‘The Instructions of Amenembat 1 ‘Teacbing of a Man for His Son Kemit Hymn tothe Nile M1, IV, and V 1g Papyrus ‘Turin CP Autobiographies and Correspondence Autobiography of Kbeti 1 First Intermediate Period Autobiography of Mentubotep Middle King Autobiograply of Bakenkbonsu New Kingdom New Kingdom New Kingdom New Kingdom Classical Authors Herodotus Late Period Diodorus of Si Prol ‘Theophrastus Ptolemaic Period Varro Ptolemaic Period Strabo Prolemaic and Roman Periods Ovid Roman Period Plutarch Roman Period 1 THE IMAGE OF THE CHILD AND THE PERCEPTION OF CHILDHOOD gyptian iconography is above all an expression of pi as a large number of codes and The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child in number of codes have more readi xl some of these features would gradually become em atic of the image of childhe‘The hand or index finger held to the mo If there is one gesture that is considered to be esp qualified by wo only one to uniquely characterize various iconographic dor the index finger to oe Fig. 2 Hieroglyph of a child with his hand raised to his mouth, ciated with this gesture— ‘Child—shows that it prin Fig, 1 Statue of child holding ture as particularly emblematic of the Egy his right fingertohis mouth. child, it is not a question of frequency, but ra it appears in every period, ;piction of the Child tothe: gh sign to have been chosen as the ‘Ai (Gg. 2). This isa particularly important fact that ed: apart from nudity, no other element in the representat such as the sidelock, or in its body language, such as hold Fig, 4 Ostracon depicting a young Fig. 3 Bronze statuette of the god Harpocrates with his finger raised to his mouth, her mouth. periods. Therefore, the gesture standing (fig, 5), while boys are usually seated, and have stocky legs (fg: 6). held to the mouth can be considered as a major distinguishing Whatever the gender or position, all hold a hand ot finger to the mouth. the depiction of the Egyptian child, Moreover, the gesture comes to This criterion is the only one that allows for the subject depicted to be ith the iconography of two important child-gods, Horus identified as a child. Despite the small number of examples found for this period, the only doubt in the child iconography concerns the choice of the iconography of royal children (fig. hand or index finger held to the mou If we disregard amulets and seal stones, which are very small media Hand or index finger? (Gigs a child’ hand or finger, “The iconography of the ‘Thinite Period holds evidence of an establish the depict finger appears in two-thirds of and specific imagery that is already stamped with precise stylistic e should be viewed with caution, because it was acquired from a small sample as regards the image of childhood: young girls are exclusively represen 0f 219 subjects from different periods. 12 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 13Fig. 6 Faience figurine ¢ of a seated boy. Fig. 7a-d Amulets, seal Fig, 5 Faience figurine of a stamp, and se: standing relief featuring children raised to her mouth. holding hand to mouth Fig. 9 Group statue in diorite. Exceptional ‘example in ronde-bosse showing a boy Egyptological literature regularly proposes that there with his let forefinger rised to his mouth the right hand or index finger held to the mouth. If we look ata bre of this gesture as.a function of the side depicted, we can see that this. case in two-thirds of examples from the Predynast Fig. 8 Hippopot e < of a small boy. pressed on his depending on the ‘sed —faience, common stones, or ivory. The serial the syml tettes and figurines could thus have been established for certain ex-votos" ;cumentation in the round o Aiscovered in the temples of Satet at Elephantine and Osiris at Abydk “The earliest origins of the meaning of this gesture should be looked for in the very sources of Egyptian iconography. Modern explanations that s (fg. 9). define this pose asa request to be silent are unfounded, since they are gen- ‘enilly based upon very late writings by Varro, Ovid, and Plutarch, which ate to the Peolemaic and Roman eras: against one single subject with the left finger against the ince of the gesture ite Period, statuettes and figurines of child primarily left as offerings in temples, were in all likelihood made in a ited number of centers specializing in a particular type of production, g who in Egypt are called Serapis and the recurrence of already established stylistic codes and the limited mater finger makes a sign to me to be q “The frst gods were Sky and Earth. These gos are the same as those , though Harpocrates with his The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood ‘The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 15and Harpocrates, the god who holds his tongue, and urges silence, even though itis st . isnot impossible thumb in mouth that the authors of later periods confused the hieroglyph of a seated man, with hand to mouth, with that of the seated child, the hand also held to the ‘And Harpocrates is not to be regarded as an imperfect and an infant ‘mouth , and so created a confusion between the symbolism invested in god, nor some deity or other that protects legumes, but 2s the rep- these two distinct signs. : resentative and corrector of unscasoned, imperfect, and inerticulate In the absence of any text contemporary with the periods of interest to reasoning about the gexls among mankind. For this reason he keeps 1s, itis useless to speculate about a pose which appears standard for chil- his finger on his lips in token of restrained speech or silence. dren but which in reality is not. Currently, with the available documents, it is difficult and risky to advance the slightest explanation, ‘These three authors only mention