pat Dudgeon and Dr Tracey Westerman.
Professor
The impact of sociocultural diversity on psychology Carmen
Mary
Another aspect of diversity in psychology lies in the wide range of people that psychologists study
Lawrence
and serve. This change is significant because most psychologists once assumed that all people were
Carmen Lawrence
very much alike, and that whatever principles emerged from research or treatment efforts with one was born on 2 March
group would apply to everyone, everywhere. They were pardy right, because people around the 1948. She was
world are alike in many ways. They tend to live in groups, have religious beliefs and create rules, awarded a doctorate
music, dances and games.The principles of nerve cell activity or reactions to heat or a sour taste are in psychology in
the same in men and women everywhere, as is their recognition of a smile. However, not all people’s 1983 and went on
moral values, achievement motivation or communication styles are the same. These and many other to pursue a career in
aspects of behaviour and mental processes are affected by sociocultural factors, including people’s politics, from which
she retired in 2007.
gender, ethnicity, social class and the culture in which they grow up. These variables create many
Professor Lawrence
significant differences in behaviour and mental processes, especially from one culture to another (for was the first woman
example, Shiraev & Levy, 2010). to become the
Culture has been defined as the accumulation of values, rules of behaviour, forms of expression, premier of a State of
religious beliefs , occupational choices and the like for a group of people who share a common Australia.
language and environment (Fiske et al., 1998). Culture is an organising and stabilising influence. It
encourages or discourages particular behaviours and thoughts; it also allows people to understand -S
and know what to expect from others in that culture. It is a kind of group adaptation, passed along by &
tradition and example rather than by genes from one generation to the next (Castro & Toro, 2004). t/)
Culture determines, for example, whether children’s education will focus on skill at hunting or 1
%
reading, how close people stand during a conversation, and whether or not they form lines in public Opportunity for all
places. Psychologists and anthropologists have found that cultures can differ in many ways (Cohen, I
if
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2009).They may have strict or loose rules governing social behaviour.They might place great value
The impact on achievement or on self-awareness. Some seek dominance over nature; others seek harmony with
of culture it.Time is of great importance in some cultures but not in others.
Culture Helps shape A culture is often associated with a particular country, but most countries are actually multicultural;
almost every aspect in other words, they host many subcultures within their borders. Often, these subcultures are formed
of our behaviour and by people of various ethnic origins.The population of Australia, for instance, includes Africans,Asians,
mental processes, Europeans, Britons and New Zealanders. In each of these groups, the individuals who identify with
from how we dress
their cultural heritage tend to share behaviours, values and beliefs based on their culture of origin,
to how we think
thus forming a subculture. In many countries, there are already indigenous cultures, such as Australian
to what we believe
is important. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, Maori in New Zealand, Native Americans in the
Because we grow United States, and First Nations, Inuit and Metis peoples in Canada.
up immersed in our Like fish unaware of the water in which they are immersed, people often fail to notice how
culture, we may their culture or subculture has shaped their thinking and behaviour until they come in contact with
be unaware of its people whose culture or subculture has shaped different patterns (see the Snapshot ‘The impact of
influence on our culture’). Consider hand gestures, for example. The ‘thumbs up’ sign means that ‘everything is OK’
own thoughts and
to people in Australia and New Zealand but is considered a rude gesture in Nigeria and Bangladesh.
actions until - like
And although making eye contact during social introductions in Australia and New Zealand is
these young women
who emigrated from usually seen as a sign of interest or sincerity, it is likely to be considered rude in Japan. Even some
Africa to Sydney - of the misunderstandings that occur between men and women in the same culture can be traced
we encounterpeople to slight , culturally influenced differences in their communication styles (Tannen , 2001, 2012) . For
H- whose culture has decades, the impact of culture on behaviour and mental processes was of concern mainly to a
I
•h
shaped them in
different ways.
relatively small group of researchers working in cross -cultural psychology . In the chapters to come,
however, you will see that psychologists in almost every subfield are now looking at how ethnicity,
gender, age and many other sociocultural variables can influence behaviour and mental processes. In
short , psychology is striving to be the science of all behaviour and mental processes, not just of those
in the cultures where it began.
Psychology has a role to play in promoting the health and wellbeing of people from all cultures.
However, with respect to Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the Maori
culture, psychology has often neglected to develop knowledge and understanding of human
behaviour in a culturally appropriate manner.This is examined in much more depth in Chapter 16,
‘Culture and psychology’, and in Chapter 17, ‘Indigenous psychology’.
1.5 STUDYING AND WORKING IN PSYCHOLOGY

IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND
Given the colonisation of Australia, it is not surprising that psychology in this country was influenced
by British psychology. Indeed , a branch of the British Psychological Society was even established in
Australia. The first formal teaching of psychology in Australia occurred in the 1890s. However, it was
only in 1929 that the first department of Psychology was established by Henry Tasman Lovell at the
University ofSydney (Boag, 2008). In 1966 , the Australian Psychological Society arose as an independent
professional body, with its own standards and legislation guiding its members. Currently, it is the main
organisation representing the promotion and advancement of psychology in Australia, and has over
20000 members. In 2009, the Australian Government established the Psychology Board of Australia,
which has the responsibility of registering psychologists and overseeing and monitoring the profession.
In New Zealand, the practice of psychology dates back to 1875, when it was first taught
within the area of philosophy at the University of Otago. The New Zealand Psychological Society
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represents more than 1000 psychologists and aims to establish and enforce high standards within the
profession. It became an independent organisation in 1967. The New Zealand Psychologists Board
is responsible for the registration of psychologists in New Zealand.
Psychological literacy and the graduate