the finger to the mouth (the ha ignored) and link it uniquely with Harpoerates (fig. 3). Th The lock of gesture asa request for silence from the child-god, probabl In Egyptological literature, the handful of hair that falls behind or to one mysteries that must never be divulged. side of the head of the young is often termed the “sidelock of childhood” tion, which was current in later periods, has no connection wi ation is partly false in that the same feature is found o ‘who are hardly inclined to be reserved and silent, and it was certainly is preferable to talk of the “sidelock of youth’ initiated at the Thinite Period ® “The lock of hair appears in all periods of Egyptian iconography, One of the first mentions of this symbolic gesture is found in the although one might consider the unique attestation dated to the Thinite ‘Texts in which the god Horus is designaced as: Period asa hapa,” given that the object on which it appears is distinct from ‘other artifacts of its era and also of subsequent eras (ig. 12). ABED-1-hE Hr brd nbn dbtnf m taf “Horus, young child, his finger (being) on his mout much better with what the iconography shows us. Indeed, the gest the finger in the mouth is commonly adopted by the youngest: not by their elders, and yet this attitude is uniquely characteristic of viduals in these depictions who are beyond ear The dl Peeks a decline at the end of the Old Kingdom. In the New Kingdom : ing of adolescent very rarely associated with real or symbolic children. On the other ices an unprecedented popularity in depictions of royal chil and child-gods. Egypt, the gesture of the hand held to the mouth ‘encompass a variety of meanings: to cal, to recite, to show someone ing, to be silent, to eat, to drink, and even to show respect and admirati ‘However, the symbolism linked to children seems to be something 16 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 17Fig. 12 Wvory statuette of a child, His head is shaven except fora very long braid Depending on the period and the type of iconographic media, the posi of the hair lock on the head is not always the same (table 1). ‘Thus, the lock atthe ba , was very popular in the ‘Table 1. Attestations of the lock in children’s hair, by position on: head and by period Right Back Unknown? To ym—First Intermediate Period Old Kingdos Middle Kingdom—Second 25 9 41 11 i Intermediate Period New Kingdom 7 sates 2 ‘TOTAL 7 167136 4 “These eases are mentions in publistons of hair locks where the etc position isnt: 18 The Image ofthe Child and the Perception of Childhood this changes and sidclocks are the rule. However, these results should be qualified since on two-dimensional iconographic media, the position of the Jock depends on the orientation of the person featured. Ii always depicted at the back of the skall or on the visible side ofthe head. ‘While the results obtained forall types of iconographic media provide a rather mixed picture ofthe position ofthe lock on the head, three-dimen- documents give clear results: the right-hand side predominates and to the Roman era.” jved a young sub- lle Kingdom at Lahun, the infant roughly one year old. The hair was part of ‘Table 2, Attestations of the lock in children’s hair on 3-dimensional iconographic media by position on the head and by period Left Back Period Kingdom—First Tntermediate Period Middle Kinglom— 13S 0 19 Second Intermediate Period New Kingdom Boo3) (Oo 2 18 TOTAL S0vlia TANG! 2 6 ‘The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 19Fig. 14 Deposit of braided hair from, tomb at Abydos, wl with a spout, beads, a seash ld graves and thee able to determine whether the hair belonged to the dece bay and hus we cannot know iit heli the sa scovered in adult tombs. This type of deposi at Abydos, has been interpreter Emile deceased, since close examination of these somewhat particular gifts shown—when the deceased’ hair is preserved—that it was not from, cisely to the lock, is reflected st, Sh ISSA ‘The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood jast grown out of infancy. For an unknown reason, ba children are very rarely depicted in the iconography wi does not necessarily mean that they did not wear it in reality. sand very young lock, which, Comparisons with the symbolism of the lock in ancient and modern societies Because of the many cultural, geographic, and chronological differences, it propriate to overlay the symbolism of the hair lock as worn ea, Asia, and India, or even in certain interesting to see what is revealed and expressed by this hairdo, which is reserved in these societies for the young- st members of the community, just as Whether a true lock or just a bun the form of the hair lock, it systematically referred, 4 religious or communitarian concept. As an exampl the ages of three and five yea Jeaving on the very crown no enemy can cause health of the boy Bible with the hair of Samson. In eastern India, on the other hand, the hair Fig. 15 Young boy of the Himba tribe, wearing forelocks. The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 21that was thought to be endowed with sufficient importance for its re was the front." In Muslim societies, the lock of hair represents a religi notion: itis supposed to help the angel responsible for leading child paradise to seize them more easily.” This sort of tuft or forelock, wl style to Egyptian hairdos are ‘of the Himba people of Namibia (Bg. 15). When was the lock cut? In Egypt the custom of partially shaving a childs head is not just che act bygone civilization. Testimony from the end of the nineteenth and the ning of the twentieth centuries tells us of the survival of this practice a snnia. The ethnographer Winifred Blackman writes: the child's parents are Copts, or sometimes