attributes of undergraduate psychology
^ Undertaking a major in psychology should equip you with a unique set of skills that range from
communication (typical of a humanities degree) to numeracy (typical of a science degree ; Hayes,
1997), with much of interest in-between! Studying first-year psychology, regardless of your intended
APPLYING
PSYCHOLOGY
career destination , should begin your development of this skill set, which will be useful in your Can studying
psychology equip you
personal and professional life. Indeed , as a student, you , as well as your lecturers, should be aware of with skills such as
the intended ‘outcomes’ of your learning. Moreover, the curriculum should be designed by educators good oral and written
—
in such a way that you are given reasonable opportunities to acquire those outcomes assuming you
have the motivation and study skills to learn.
communication
skills and numeracy
skills, well-developed
We list below the evolving graduate attributes and associated learning outcomes of the Australian computer skills, the
undergraduate degree program (Cranney et al., 2009; Cranney & Botwood, 2012); these are similar ability to find and
to the lists that apply to other undergraduate programs across the world (for example, American research information,
Psychological Association, 2013; Lunt et al., 2014; Quality Assurance Agency, 2010) . First, however, and environmental
awareness?
we provide a few definitions and then a few words about psychological literacy and global citizenship.
What are graduate attributes? ‘Graduate attributes are the qualities, skills and understandings a
university community agrees its students should develop during their time with the institution and
consequendy shape the contribution they are able to make to their profession and society. They are
qualities that also prepare graduates as agents of social good in an unknown future’ (Bowden et al.,
2000, cited in Barrie, 2007). Graduate ‘attributes’ are sometimes called graduate ‘capabilities’ or graduate
‘competencies’; as we value aspects of the above definition, we will use ‘attributes’ in this book.
And what is psychological literacy? McGovern et al. (2010) conceptualised psychological literacy
as the aforementioned lists of graduate attributes, and gave examples of how a psychologically literate
person would behave. Cranney and Dunn (2011b) subsequently defined psychological literacy as the
capacity to intentionally apply psychological science to meet personal, professional and societal goals.
Cranney and Morris (2011) , meanwhile, provided a multidisciplinary theoretical framework for the
importance of psychological literacy in terms of ‘adaptive cognition’, defined as ‘global ways of thinking
(and consequently behaving) that are beneficial to one’s (and others’ ) survival and wellbeing’ (p. 251).
These authors also identified various domains of application of psychological principles, including
the self and close others, local communities and global communities. For further information about
psychological literacy, please see the Psychological Literacy website (www.psychliteracy.com) .
The importance of knowing more about the science of human thought , emotion and behaviour
is underscored by the fact that most problems in society today are related to human behaviour; for
example, the obesity and depression epidemics , terrorism and human-induced climate change.Thus,
the more that humans know about their own behaviour, the more likely it is they will be able to
change that behaviour, not only for the betterment of themselves , but also for the betterment of
all humankind. This is where the concept of ‘global citizenship’ is relevant. Global citizenship has
been defined as the understanding of global interconnectedness and the capacity to live, work and
contribute positively as a member of global communities (Cranney et al., 2012). Psychology has
much to offer here; in particular, the application of psychological principles to the ‘global community’
domain can be seen as an aspirational level of psychological literacy. A key component of global
citizenship is cultural responsivity, which will be emphasised throughout this book. We urge you , as
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a member of current and future global communities, to positively engage with any opportunities
you are given to develop both your psychological literacy and your global citizenship (Charlton &
Lymburner, 2011; Cranney & Dunn, 2011a).
As implied above, psychological literacy can be seen as the ‘Gestalt’ or ‘whole’ of the evolving
graduate attributes that should be acquired by those undertaking a psychology major program.
Listed below are the evolving graduate attributes and associated learning outcomes that reflect a
combination of:
1 the psychology educator consensus reported by Cranney and Botwood (2012; pp. 19— 22)
2 the minimalist proposed APAC Standards (Australian Psychology Accreditation Council, 2016)
3 the program learning outcomes endorsed by the Australian Psychological Society (Morrissey, 2016).
Knowledge
Graduates will be able to comprehend and apply a broad and coherent body of knowledge of
psychology, with depth of understanding of the underlying principles , theories and concepts in the
discipline, using a scientific approach, including the following topics:
i individual differences in capacity, behaviour and personality, including cultural, ethnic and
gender diversity
ii psychological health and wellbeing, and evidence-based interventions
iii psychological disorders and evidence-based interventions
iv learning and memory
v cognition, language and perception
vi motivation and emotion
vii neuroscience and biological bases of behaviour
viii life-span developmental psychology
ix social psychology
x intercultural diversity and cultural awareness
xi Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives in psychology
xii moral and ethical frameworks and their relationship to the science and practice of
psychology
xiii psychological assessment and measurement
xiv research methods and statistics
xv the history and philosophy underpinning the science of psychology
xvi sociocultural, historical and professional influences on research and practice in psychology
xvii psychology’s relationship to cognate disciplines and professions.
Research skills
Graduates will be able to apply the basic knowledge and skills required to ethically design, conduct,
evaluate and report studies to address psychological questions across a variety of domains (including
program evaluation) , specifically:
i framing research questions
ii undertaking literature searches
iii critically analysing theoretical and empirical studies
iv formulating testable hypotheses
v operationalising variables
vi choosing an appropriate methodology to test the hypotheses
vii designing appropriate questionnaires/ surveys as needed
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viii making valid and reliable measurements

ix appropriately analysing quantitative and qualitative data , and interpreting results
x deriving theoretical and practical implications
xi acknowledging limitations
xii suggesting future research
xiii communicating this research to a variety of audiences in a variety of formats.
Critical and creative thinking skills

Graduates will be able to apply the knowledge and skills to utilise logic, evidence and psychological
science to evaluate claims about, and solve problems regarding, human behaviour, including:
i recognising the major limitations of human reasoning
ii using logic and evidence to critically evaluate and to develop arguments
iii critically evaluating theoretical and methodological approaches in psychology
iv demonstrating creative and pragmatic problem solving regarding human behaviour.
Values and ethics in psychology

Graduates will be able to apply knowledge and skills regarding values, morals and professional codes
to demonstrate moral and ethical decision making and behaviour, including:
i recognising moral influences that impact on individuals in a globalised society
ii recognising how prejudicial attitudes that exist in oneself and in others may lead to
discrimination and inequity
iii demonstrating understanding of relevant professional codes, including the relevant values
identified in those institutional codes (for example, intellectual integrity)
iv applying personal moral philosophical positions to novel ethical dilemmas within the
constraints of ethical codes.
Communication and interpersonal skills

Graduates will be able to apply knowledge and skills of professional and ethical communication,
including:
i writing effectively in a variety of formats and for a variety of purposes
ii listening and speaking effectively, including demonstrating effective oral presentation
and basic interviewing skills , and the ability to use flexible techniques to communicate
sensitively with people from diverse cultural backgrounds
iii demonstrating interpersonal skills and the capacity to work collaboratively in a team to
complete projects.
Integration and application

——
Graduates will be able to demonstrate capstone aspects of psychological literacy that is, basic
integrative competencies in applying psychological knowledge, skills and attitudes to explain,
predict and influence human behaviour to achieve personal, professional and societal goals, including:
i understanding the links between basic psychological theories and their application; that
is, the capacity to explain complex behaviour in real-world settings, using the concepts,
language, findings and major theories of the discipline
ii applying evidence-based self-management strategies to achieve pre-professional goals
iii demonstrating basic career literacy, including the capacity for professional reflection and
ongoing professional development; that is, lifelong professional learning
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iv demonstrating the capacity to design, implement and evaluate programs of behaviour change
—
v demonstrating cultural responsivity the capacity to engage respectfully with members of
different cultures and diverse groupings (one aspect of global literacy).
Careers in psychology
The decision to study psychology can be extremely rewarding, as many different career pathways
become available to you . The information in this section on such pathways is brief and is intended
only as an overview of the study of psychology.A more detailed overview with additional information
—
is available online see Appendix A, ‘Careers for psychology graduates’.
Courses in psychology aim to provide you with an understanding of why humans behave in a
particular way, why they differ from one another, and how they are affected by living and working
together. An undergraduate course provides the basis for the study of psychology at higher levels but
also equips you with basic skills in analysing, understanding, researching, changing and evaluating
human behaviour, as well as exploring the interaction between people and their physical and social
environments.
What skills will I develop?