all the tufts are dedicated to one sheikh or saint Iam told that there is no special age for the hair to be cut in this way, but I believe itis always done have discovered, performs date of the performance seems to depend on whether the father can afford the expense that the ceremony entails, such expense in some parts of Upper Egypt being considerable. It has never been suggested to me that the ceremony takes place when the boy has reached the age of puberty. Indeed, as far as my own experience goes, removed long before that period was reached.” (On the other hand and during the same period, Nicole Hansen points a slightly different custom. jute money to the poor, with the intent from jinn and the evil eye. For example, couples whose’ sons repeatedly died made a vow to a local sn that if the son. 22 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood were closely lims, the act of shaving the childs scalp at a later mome effect, on the one hand, of extending protection a gers that threatened, and on the other of formally entering th the community at the moment of shaving. As for Herodotus’ passage, it shows of the vow, the the exception of a lock or two of hair, called a “horn,” which was left until the boy passed the age of danger, ‘up to ten years of age, or when they could afford to repay the vow, at which time it was shaved off and the vow paid. .. . In some places, a single lock of hair was let on the part of the head that presented itself firs at birth.” She also notes a Coptic ritual that was practiced until recently. ‘would leave a single lock of hair on a child's head uncut, the lock being dedicated to a particular saint. At the age of five or six, the bboy was taken to a monastery che hair cut off in front of a ure of yr kid was slaughtered, a quarter of the meat the chiles family. A variation the events ‘This custom of sacrificing an animal or offering money when the childs lock is shaved re Herodotus in the fifth century 3 to a certain extent, a practice recounted by various cities, when they have made a vow in the way which I will now explai ow they shave the head of the child, cutting off all the hair, or else half, or sometimes a third part, which they then weigh in a balance against a sum of silver; and whatever sum the hair weighs .d to the guardian of the animals, who thereupon cuts wwhereon they are fed. and Coptic testimonies show that the lock or locks of hait any possible 1, uring the Late Period, a ceremony was practiced during whi The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 23the lock of the child was ritually cut off. These three accounts are, ho should be wary of associating: them wit ‘undeniable that an ancient tradition connect perpetuated, whether or not the symbol nificance changed over the centuries. Aloose lock or braided plait? ‘The question as to how the chil the braided plait constitutes 98 percent of the cases I was able to between the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate Period, it falls 57.5 percent of cases in the Middle Kingdom and Second Intermed Period, and collapses to 3.5 percent in the New Kingdom. ‘This change should not be ascribed to a question of fasi worn up until chen by children does not disappear from phy. It becomes in the New Kingdom the privilege of chil n Fig, 17 Limestone-stele Horus the Younger, Khonsu (fig. 16), Shed, and Nefertus relief showing Ramesses Il ‘extent, of the royal offspri asa chid, He wears the right sidelock and presses his right forefinger tohis mouth connection with Hathor, itis not that in the New Kingdom its symbol have fused with that of the goddess, ing it a divine feature in its own right. could explain its sudden disappearance fi the hairdo of the ordinary child and its gr popularity with child-gods, Itisunanimously admitted that thew cant, whatever the civilization, the the country, the society, or the chronol period. Ancient Egypt is no exception, almost half of the children in the corpus dl bythe cidigedKhanau, have semble are depicted wth theo 24 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood ‘The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 25‘Table 3. Hair locks, braided or loose, by period Braid Loose Fe Period Old Kingdom—First Intermediate Period Middle Kingdom—Second Intermediate Period New Kingdom leat first glance. The father's staff held by the child ‘This gesture typical of the Old Kingdom is not solely characteristic child (fig. 19). It can also be seen with adolescents and sometimes adults. Nonetheless, since it involved one child in four, it is obvi strongly associated with the young of the Old Kingdom. ‘The staff held by the deceased was the symbol of his power his responsibility, and thus of his authority.” When held by both deceased and his offspring, it reflected the transmission of the fal legacy to his take on the responsibilty to watch over his pi and organize the funerary cult of the father. ‘The child is almost always placed in front of the deceased ag versus 7 behin the deceased. 2 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood Fig. 19 Tomb-wall relief of a boy holding his fathers stat. ‘The end of the Old Kingdom signaled the end of tis symbolic attitude for reasons that are still not understood, and it would not be replaced by a similar symbolic pose. The bird held by the child image of a child holding a bird can be seen from the Old is only characteristic of child ico- ography in the Old Kingdom (ig. 20). Ie is very rarely attested in subsequent periods, which might suggest that its original significance was lost over time. During the Old Kingdom, the figure of a child holding one or more tilly male (90 boys poes (46 cases), domes- and always places the chi of the deceased. Scenes featuring the simple represent next to his father tend to place more emphasis on the hoopoe than on other birds (61 percent of cases). There is a symbolism behind this, in that the hoopoe has a particular status and is invested with highly emblematic “The Distinguishing Signs of the Image of the Child 27‘The Depiction of “the Child” or of “a Cl Depending on the iconographic media the image ofthe child is not used in the same manner and thus does not transmit the same ideas. One can thus inguish, across the vast ensemble of child representations, those which Idren, and those which evoke the emblematic image of a person in the first stage of life. In the first group, the young subjects may or may not be identified. In the second, they are all anonymous, “The question of the child’ identity through his depiction and the role played by the image will be approached from three different angles: the ff the real child, that of the child-symby hat of the im representation of infants and very young ¢ allows us to better define the perception of the next age group. Images of a real child appear in two-thirds of all representations, that is 1,087 for whom statutory identification has been established (table 4) and thus predominate in an overall view of the data. “The identity status of real children is not always the sam holding a hoopoe. deliberately been left anonymous while others have been clea by name, sometimes accompanied with genealogical details. jome have identified ‘Anonymous children While in most instances the context or the choice of iconographic media inakes it possible to distinguish an anonymous but real child from a ‘Table 4. Identity status of children by period in in represen alone, in scenes showing the child with the father or posing with Real children_—syabol members, or eve Identified Anonymous Cl “Taxa daring a 7 Fi qaee more birds. Moreover, uring the Old Kingdom, holding one or more birds is alot less common for ad Old Kingdom—First 285 zi er children, and the men and women concerned almost always appear ee birds in offerings oF in hunting or fishing scenes, contexts where Middle Kingdom—Second 54 5 194283 would naturally come across such animals. Intermediate Period Under the Old Kingdom, birds in general and hoopoes in particular is “ cial hon undoubtedly associated with children, or perhaps more widely, wit TOTAL 534 533 4481535" hood. This symbolism is, however, restricted co this period, and it becomes obsolete thereafter for unknown reasons. Dee accaopeglcectan nition ofthe iconogeaphic medium. not been determined because ofthe 28 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood ‘The Depiction of “the Child” or of “a Child"? 29symbolic one, there are cases where itis not obvious or poss ‘Anonymity as a function of the child's gender? for example, with statuettes or figurines of child ‘The examination of anonymity as a function of gender is based on a sam- of young depicted on ostraca.* pling of 705 boys a ‘Table 6, Identity status of real children by gender and period 346 boys, 109 gi c . Sons of deceased half of the repres oung boys Anonymous Identified __ Anonymous aymity is not eve also vary accot . Thinite Period 1 0 0 Old Kingdom—First 103 214 88 Intermediate Pe Middle Kingdom—See- v7 29 2 ond Intermediate Period nt of view, the corpus 312 representations of subjects beyond eo casion 32 for the very yout TOTAL of the youngest infants, except for a single example (fig. 2 Daughters of deceased iberately left anonymous, whereas only half of the older boys and: earner =eaal identified. Young girls Anonymous __Identified __ Anonymous thus, the artistic traditions of the period did not require the ni “Thinite Period i) a of the very young offspring of the deceased, most probably because 7 65 4 had not yet acquired a true social status within the community, because their chances of survival were st their age shows Middle Kingdom—See- 7 4 3 ‘Table 5. Identity status of real children by age group and period “ond ncermediate Period Now Kingdom 2 98 6 Older children Infants TOTAL, 66 187 B Anonymous Identified Anonymous Identi ‘Thinite Period Old Kingdom —Fi Intermediate Period is indeed interesting to note that the anonymity of children of the 2s 284 6 deceased is proportionally greater for boys than for girls. Given that repre~ sentations of girls were less common than those of boys in th tothe New Kingdom, one might presume that this difference underlines Middle Kingdom— 31 54 4 {he importance ofthe representation ofa female child, a choice thats high- Second Intermediate lighted by the clear menti e name and in some cases the genealogy. Period ‘The anonymity of chi sed, as marked by the absence New Kingdom 25195 9 apace on ther ide ‘TOTAL 4533 59 associate them directly with the deceased. In this way, they were not com- 30 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The Depiction of "the Child” or of "a Child"? 31Fig. 21 Limestone | ostracon depicting No Anonymity asa function of the iconographic media? ‘we might wonder if anonymity depended on the type of i graphic medium. In order to answer: have based my : Fig, 23 Wooden statuette of a boy of unknown status. iconographic media (able 7) Wh ys a near-perfect balance between the of anonymous children on ostraca, statuettes, and figurines is extremely resentations of anonymous and identified children, the study by high. In contrast, anonymity of real children on stele is relatively low. medium reveals quite extreme ns. In effect, i ‘on monument walls (mainly ry according to the chosen medium. Thus, the pr tombs) are anonymous is primarily because a lange number of them were n to the deceased, and designed to add ‘Table 7. Identity status of real children according to the main ° not at al the ease of c iconographic media ee ee ee amma ference was to note this on the base, which ‘Wall carvings would complete the ict (fig. 22). In addition, the Stelae 65 186 objects is not clearly identified. Some of them display Game ma ag to series of ex-votos made between the Thi Statuettes and figurines 20 6 ake them unique and personal Ostraca 38 3 c of the features characterizing adult statuary is repeated ont a rs ‘on those of children, thus complicating our evaluation of the status of these objects. 