Studying psychology provides you with many skills. Psychology involves the scientific study of how
humans think, behave and experience life, with an emphasis on information that is well grounded
in research. Psychologists therefore study the relationship between mental processes and behaviour
from a scientific perspective and help people understand, describe and change their behaviour
(Bernstein et al. , 2013).
Studying psychology also provides you with a range of psychological and general skills and
knowledge which will be useful in other areas. People who gain an undergraduate degree in
—
psychology are equipped to undertake many diverse occupations in fact, most people who study
psychology do not become professional psychologists. Through their coursework , psychology
students are trained to have good oral and written communication skills, numeracy skills and
computer skills, as well as practical research skills which can be used to gather information in
a variety of community settings. Another important area of expertise is interpersonal awareness.
Graduates learn about social communication and sources of interpersonal conflict , develop problem-
solving skills , practise how to critically evaluate information, and are trained to examine issues from
a broad perspective (O’Hare & McGuiness, 2003) .
What is a psychologist ?
A psychologist is someone who has undergone at least four years of tertiary training in an
accredited , formally recognised psychology program and who then engages in further study or
undertakes two years of approved supervised practice. The websites of the Psychology Board
of Australia (www.psychologyboard.gov.au /Registration / General.aspx) and the New Zealand
Psychologists Board (www.psychologistsboard. org. nz/looking-to-register) provide details of the
general registration requirements for psychologists in Australia and New Zealand.
While an undergraduate degree in psychology provides you with many skills, it does not allow
you to call yourself a psychologist. The websites of the Australian Psychological Society (www.
psychology.org.au /studentHQ/studying/ study-pathways) and the New Zealand Psychological
Society (www.psychology.org. nz/ study-careers) are useful references when it comes to assessing the
different pathways to becoming a psychologist.
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Career and employment options

In Australia and New Zealand, psychologists may choose from a range of career options and employment
opportunities, which vary from salaried positions with government departments, non-government
healthcare or welfare agencies, business corporations, and research and teaching institutions of higher
education, to work in private practice. Employment opportunities exist for those with undergraduate
degrees in psychology as well as those with postgraduate degrees in more specialised areas.
Within Australia , the largest employers of professional psychologists are State/ Territory and federal
departments of health and ageing (for example, clinical psychologists, program directors), the federal
Department of Education and Training (for example, educational psychologists, school counsellors,
guidance officers), the federal Department of Social Services and Department of the Prime Minister
and Cabinet (for Indigenous affairs) (for example, welfare workers, counselling psychologists, project
officers) . Other employers include educational facilities and agencies run by religious organisations,
youth and community organisations, human resource management and the justice system. In their
roles with such organisations, psychologists conduct research, study and contribute to the work
environment, help people learn, and work in the community.
Registration and accreditation

Psychology boards
On 1 July 2010 , the Australian Health Workforce Ministerial Council approved the standard for
the registration of psychologists in accordance with the Health Practitioner Regulation National
Law 2009, with the safeguarding of the public being one of the main aims. The Psychology Board
of Australia (www.psychologyboard.gov.au) provides guidance for practitioners regarding this
registration, including on the following list of qualification options:
• completion of an accredited masters degree in psychology
• four years of approved sequential academic training in psychology in an accredited program ,
which generally involves a three-year degree with a major in psychology plus a fourth year or
—
honours degree in psychology, followed by a two-year Psychology Board approved internship
. —
a five-year accredited sequence of study followed by a one-year Psychology Board approved
internship
• other qualifications which the Psychology Board may regard as equivalent to the above.
Australia has a policy of mutual recognition, which means that some other psychology registration
— —
boards for example, that of New Zealand will generally accept registration through this pathway.
The organisation that accredits programs of education and training in psychology in Australia
is the Australian Psychology Accreditation Council (APAC; www.psychologycouncil.org.au). The
Psychology Board of Australia only recognises training programs which have been accredited by
APAC for the purpose of registration.
The Psychology Board of Australia is also closely linked with the Australian Health Practitioner
Regulation Agency (AHPRA; www.ahpra.gov.au) , which works with various national boards to
regulate 14 health-related professions, including psychology.
The New Zealand Psychologists Board (www.psychologistsboard.org.nz) was established by the
Health Practitioners Competence Assurance Act 2003 and regulates the psychology profession in New
Zealand , including the accreditation of psychology training programs. It is similar to the Psychology
Board of Australia in that it has a duty of care to the public.
There are two main ways of registering as a psychologist in New Zealand:
1 as an intern psychologist who has completed a masters degree and a postgraduate diploma , or a
doctoral degree, along with the prescribed internship
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2 as a trainee psychologist who has completed either a masters degree or a doctoral degree
followed by supervised practice approved by the Psychologists Board.
Psychological societies
The professional body that regulates and oversees the profession of psychology in Australia is the
Australian Psychological Society (APS; www.psychology.org.au); the body with these responsibilities
in New Zealand is the New Zealand Psychological Society ( NZPsS; www.psychology.org.nz).
The APS establishes the standards required to practise psychology as a profession. Since January
—
2000 , the minimum requirement for APS membership has been six years this requirement also
applies to membership of one of the nine colleges representing specialist areas within psychology
(in New Zealand, these are referred to as institutes or divisions). This means that the training of
psychologists in Australia follows a model where the first four years provides a foundation in the
discipline and science of psychology, and professional training is provided in the last two years.There
are many students who do not wish to complete such a period of study and training to become
qualified psychologists, and who leave university with a three-year undergraduate degree with a
major in psychology and supporting studies in other areas. As mentioned previously, these students
will still have developed the skills and competencies to seek employment in many diverse areas.
The APS also collaborates with the tertiary education sector to make sure that the profession has
access to current and accurate information and training in psychology. In addition , it supervises and
develops the guidelines for professional matters and training programs.
The APS represents over 20000 members.There are varying levels of membership which require
different educational requirements. For example, students of psychology may join APS as a student
member. However, to become a full member, APS requires completion of the full six years of training
in an accredited program , or the equivalent of a masters degree in psychology.
The NZPsS was first established in 1947 and became incorporated in 1967. It is the main society
in New Zealand for practising psychologists, academics, students and other subscribers, representing
over 1000 members.While the NZPsS has a national office in Wellington, it also caters to specialist
interest groups and branches which are geographically defined. Similar to the APS, the NZPsS
is responsible for the code of ethics that spells out the responsible behaviour and commitment
expected of all psychologists in the country. Membership of the NZPsS is available to those who
have either a doctorate in psychology or an honours or master’s degree in psychology.
This book
In each of the chapters to come, a brief introductory section is devoted to pointing out what aspects
of that chapter are relevant to which graduate attributes and to psychological literacy. If such a
psychological literacy and graduate attributes section had been prepared for this first chapter, it
would have read as follows.
This chapter is, of course, your introduction to psychological literacy and graduate attributes
what they are and why they are important. Specifically, it is an introduction to:
—
1 the history and philosophy of science and psychology (part of knowledge )
2 how psychological principles can be applied meaningfully in personal and professional contexts
(part of integration and application )
3 the way in which psychological knowledge, skills and attitudes can be relevant to professional
development (part of integration and application) .
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CHAPTER REVIEW
t CourseMateExpress
ONLINE STUDY RESOURCES