32. The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The Depiction of "the Child” or of "@ Child"? 33Most ofthe images on ostraca were simply rough scribbles that rately displayed any link with the decease were related to moments in everyday ° area, Furthermore, the lack of available space could also have played a the fact that only three children have been identified on this type of me ren ae found in Fgyptian iconographic those who are clearly associated with a deceased person context, and thus are only partly anonymous; and those who are set ish the realism, or within ane episodes (ig. ity among the Egyptian young has po I but one of whom remain lered in the same manner ‘out the particular status of mous. They were quite clearly not elders, but rather on the edges of society and even of their family. In no deceased person depicted on the walls of his tomb, on a stele, a statuary group, has thought fit to represent at his side one of his spring in the very earliest stages of childhood. Within the ico schema of the ideal family, the privilege of appearing alongside the f Fig. 24 Tomb-wall 34 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood iren who had acquired a it minor, in the world of work sefore society. Although it woul estimate the ages f the children featured in the immediate entourage of the deceased, one nevertheless note that they are always relatively independent. cnfeation i i i we passed “The identification in Egyptian iconography of individuals who have passe¢ the stage of early infancy ean be determined by their name, which consti- “tutes their own identity, and/or through a genealogical designation which jon to different members of their family (parents, grand- 183 girls, and 2 children of indeterminate sex. As a me ificanty over genealogical designation sn who are identified by name are the sons and daughters of a deceased person (fig. 25). Proportionally speaking, boys and girls are considered in the same way and no discrimination or favorit- ism has been observed in this regard (fig. 26). fying the child by genealogi P ignation si is or her close rel- jenealogical designation situates the child in relation to hi atives. Ths is expressed in the iconography by a wide series of designations ‘logy of three of them is expressed ‘The Depiction of "the Child” or of "a Child"? 35which means “(born) of his flesh.” ‘This mention of paternity does not simply “express the blood ties that bind the son or daughter to his or her father, it formalizes and legitmizes the fathers 1’The power of the writing and of Fig. 26 Tomb-vall painting showing the deceased Amennakht worshiping {As for the genealogical designations ‘90d Re with his son, his daughters, and his granddaughter, teferring to the third generation, once 49 02.04 ond hs brothe gin we see male ascendancy over the jeyshiping the baboon-god Thoth line. This is not surprising, joned tombs, stelae, and group statues were the designation always comes with the name of the ¢ Pi weritage, and with prising that the ‘enduring beyond death, things that ents is the most poy e in ‘The designation of a child through relations with a brother or a iconography, and thus within a context where the remains very rare throughout the long history of Egyptian art (8g. 27). m1 next to the deceased is sufficient to indicate the par link that unites them. This relationship is further underlined by the Primogeniture as expressed by the epithet smswi.t) tion of a written mention stipulating the paternity of the child. This ‘The identity of a person in ancient “Fee ‘was expressed by individ further emphasized in some twenty examples by the epithet n h.t=f(n pame, and sometimes nicknam relation to other members Spe tithe fail eles, and funedons Inthe Old Kingdom, the mention of a ‘Table 8. Genealogical designation by generation and period Bere and perhaps the genealogical designation Sees andparents Siblings ‘on means of identifying the child. There was, however, a thi the mention of the firstborn could also determine the child’ place in rela- tion to siblings and thus officially indicate the heir to the deceased. Second Intermediate Period New Kingdom 119 15 6 ‘TOTAL 350 20 8 isnever applied to young children, 36 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood ‘The Depiction of “the Child” or of "a Child"?‘The term smsw(1) is attached to 48 boys and | girl and itis m ‘encountered on tomb walls (43 cases) than on group statues (6 cases) Given that these were the children of a deceased indi ‘ofa tomb or commissioner ofa piece of sculpture), the prevalence o firstborns is easily explained by the importance of designating by genealogy the heir who will take on the responsibilities of the in return be expected to look after the parents. The o of the successor of the fa mastaba of Akhethetep at Gi eldest daughter” (53.1=f smsw. and elsewhere as simply “his daug Furthermore, in certain cases the title of firstbom is found ated with two brothers, as, for example, nung Hema is also twice noted as “his Fig. 28a, b Scenes showing litle Neferet accompanying her father 38 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood ‘ho was indeed the firstborn, unless the boys were born of diferent mothers, in which case ‘ech would be the eldest of his ine. We should note that the term smsw() toes not refer to the eldest of all the children, bt to children of the same gender, This can be seen in the tomb of Akhethetep at Giza, ‘where young Hamuke is designated as “his (fig. 29), while his sister Neferet eldest daughter™ (fg. 28). 