Visit http://login.cengagebrain.com and use the access code that comes with this book for 12 months access
to the resources and study tools for this chapter.
The CourseMateExpress website contains:
• revision quizzes • web links
• concept maps • flashcards
• graduate attribute information • and more.
• videos
SUMMARY
Psychology is the science that seeks to understand behaviour and mental processes and to apply that understanding in the service of
human welfare.
THE WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY: AN OVERVIEW

The concept of ‘ behaviour and mental processes’ is a broad • Community psychologists work to prevent mental disorders
one, encompassing virtually all aspects of what it means to be and to extend mental health services to those who need them.
a human being. Some psychologists study and seek to alleviate • Health psychologists study the relationship between
the problems that can plague human life, while those working behaviour and health and help promote healthy lifestyles.
in positive psychology focus their attention on understanding • Educational psychologists conduct and apply research on
happiness, optimism, human strengths and the like. teaching and learning, whereas school psychologists specialise
As the subject matter of psychology is diverse, most in supporting and guiding teachers and students in an
psychologists work in particular subfields within the discipline: academic environment.
• Biological psychologists, also called physiological • Social psychologists examine questions regarding how people
psychologists, study topics such as the role played by the brain influence one another.
in regulating normal and disordered behaviour. • Organisational psychologists study ways of increasing
• Cognitive psychologists, some of whom prefer to be called efficiency and productivity in the workplace.
experimental psychologists, focus on basic psychological • Sport psychologists, forensic psychologists and environmental
processes such as learning, memory and perception; they also psychologists exemplify some of psychology’s many other
studyjudgement, decision making and problem solving. subfields.
• Developmental psychologists specialise in trying to Psychologists often work in more than one subfield and usually
understand the development of behaviour and mental share knowledge with colleagues in many subfields. Psychologists
processes over a lifetime. also draw on and contribute to knowledge in other disciplines, such
• Personality psychologists focus on characteristics that set as computer science, economics and law.
people apart from one another and by which they can be Psychologists use the methods of science to conduct research.
compared. This means that they perform experiments and use other scientific
• Clinical psychologists and counselling psychologists provide procedures to systematically gather and analyse information about
direct service to troubled people and conduct research on psychological phenomena.
abnormal behaviour.
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

The founding of modern psychology is usually marked as 1879, suggesting that psychologists should study how consciousness
when Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology research helps us adapt to our environments. In 1913, John B. Watson
laboratory. Wundt studied consciousness in a manner that founded behaviourism, arguing that to be scientific, psychologists
was expanded by Edward Titchener into an approach he called should study only the behaviour they can see, not private mental
structuralism. It was in the late 1800s, too, that Sigmund Freud, events. Behaviourism dominated psychology for decades, but
in Vienna, began his study of the unconscious, while in the psychologists are once again studying consciousness in the form of
United States, William James took the functionalist approach, cognitive processes.
APPROACHES TO THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologists differ in their approaches to psychology; that is, in • In the psychodynamic approach, behaviour and mental
their assumptions, questions and research methods: processes are seen as reflecting struggles to resolve conflicts
• The biological approach focuses on how between raw impulses and the social rules that limit the
physiological processes shape behaviour and mental processes. expression of those impulses.
• Psychologists who take the behavioural approach • The cognitive approach assumes that behaviour can be
view behaviour as determined primarily by learning understood through analysis of the basic mental processes
based on experiences with rewards and that underlie it.
punishments. • To those adopting the humanistic approach, behaviour is
• Psychologists who prefer the evolutionary approach controlled by the decisions that people make about their lives
emphasise the inherited, adaptive aspects of behaviour and based on their perceptions of the world.
mental processes.
HUMAN DIVERSITY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologists are diverse in their backgrounds and in their Psychologists are increasingly taking into account the
activities. Most of the prominent figures in psychology’s early influence of culture and other sociocultural variables such as
history were white males, but women and people of colour made gender and ethnicity in shaping human behaviour and mental
important contributions from the start and continue to do so. processes.
STUDYING AND WORKING IN PSYCHOLOGY IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND

Studying psychology, regardless of your course of study or unique set of capabilities that will be useful in your personal and
intended career destination, should begin your development of a professional life.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Select the best answer for each of the following questions, then check your responses against the ‘Answer key’ at the end of the book.
1 The first research laboratory in psychology was established to 2 Dr Hemmings believes that human behaviour is influenced
study by genetic inheritance, unconscious motivations and
consciousness
environmental influences. Dr Hemmings uses a(n)
b the unconscious
approach,
a evolutionary
c perceptual processes
b eclectic
d the collective unconscious
c humanistic
d behavioural
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3 You are marooned on a tropical island with a dangerous 7 The concepts of behaviour and mental processes
criminal. In your suitcase are four books on psychology. include
If you believe that the criminal’s behaviour is primarily due a personality traits
to unconscious conflicts, you should choose the book written
b sensory abilities
by to find more information.
c intelligence
a Sigmund Freud
d all of the above
b William James
8 A major difference between psychologists and psychiatrists is
c John Watson
that psychiatrists
d Wilhelm Wundt
a have more training in psychological testing
4 Larry says that people act the way they have learned to act.
b are medical doctors
He believes that if others stop rewarding a person’s annoying
are more active in research
behaviour, that behaviour will decrease. Larry most likely takes c
a(n) approach to psychology. d all of the above

a behavioural 9 Ali argues that, compared to men, women’s greater selectivity
in choosing a mate is an adaptive strategy that makes it more
b cognitive
likely that fathers will be good providers. This view is rooted in
c evolutionary
the approach to psychology.
d humanistic
a evolutionary
5 Psychology is best defined as the science of
b behavioural
a behaviour and mental processes
c cognitive- behavioural
b psychological disorders and conditions
d humanistic
c personality development 10 Paul tells his wife that she won’t ever be able to understand
d neurons and hormones him unless she can begin to understand his own unique view
6 Research on the factors that lead people to be happy and of the world. Without realising it, Paul is expressing a basic
satisfied with their lives is known as psychology. principle of psychology.
a developmental a psychodynamic
b humanistic b cognitive - behavioural
c positive c humanistic
d existential d cognitive
TALKING POINTS
When they discover that you are taking a psychology course, family and friends tend to want to know what you are learning about
.
analyse’ them!) It can be tough to give a short answer, so here are a few talking points to help you
(and they might worry that you will ‘
summarise this chapter without giving a lecture (we’ll offer others for each chapter to come) .
1 Psychology is the science that explores behaviour and mental 5 Some psychologists study human problems; others focus on
processes. learning about human strengths.
2 Psychologists’ research is widely applied in the service of 6 Sigmund Freud was a medical doctor, not a psychologist.
human welfare. 7 Some kinds of behaviour and thinking are the same for
3 Clinical psychology is the most famous subfield, but everyone, everywhere; others are influenced by people’s
psychology also includes a wide range of other subfields. gender, ethnicity and cultural background.
4 Registered psychologists have postgraduate degrees in
psychology; psychiatrists have medical degrees.
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FURTHER READING
Now that you have finished reading this chapter, how about exploring some of the topics and information that you found most
interesting. Here are some places to start.
RECOMMENDED BOOKS
. . .
D B Baker (ed ), Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology : International Perspectives Alan M. Goldstein (ed.), Forensic Psychology (Wiley, 2006) - an overview of the role of
(Oxford University Press, 2011) - provides an understanding of the history of psychological science in the legal system.
psychology and includes international examples and information . Daniel Kahneman,Thinking Fast and Slow (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2013) - summarises
Paul Bell, Environmental Psychology (Wadsworth, 2001) - applications of psychology to decades of Daniel’s research and explains how he thinks we think.
solving problems in natural and artificial environments, including university campuses.
CHAPTER REFERENCES
American Psychological Association, Board of Educational Affairs Task Force on Cranney, J., Botwood, L., & Morris, S. (2012). National standards for psychological literacy
Psychology Major Competencies (2013). APA Guidelines for the Undergraduate and global citizenship: Outcomes of undergraduate psychology education. Retrieved from
Psychology Major , Version 2. 0. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ed /precollege/ www.psychologicalliteracy.com
about /psymajor - guidelines.pdf Cranney, J., & Dunn, D. S. (Eds.) (2011a). The psychologically literate citizen: Foundations
Aronson, E. (2004). Reducing hostility and building compassion: Lessons from the jigsaw and global perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.
classroom. In A. G. Miller (Ed.), The social psychology of good and evil (pp. 469 -488). Cranney, J., & Dunn, D. S. (2011b). Psychological literacy and the psychologically literate
New York: Guilford Press. citizen: New frontiers for a global discipline. In J. Cranney and D. S. Dunn (Eds.), The
Australian Psychology Accrediation Council (2016). Proposed Accreditation Standards for psychologically literate citizen : Foundations and global perspectives (pp. 3 -12). New York:
Psychology. June. Retrieved from https:// www.psychologycouncil.org.au /Assets/ Files/ Oxford University Press.
_ _ _
APAC Consultation Paper 20160701.pdf Cranney, J., & Morris, S. (2011). Adaptive cognition and psychological literacy. In
Barrie, S. (2007). A research-based approach to generic graduate attribute policy. J. Cranney and D. S. Dunn (Eds.), The psychologically literate citizen : Foundations and
Higher Education Research & Development , 23, 261- 275. Retrieved from http://dx.doi. global perspectives (pp. 251-268). New York: Oxford University Press.
org/10.1080 / 0729436042000235391 Cranney, J., Turnbull, C., Provost, S. C., Martin, F., et al. (2009). Graduate attributes of
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Brown, A. S. (2004). The deja vu experience. New York: Psychology Press. Hayes, N. (1997). The distinctive skills ofa psychology graduate. Monitor on Psychology ,
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evolutionary psychology. American Psychologist, 64, 140 -148. Haynes, S. R., Cohen, M. A., & Ritter, F. E. (2009). Designs for explaining intelligent
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nature of social and biological approaches. Psychological Bulletin, 126 , 829 - 843. athletes, performing artists, business leaders, and professionals in high - risk occupations.
Castro, L., & Toro, M. A. (2004). The evolution of culture: From primate social learning Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Charlton, S., & Lymburner, J. (2011). Fostering psychologically literate citizens: A Kramer, G. P., Bernstein, D. A., & Phares, V. (2014). Introduction to clinical psychology.
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University Press.
Reference points for the design and delivery of degree programs in psychology.
Cohen, A. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64, 194-204. Retrieved from http:/ /www.efpa.eu /professional- development/tuning- europsy - - _
Confer, J. C., Easton, J. A., Fleischman, D. S., Goetz, C. D., et al. (2010). Evolutionary tuning- educational- structures -in - europe
psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations. American McGovern, T. V., Corey, L., Cranney, J., Dixon, W. E., etal. (2010). Psychologically
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Cooper, A., Gomez, R., & Buck, E. (2008). The relationships between the BIS and BAS, A blueprint for the future of the discipline (pp. 9 -27). Washington, DC: American
anger and responses to anger. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 403 - 413. Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12063- 001
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Morrissey, S. (2016). A collision of ideas, ideals, expectations and outcomes. Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2004). A history of modern psychology (8 th ed.). Fort
Invited address at the Australian Psychological Society Congress, Melbourne, Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace.
13 -16 September. Retrieved from https://events.psychology.org.au/ei/ Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross - cultural psychology : Critical thinking and