1eage, the eldest boy had more old age and potential case of the father’s premature the first representations on which of the ‘when they are featured on phic bottles (fig. 30) and smal statuary of reclining women (fig. 3 ‘More than two-thirds of them icted as emblems of childhood. Theit Tepresentation as real children is an uncommon occurrence in Egypt iconography. On the other h age of older children was widely ‘ue representation of an individual and state, The Child symbol: boy, girl, or asexual being? Representation of the Child appears at first sight to have focused largely ‘onan asexual being rather than on a boy or girl; however, this perception ‘The Depiction of "the Child” or of “a Child"? 39iconographic media its intrinsic nature have Fig. 30 Terracotta anthropomor- Fig. 31 Limestone small-seal Phic bottle showing a woman breastfeeding a baby. requires qualification. Under the label ‘must distinguish between those who were deliberately depicted as Fig. 35 Faience (for example, on amulets and seals) from those for whom it is not po Fa 30 Limestone smalisale sae Fig. 34 Wooden statu. aula nthe to determine the gender because of the poor state of preservation 6 ofa crouching child ante of ayoung gid, form of a chil image, or where the physical and morphological criteria do not a distinction to be made, or because i ‘On seals, the representations of the Child are expressed in depictions genealogical designation, In real i in three dimensions of a very young subject being breastfed by a w concerns only half the eases in or ofan older child in three dimensions or imprinted. This later is always 5 out of 246 subjects. seated and holds hand or index finger to the mouth. : the eyes of the ancient Egyptians, the Child is typic Seal stamps are also favored media for representations of the Child in through the image of an asexual being, ot sometimes as a boy. Female: its most stylized form, The subject is always depicted making the gesture of resentations were only very rarely used as symbols of childhood. hand to mouth, often rendered by placing a hand in front of the face. 40 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The Depiction of "the Child” or of "a Child"? 41their role is to bring about an expected birth of to pr whatever its age or gender. Their nature size necessitate a maximum stylization of the artifact. As a result, asi gesture character child status suffices, and once again it is the by her side inher arms Woman siting and breastfeeding a child Woman sitting with one or two children on her knees ‘Woman standing and carry fom her back ‘Woman standing on a base models of child statuettes and figurines \dhood stocky legs, left hand on a knee and right han lex finger held to the mi standing, left arm Anthropomorphic flasks, produced during the New Kingdom, also among the preferred iconographic media for expressing the of childhood. These little containers show a small chil 3s not been established certainty. [tis perhaps natural to see these modeled depictions as fa containers with a magical purpose, whose external shape was closely i to their actual contents. The eh ince milk was the main food of babies, iis logical Featured on this type of artifact. Other iconographic media display the child asa symbol only: Representations of adults in the guise of children The image of the child was not only used to represent real or sym subjects. It was also used, sometimes on tomb walls, stelae, group. 42. The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood duals. I wish to stress here that ced depictions of adults with a yout! and child statues, to depict adult foncept excludes the many that the subject being rep- 1e moment of depiction is the iccompanied by titles, even though doubt may linger itles that were perhaps granted to subjects having no yet reached adulthood. is observed almost exclusively under the Old King- sare very rare outside of this period. Is concerned are men, which can be explained ly underrepresented in arge proportion of the functions exerci the guise of cl ‘were important, often reflecting proximity to the king. Most of the time, a single title is indica given the general accumulation of posts of respor among the upper classes of society, one might imagine that not all the functions of the deceased's son were systematically laid out. Tt should also be noted that religious functions seem to have “The representation of an adult for an immediate visualization of the The Messages Conveyed by the Image of the Child ‘on any kind of iconographic medium anecdote or for some ography with symb Egyptians preferred for the depi emblematic of a real individual and for the The messages conveyed by the image of a real child “The choice of representing a real child in Egyptian iconography almost ife scenes on tomb walls and on toa specific patron are extremely rare ‘The Messages Conveyed by the Image of the Child 43group statues inventoried 63 family groups that feature or three children, which is very few the study. In addition, the m during the single period of the Old Kingdom. Despite ber of examples, some interesting elements appear. In the first pl since they had a greater chance of reaching adulthood than the very: and their potent ance between the sexes is much more re: same, depending on whether they had one or two children depicted the father. When there is only one c! or one of the potential successors. When there are two