speakers/ 2016APSPresentations/5A_ShirleyMorrissey.PDF contemporary applications (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
NZ Ministry of Health. (2016). Health of the Health Workforce 2015. Wellington: Ministry Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2009). Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2 nd ed.).
of Health. New York: Oxford University Press.
O’Hare, L., & McGuiness, C. (2003). Skills and attributes developed by psychology Tannen, D. (2001). You just don’t understand: Women and men in conversation . New York:
undergraduates: Ratings by undergraduates, postgraduates, academic psychologists HarperCollins.
and professional practitioners. Psychology Learning and Teaching , 4, 35- 42.
Tannen, D. (2012). Turn- taking and intercultural discourse and ommunication
Powell, M. (2002). Specialist training in investigative and evidential interviewing: Is it (pp. 135 -137) . In Paulston, C. B., Kiesling, S. F., & Rangel, E. S. (2012). The Handbook
having any effect on the behaviour of professionals in the field? Psychiatry, Psychology
and Law, 9(1), 44 -55.
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Walker, L. E. (1991). The feminization of psychology. Psychology of Women : Newsletter of
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(Eds.), Handbook of Psychology in Legal Contexts. (2 nd ed.) John Wiley & Sons. Wang, Y. (2007). Cognitive informatics: Exploring the theoretical foundations for natural
intelligence, neural informatics, autonomic computing, and agent systems. International
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contemporary forensic psychology textbooks. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law , 10(1),
254-261. doi: 10.1375 /pplt.2003.10.1.254 Waterman, A. S. (2013). The humanistic psychology- positive psychology divide:
Contrasts in philosophical foundations. American Psychologist, 68(3), 124.
Psychology Board of Australia. (2016). Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.
Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20 ,
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158-177.
Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) for Higher Education. (2010). Subject Benchmark :
Watson, J. B. (1919). Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist. Philadelphia:
Psychology (3rd ed.). Retrieved from http:// www.qaa.ac.uk/en / Publications/
Documents/Subject - benchmark - statement -Psychology.pdf Lippincott.
Rickwood, D., Dudgeon, P., & Gridley, H. (2010). A history of psychology in Aboriginal Wilkowski, B. M., & Robinson, M. D. (2008). The cognitive basis of trait anger and
and Torres Strait Islander mental health. In N. Purdie, P. Dudgeon, & R. Walker reactive aggression: An integrative analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review,
(Eds.), Working together: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander mental health and wellbeing 12, 3 - 21.
principles and practice. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (2010). Positive clinical psychology: A new vision and strategy
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eating experiences in onset and cessation of meals. Evidence from the amnesic
syndrome. Psychological Science, 9, 392 -396.
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ANSWERS TO 'IN REVIEW ' AND 'TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE ' QUESTIONS
Introducing psychology
In review
A brief history of psychology
1 functional, behaviour; 2 psychoanalysis; 3 structuralism
Approaches to the science of psychology
1 behavioural; 2 evolutionary; 3 biological
Test your knowledge
1c, 2b, 3 a, 4a, 5a, 6c, 7d, 8b, 9 a, 10 c
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Chapter 2
BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
Before you read the next sentence, close your eyes and touch your nose. This task is easy, but it is not
simple. To get the job done, your brain used specific nerves to tell your eyelids to close. It used other nerves
to tell your hand to extend a finger and then sent a series of messages that moved your arm in just the right
direction until it received a message that your finger and your nose were in contact. This example illustrates
that everything you do - including how you feel and think - is based on some kind of biological activity in
your body, especially in your brain. This chapter tells the story of that activity, beginning with the neuron,
one of the body’s most basic biological units. We describe how neurons form systems capable of receiving and
processing information and translate it into behaviour, thoughts and biochemical changes.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
On completion of this chapter, you should be able to: 3.3 identify the functions of different divisions of the nervous
system and describe the research techniques used to
3.1 describe the organisation of the nervous system
investigate brain function
3.2 outline the processes involved in communication within
3.4 outline the chemistry of psychology: the role of
the nervous system
neurotransmitters and the endocrine system
3.5 outline the endocrine system.
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY
1 How can elite athletes and professional musicians create changes in the part of their brain that controls movement by
imagining practising their skilled movements?
2 Can differences between hormones in men and women account for some of the differences between the sexes?
3 Is it possible to show the neural foundations of specific thought processes and emotions, such as religious beliefs or
romantic love?
t CourseMateExpress Bring your learning to life with interactive study and exam preparation tools that support your textbook.
CourseMate Express includes quizzes, videos, concept maps and more.
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Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
You may laugh, children, but it is true. The dolphin had a servant,
who was also a dolphin, but of the family of the Globiceps. These are
so called because of their round heads, which look like the globes
used in the electric lighting of streets.
The young dolphin was playing in the water. He tried to attract
Pinocchio’s attention in many ways. He spouted water through the
hole which every dolphin has at the top of his head. He called to the
marionette. He smiled at the youngster. It was of no use. Pinocchio,
with his wooden nose in the air and his dough cap on one ear, would
not even turn his head.
“I wonder if he is deaf or blind?” the dolphin finally said, loudly
enough to be heard.
Pinocchio turned with a start.
“For your own benefit, I just wish to say that I am not now and never
have been deaf,” he said as haughtily as he could.
“Then why do you look at me in that fashion? And why don’t you
answer me?” was the reply.
“I am acting just as a gentleman should toward those who are
beneath him,” said Pinocchio.
“I don’t know which of us is the better of the two. All I do know is, that
my father was the richest inhabitant of the sea and that the other
dolphins considered him their king.”
“King?” mumbled Pinocchio, who knew himself to be the son of a
poor carpenter, earning so little that he never had a penny in his
pocket.
“But king or not, what does it matter? In this world we are all equal,
for we have all been created by God. Listen, my dear marionette.
Come here. As we are to travel such a long distance together, we
should be friends. Are you willing to be my friend?”
These pleasing words made Pinocchio see how stupid and how rude
he had been.
“Think of it! A fish (oh, no, I mean a sea animal) giving me lessons in
politeness!” Then turning to the dolphin, he said, “Yes, we shall be
friends. What is your name?”
“Marsovino. And yours?”
“Pinocchio.”
“A beautiful name. Come, shake hands.”
“Very willingly,” replied Pinocchio.
The good little animal stuck one of his fore fins out of the water for
Pinocchio to shake.
“And what is the tutor’s name?” said the boy of wood to the boy of
the sea.
“The tutor is a dolphin of the Tursio family, but I call him father. Is it
true that you are coming with us on our travels?”
“Yes,” said the marionette, proudly. “And I am able to teach you.”
“Teach me! That’s strange. How do you expect to teach me?”
“You will soon find out. You talk rather disrespectfully to me. I have
been in all the schools of the kingdom. And you? You probably have
never been on land for twenty-four hours.”
Marsovino looked at the marionette smilingly, but made no reply.
Pinocchio walked up and down with his hands in his pockets and his
hat at an angle of forty-five degrees, ruffling his feathers at the
brilliant remark he had made.
As soon as Tursio came near, Marsovino asked him if he were ready.
“Yes. Everything is finished,” was the reply. “Are you ready,
Pinocchio?”
“Yes. I am ready. Let us start.”
“Start? How? Do you mean to say that you are coming under the sea
with that suit?”
“Of course. It’s the only one I have.”
“A suit of paper! The very idea! Luckily I have prepared for this.
Here, Globicephalous,” he said to his servant, “give me that little suit
of ray leather,—the one I had you make this morning.”
“Splendid,” cried Pinocchio, clapping his hands. “Now I have a new
suit.”
Putting it on, he looked at himself in the water. Seeing how dark and
unbecoming it appeared, he turned to Tursio and said excitedly:
“I don’t want this. It is too ugly. I like my pretty flowered-paper one
better.”
“Your paper one Globicephalous will carry in his satchel for you.
Should you wear it in the water, it would be spoiled.”
“I want my pretty suit,” insisted Pinocchio. “If any one saw me in this
thing, he would ask me if I had been through the coal-hole.”
“But yours will be ruined if you wear it in the water, I tell you.”
“I want mine. I want mine,” wailed Pinocchio.
“Very well. Globicephalous, take the paper suit out of the traveling
bag and give it to the boy.”
The marionette turned, expecting to see an ordinary traveling bag.
Instead, he saw Globicephalous take an enormous oyster out of the
water.
“Isn’t that strange! Oyster shells for a traveling bag!”
“Strange? Why, what is strange about that?” asked Tursio.
“What is its name?” asked Pinocchio.
“That is the giant Tridacna. They are the largest oyster shells
known.”
“How large the animal inside must be,” observed Pinocchio, with a
yawn.
“Yes. It is very large, and also very beautiful. The center of the body
is a violet color dotted with black. Around this is a green border. At
the extreme edge the colors change from deepest to lightest blue.
Yes, indeed. It is very beautiful.”
“What a good meal it would make,” thought Pinocchio. His only wish
was for a good dinner, but in order to be polite he said, “Who would
ever think that there are such things under the sea!”
“Why, you have been in every school in the kingdom and don’t know
that?”
“Books on the subject you can find everywhere.”
Pinocchio bit his lips, but did not say a word. Quickly he dressed
himself again in his paper suit and declared himself ready to start.
“All right! Come along!” said the dolphin, stretching a fin out to help
Pinocchio along.
The marionette started to walk into the water. He had not gone far,
however, before his paper suit began to leave him. Hastening back
to the shore, he very meekly put on the ray-leather suit which
Globicephalous handed to him.
“Remember, my boy,” said Tursio, “that in this world of ours we must
think not only of the beauty but also of the usefulness of things. Also,
do not forget that a boy who never learns anything will never be
anything.”
“But I have learned much,” answered Pinocchio. “To prove this to
you, I can now tell you of what material this suit is made.”
“I have told you already. It is of ray leather. Do you know what a ray
is?”
“Surely I know. You may give it another name. Still, it must be that
white animal on four legs. You know. The one the shepherds shear
during some month or other.”
“Mercy!” cried Tursio. “You are talking about sheep. They give wool
to man.”
Pinocchio, without moving an eyelid, went on:
“Yes, that’s true. I have made a mistake. I should have said it is that
plant that bears round fruit, that when it opens....”
“Worse and worse,” interrupted the old dolphin. “What are you
talking of, anyway? That is the cotton plant. Marsovino, please
explain to this boy, who has read all the books in the world, what a
ray is.”
So Marsovino went on: “A ray is a fish, in shape like a large fan. It
has a very long tail, which it uses as a weapon.”
“To what class of fishes does it belong?” asked Pinocchio.
“It belongs to the same class as the lampreys, which look like
snakes, the torpedo,—”
“Be careful never to touch that fellow,” here interrupted Tursio.
“—the sawfish and the squaloids,—that is, the common shark and
the hammerhead.”
“The saw? The hammer?” observed Pinocchio. “If I find them, I must
keep them for my father. He is a carpenter, but so poor that he
seldom has money with which to buy tools.”
“Let us hope that you will never meet the saw, the terrible
hammerhead, or even the common shark,” said Tursio.
Pinocchio made no answer, but in his heart he kept thinking, “I am
very much afraid that the dolphins are teaching me, not I the
dolphins.”
Tursio then handed Pinocchio a small shell of very strange shape. It
looked like a helmet.
“Wear this, Pinocchio,” he said. “It will make a pretty cap for you.”
“It is very pretty. What is it?”
“It is a very rare shell.”
“But it is only one shell. Where is its mate?”
“It has none. It is a univalve. That means it has only one shell. The
tellines have two shells, and are therefore called bivalve. Another
kind looks like a box with a cover.”
“But does an animal live in there?”
“Of course. Every shell has its mollusk.”
“Mollusk?” repeated Pinocchio.
“Yes. The small animals that live in shells are called by that name.”
“They have a very soft body. By means of a member, called a foot,
they get such a strong hold on rocks that it is very hard to tear them
off.”
“Some mollusks have a strong golden-colored thread by which they
also hang to rocks. Why, people have even made cloth out of these
threads.”
Pinocchio cared little for all this explanation. He looked at himself in
the water, and was, after all, very much pleased with himself.
“This cap seems made for me,” he said. “Too bad I have no feather
for it.”
“Perhaps we shall find one on our journey,” laughed Tursio.
“Where will you get it? In the sea?”
“Yes, in the sea,” answered Tursio, in a tone which made the
impudent marionette almost believe him.
CHAPTER IV
“Well, children, let us hasten. If we talk so much,
the sun will rise and find us here. Come, Pinocchio!
Jump on my back and let us start.”
There was no need for Tursio to repeat his
command. In the twinkling of an eye, Pinocchio was
riding on the dolphin’s back, holding on tightly to the
dorsal fin.
“Gallop and gallop, my pretty horse,