children, to depict the image of the ideal family, with a ba parents (fig. 36) and not up against only one deceased figure. known exception isthe group of the dwarf Seneb (fig. 37). The artist inst the rules, first by not placing the central seated position with both legs touching the floor but rat legged, and then by placing the two children in front of Seneb wl 44 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood Jegs of a conventional adult figure would be. In mony but and head of the household, the middle ofa f Fig. 37 Limestone group Fig. 38 Limestone ‘a family showing statue ofthe family of group statue of Nikara the deceased framed by the dwarf Seneb, surrounded by his wife despite the high infant mor inancient Egypt, fu ‘Thus, the statuary does not necessarily reflect ancient than three children are never featured at the same time. Tinixing the number of descendants at the sides of the deceased, as well as the decision to emphasize the male heir or to present a harmor position with girl and boy framing father or parents, springs primarily from socal and aesthetic choices. The image of the child on tomb wal The depicion of the deceased and/or the spouse accompanied by off spring in the funerary mural iconography of the Old Kingdom" echoes the image expressed by group statues, it go into detail here beca the children of the deceased are much more often depicted in the guise of ‘The Messages Conveyed by the Image of the Child 45leseents or young adults, both on mastaba walls and in fami Buc the principle remains the sme and the resus are more o es ich a case, it was the next older son who would the tasks of looking after the parents as they 1 parents as they aged and organi funcrary cult of the parent: henee the representations of father a a maximum of three determinative off in ldren on tomb the first case, it is primarily the symbolic balance and stylistic harm the group statue that are sou two children standing one on: side of the deceased or the couple, or three chi cgs of the couple. Thus the representation of the mn to ancient reality. The lack of bal ith any for was not considered logical that it be excluded from the The depiction of several children proclaimed the success deceased as head of a large family It also suggested that his old age bbe spent in favorable conditions, watched over by his own, This is case in present-day Egypt: hi ldren ensures a di From the moment the funerary cult was established, well-to-do of the Old Kingdom eonstandy wala in pe funerary roles that were expected of the eldest ‘The other main function of the ima 46 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood vas, however, not necessarily the eldest boy, perhaps for reasons we have previously mentioned. he predominance of the male in child representations is not just limited to a numerical superiority over girls. In group statues a scenes, father and son appear on their against only 3 percent for father and daughter. Mothers, secondary fig- ures in the tombs of their spouses, are much less often depicted alone vvith one or more of their children. On the rare occasions when they are shown with a single son or single daughter, it is the male child that predominates (I1 cases against a mere 3 where mother and daughter are closely associated). nography, the desire to emphasize the figure of the son, as nounced. The image of graphic sign. I indicates the paternal status ofthe deceased and est his hierarchical authority over an adult son who has been returned to the status ofa child in the image, image of the son thus fulfils a major role in tha tte deceased has an heir (whether he is the eldest orn ties, will guarantee the continuity oft low the father to gain immortal alongside the gods. The messages transmitted by the image of the child as symbol Several types of iconographic media were preferred for the representation of the Child in its most general state: seals, small-scale statuary, amulets, anthropomorphic flasks, and certain statuettes and figurines. All of these anifaets were designed and employed for two specific ends: to engender a birth and protect a child. Engendering fem: Seals, amulets, elements of small-scale statuary, figurines were, each in their own way, considered capable of bringing shout birth. Whether depicting a child on its own or as a suckling baby, seals had an undoubted magic value closely linked to the desire for a large family. André Wiese, author of a work on seal amulets, notes that administrative officials of the Middle Kingdom readily considered these artifacts as signs ofa desire to have a child. On the other hand, in a funerary context they were considered more as symbols of regener ‘The Messages Conveyed by the Image of the Child 47Amulets are the perfect example of objects that typical na symby apotropaic pen xd tothe cemeteries of these two sites. Thirty amulets in th! of children were found in the graves of women, four inthe tombs of, two others in the tombs of children at Most and a final example in the grave of an adolescent in the same necrop The intrinsic function of these objects thus appears very cleat i majority of cases: to ensure the of the deceased in the afterlife wrobably attest instead to a wis protective value was probably not as restricted is might suggest. ‘The symbolism of the c the same aims and desires. The series of “concubine” ig down, or seated reflect the concerns of the anufacture and the choice of valuable material might of the artifact, though itis impossible Lastly, of these artifuets gestures would tend to confirm this supposition. The significance figurines discovered in a funerary context is trickier to given the small Protecting the chi ‘The second symbolic function conveyed by the image of the expressed by some amulets, anthropomorphie flasks, and certain st connected directly to the protection of areal subject through art 48. The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood produced. Representations of very young children on anthropo~ losely connected to certain protective ith to a y of ills. Thus they hold an apotropaic salve designed to protect a child. One might wonder if the baby featured ‘on these flasks is not an evocation of the god Horus the Younger, since he is repeatedly invoked in magic spells” aimed at curing sick children using thetic magic.” =" hat these symbolic representations express is directed atthe protection of the child that is coming or already born, The Perception of the Child in Writing Hieroglyphic writing is the transcription of the E; tneans of pictograms that translate sounds, words, and ideas or specify the sense ofa word. (In this last cas pphis silent ands placed at the ception that Egyptians had for al : hid is no exception to this rle, and the codes that characterize the sign inform us as to how adults considered the youngest. ygraphical choice to designate children, shows us how adults per= other arm hanging but Less commonly, the ‘one arm bent and the hand to down to one side of the body (fig. 39). Sor Fig. 39 Temple-wall hollow relief 44) 9 the hieroglyph for “ ‘Seana The Perception of the Child in Writing 49‘The first thing to note is that the only characteristic of childhood: the mouth, The lock of youth, so often present in the image of the ch f the relative size of jensions of hier of the space and aesthetics with quadrate blocks" and) As we have previously seen in the sect of hand or finger to mouth, this sym ‘or equated with that of the man also holding a hand to the mouth significance of which is related to what is going into or coming out mouth. This determinativ words such as “eat ; ‘The second characteristic of the hieroglyph of the subject: ih variant form. This position contrasts with the standing indi good reason: one un the sme he infant, and the older child is a creature that is not yet capable of standing upright. This expresses dependence on the adult, emphasized by the choi m that is depicted: the chi god, who sit with their b tting almost at 90 degre the knees of an adult, ust che determinative hieroglyph used for words et nurse,” and for : expression “take highs: €2. This position was also sen for the determinative found at the end of words like “feed (a d and “educate”: #1 ‘The Egyptians chose a unique and distinctive sign for the child—the cone to be strictly associated with children in the iconography—and a specific position which distinguishes ie from hierogh diately reflecting the dependent condition of the child. In —s the hieroglyphs for man ¥# and for woman ‘was no hieroglyph in ancient Egypt that distinguished git “Sic of oe in wring tx ented toneen he any more than it was between very young d concerned. In and in others, ‘The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The terms designating the ‘The reality of the child in ancient Egypt and the definition that might apply to him or her are still difficult to grasp for several reasons. The first arises from the fact tha iconography, apart from the hand or finger tomouth, all the other codes and stylistic conventions can also be foun: ° in identifying the status of certain depict No clarification ‘ean be expected from archaeological funerary do jon. In contrast to other civilizations, such as those of ancient Italy or Greece, where the nature of certain objects placed in the tomb (especially toys) can determine the age group of children and possibly their sex, none of this it Egypt. With a very few rare exceptions, grave goods ctween the funerary goods of an adh those of a equally rare are the indie tate the sexual identification of the deceased. The same vagueness is found in the lexicographical data: no fewer than thirteen terms have currently been recorded to designate the “child,” to which we can add three more words to distinguish royal children and/or child gods (table 9). Having so many words to refer only to the child as a young individual is of course odd: ind they can also be is gives rise to confusi on of certain passages. Sometimes the use of several of th terms in the same context ean allow for some cross-referencing and toestablish differences While various morphological criteria of the anatomy of children ich as chubby limbs and rounded tummy, consti- tute distinctive phy hey do not characterize depictions of F; size, which is always smaller y the fact that the image of the chil above all reflect certain symbolic codes. Faithful representation was of secondary importance. Most of the time, the aim was jn a setting that would express a specific message. jgraphic vagueness that existed in all eras between chil- .dolescents also demonstrates that in the minds of Egyptians a very clear separation between adults, on the one hand, cents, on the other. This impreci ry wide range of terms for \d, a good number of which could designate both a child and an adolescent. The Perception of the Child in Writing 51‘Table 9."Terms used to designate the child Hieroglyphic term ‘Transl Translation Eglpsite ct ‘Tous eer eae: be in royal circles dba a 2 small child, especially in royal and Give ices oa a in divine crles =A6 mmo’ young, adolescent rea child, onlyin royal and divine circles Hea fLa stu) child, ge ZA nhn(y’ from newborn to young man j-RA we child JSA Jon( from baby to man SA fird’ child of every age group eA ma b(oinj? small child e chil, pupil Ma oo = ("from smal child to ada man uj” lle one; bu seldom wsed for hl 52 The Image of the Child and the Perception of Childhood The Perception of the Child in Writing 53