Swiftly over the boundless sea.
Straight through the water take thy course,
Till my dear father again I see.”
“Gallop and gallop, my pretty horse,

Gallop away under the sea.
Swim to the south, and swim to the north,
Till my dear father again I see.”
So sang Pinocchio gleefully.

Tursio and his swimming companions, with a few shakes of their
strong tails, were soon far away from shore. This is not to be
wondered at, for dolphins are known to be very swift. Very soon
Pinocchio saw nothing but sea and sky. Always holding on tightly to
Tursio’s fin, he looked to the right and to the left; but nothing could
he see of his dear father.
“Hold fast, Pinocchio,” suddenly cried Tursio.
“All right, Mr. Tursio,” replied Pinocchio, but he could say no more.
For suddenly, with a great jump, the dolphin was under water.
What a moment for our poor wooden hero!
“Now I understand it all,” he thought. “This dolphin wants to get me
into the sea that he may eat me at his leisure. Oh, poor me! I shall
never again see the light of day.”
But marvel of marvels! He suddenly awoke to the fact that, instead of
drowning, he was breathing easily. Not only that, but he could
actually talk!
“This is strange,” said he. “I have always thought that people would
drown in the water.”
“And it is true,” answered the dolphin, “that men usually drown in the
sea. But I have given you the power to live under water. You see,
then, you have become a real amphibian.”
“A real what? What am I now?”
“An amphibian. That is, you have the power to live both in the air and
in the water.”
“But are there such animals?”
“Why, of course, child. Frogs, for example, which belong to the
Batrachia family. In the water they breathe with branchiæ, or gills,
and in the air with lungs. Usually, however, the name is given only to
those mammals that live in the water and move only with great
difficulty on the earth. To this class belong the seals and the sea
lions.”
“Well, then, I shall never drown.”
“No; and you will have a wonderful journey under the sea. Just hold
on to me, and I will carry you. Do not be afraid.”
“Afraid? Of course not. But I don’t like the darkness very much.”
“That is too bad. But the darkness will not last very long. You know, I
promised that we should make our journey by the light of the sun.
Wait awhile.”
Through the water Tursio went like an arrow, followed by Marsovino
and the servant.
Pinocchio, to gain courage, shut his eyes. When he opened them
again, wonder of wonders! Very near to him a large sun was moving
back and forth. It looked as if it were alive.
“The sun at the bottom of the sea!” yelled Pinocchio, frightened
almost to death. “Do you want me to believe that? You must be a
wizard playing tricks on me.”
“I am not a wizard, Pinocchio, and the sun is not a trick. It is nothing
more nor less than a fish.”
“I never heard of such a thing.”
“And you have been in all the schools of the kingdom! Marsovino,
please explain to this boy what a sunfish is.”
“The sunfish is so called because of the bright light that comes from
its body. When several of these fish are together, the sea looks as if
it were full of little, shining suns.”
As usual, Pinocchio was silent. He was beginning to think that even
dolphins knew more than he did.
Stretching out his hand, he touched a small fish that was passing by.
Another surprise! As soon as he touched it, it began to swell and
swell, until it was as round as a ball. And from this ball, countless
points began to stick out.
“Suddenly, with a Great Jump, the Dolphin was under the
Water.”
“Oh!” yelled Pinocchio again. “What is it this time?”
“It is only a globefish, my marionette. It is harmless, if you don’t
touch it.”
“But why should it turn into a balloon?”
“It does that to protect itself,” answered Tursio. “It is possible for the
globefish to do that, because it can take in a large quantity of air.
With bristles ready, it can then meet the attacks of other fish, as each
point is as sharp as a needle.”
“I never knew that before,” exclaimed Pinocchio, forgetting his
previous boast.
Tursio and Marsovino looked at each other and laughed.
CHAPTER V
The night passed without further adventure.
As soon as morning dawned, the four friends rose
to the surface. Our marionette was delighted to see
the sun again. The pure morning air, though,
reminded him that he was hungry. The day before,
if you remember, he had eaten very little.
“I should like something to eat,” he said in a weak
voice.
“Let us go to breakfast,” answered the dolphin. Gayly he dove into
the water, and led the party deep into the sea. After a short swim, he
stopped. But, unfortunately, the four friends found themselves in a
place where there were very few herring and salmon. These, you
know, are the dolphin’s favorite food.
The salmon is a fish that lives both in rivers and in seas. Like the
swallow, he looks for warm places in which to pass the winter. So, in
large numbers he migrates to the sea at that time of the year, and in
the spring he returns to the rivers.
“This morning our breakfast will be light,” observed Tursio,
swallowing three herring at once.
“I shall not eat anything. I don’t feel very well. Besides, salmon is the
only thing I can eat,” said Marsovino.
Tursio, wishing to please his pupil, started to swim toward two very
high rocks. They were so high that their tops stuck out of the water.
Very probably they were the base of an island in the middle of the
sea. But although he looked here, there, and everywhere, he could
find no salmon.
Globicephalous satisfied his hunger with three dozen herring and
half a bushel of smelts.
And Pinocchio? Pinocchio this time certainly did not suffer from lack
of food.
Tursio had shown him a large rock, attached to which were hundreds
of oysters. Some were of the size of a pinhead. Others were as large
as a boy’s cap, and these were two years old.
“Go and have your breakfast,” said Tursio.
“Must I eat those horrible-looking things?” asked Pinocchio.
“Open them and see what is inside,” was the reply.
“Pinocchio this Time certainly did not suffer from Lack of
Food.”
After Pinocchio had opened and eaten one, he no longer thought of
the looks of the oyster shells. He opened and ate so many, that it
was a wonder to Marsovino that so small a person could hold so
much.
Suddenly Pinocchio noticed numberless tiny, tiny white specks
coming out of some oysters. To him they looked like grains of sand.
But when he saw the specks moving and trying hard to attach
themselves to rocks, he could not help crying out, “O look at the live
sand, Tursio.”
“Who told you it is live sand?” asked Tursio. “Those are the newborn
oysters, looking for a place on which to spend their lives. Where
those small grains hang, there the oysters will live, grow, and die.”
“If no one gets them before that,” added Globicephalous.
“And are all those little dots oysters?”
“Yes. All of them. And many of them come from a single oyster, for
an oyster gives forth almost two millions of eggs at a time. These
little things have so many enemies, however, that very seldom do
more than ten of the millions grow old.”
“Two millions! Then I may eat all I want to,” continued Pinocchio,
unmercifully tearing away the poor oysters, young and old.
“Look, Pinocchio,” here called Tursio, pointing to a small fish, colored
with brilliant blues and reds. “That is the stickleback. You may have
heard that this fish makes a nest, as do birds. Also that the male, not
the female, takes care of the eggs.”
“Surely I have,” answered Pinocchio, seriously.
The stickleback seemed to be very much excited. He moved around
the nest he had made and watched it anxiously. The cause for this
was soon evident. A second stickleback made its appearance from
behind the rocks. At once the two engaged in a terrific struggle. They
bit each other, used their tails as weapons, and charged each other
viciously. During the battle they changed color—to a beautiful blue
mottled with silver.
Pinocchio was struck with wonder. “Look! Look! One is wounded....
He falls.... He dies!” he cried. “And look at the other. How quickly he
returns to the nest to guard the eggs!”
“But how is it,” here asked Marsovino, “that once I saw a stickleback
swallow one of his little ones?”
“If you had followed him, you would later have seen the small fish
come safely out of the large one’s mouth,” answered Tursio.
“‘Look! Look! One is Wounded.’”
“But why did the large one swallow the small one?” asked Pinocchio.
“Because the little one probably wanted to run away from the nest. It
was too soon, the little one was too young to take care of himself; so
the father took the only means he had to save the youngster from an
enemy,” patiently explained Tursio.
Just then a small fish attracted the dolphin’s attention.
“Boys,” he said, “do you see that tiny fish? It is called the pilot fish. It
is the shark’s most faithful friend. Wherever goes the shark, there
goes the pilot fish.”
“Now, Pinocchio,” he continued after a pause, “I shall leave you with
Globicephalous. Marsovino and I are going to pay a visit to the
dolphin Beluga, who is a great friend of mine. He usually lives in the
polar seas, but on account of his health, he has come to warmer
waters. We shall return this evening, if all be well. Meet us near
those two mountains which are so close together that they form a
gorge. You may take a walk with Globicephalous, but be sure to be
at that spot to-night.”
“I am ashamed to be seen with a servant,” began Pinocchio.
“You are a fine fellow,” answered Tursio, with sarcasm. “Do you
know what you should do? Buy a cloak of ignorance and a throne of
stupidity, and proclaim yourself King of False Pride of the Old and
the New World!”
With this remark Tursio turned to his pupil, and the two swam away.

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Psychology PSY1011/1022 A Custom

Edition (2nd Edition) Shruti Mujumdar

Psychology PSY 1011 / PSY 1022:

Author: Douglas A. Bernstein, Julie Ann Pooley, Lynne Cohen,

For product information and technology assistance,

Cengage Learning Australia

Cengage Learning New Zealand

Sectioni Psychology PSYion

Chapter ! Introducing Psychology 4

Chapter 2 Biological Aspects of Psychology 40

Chapter 3 Sensation and Perception 98

Chapter 4 Learning 178

Chapters Human Development 230

Chapter 6 Personality 304

Chapter 7 Culture and Psychology 350

Chapter 8 Indigenous Psychology 384

Section 2 Psychology PSYIO22

Chapter 9 Memory 434

Chapter 10 Psychological Disorders and Treatment 494

Chapter ii Social Cognition and Influence 594

1.1 THE WORLD OF PSYCHOLOGY:

FIGURE 1.1 Visualising brain activity

Science Photo Library /Zephyr

FIGURE 1.2 Husband and father- in- law

FIGURE 1.3 Where would you put a third eye?

Clinical, counselling, community and health psychology

Psychology and health education

Linking psychology and law

TABLE 1.1 Typical activities and work settings for psychologists

Work setting Typical activities

Linkages within psychology and beyond

CHAPTER 1 Introducing psychology

Does psychotherapy work ?

CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15

Links to other fields

TABLE 1.2 The role of memory in deciding when to eat

Meal 1 Finished (6 / 5) Partially eaten (7/ 6) Finished (7/2) Finished (7/3)

1.2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Wundt and the structuralism of Titchener

Wilhelm Wundt (1832 -1920 )

Freud and psychoanalysis

William James and functionalism

John B. Watson and behaviourism

To explain personality and

1.3 APPROACHES TO THE SCIENCE

The biological approach What can

FIGURE 1.5 What do you see?

The behavioural approach

The cognitive approach

The humanistic approach Cognitive

Check your understanding

1.4 HUMAN DIVERSITY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863 -1930 )

1.5 STUDYING AND WORKING IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychological literacy and the graduate

viii making valid and reliable measurements

Critical and creative thinking skills

Values and ethics in psychology

Communication and interpersonal skills

Integration and application

What skills will I develop?

Career and employment options

Registration and accreditation