1

INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
The word 'computer' comes from the word 'compute' which means ‘to calculate’. Computer can
perform calculations with accuracy, beyond human reach.
In basic terms, computer is an electronic device that processes data, convert it into information
which is useful to people. Any computer regardless of its type, is controlled by programmed
instructions, which give the machine a purpose and tell it what to do. A computer system is a
collection of hardware and software components designed to provide an effective tool for
computation.
A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce results, and
store the results for future use.
A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process, and retrieve data
whenever desired.
The activity of processing data using a computer is called data processing.
Data is raw material used as input and information is processed data obtained as output of data
processing
Data

Capture Data

Manipulate Data

Output Data

Information
Figure 1.1 how computer converts data into information
To process data into information, a computer uses hardware and software. Hardware is the
electric, electronic, and mechanical equipment that makes up a computer. Software is the series
of instructions that tells the hardware how to perform tasks.
Hardware components include Input devices that allow a user to enter data and instructions into
a computer. Commonly used input devices are the keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, digital
camera, and PC camera.
Hardware components also include output device that can convey information to a user.
Commonly used output devices are a printer, a monitor and speakers.
The system unit is a box-like case made from metal or plastic that protects the internal electronic
components of the computer from damage. The system unit contains the central processing unit,
memory etc.
The central processing unit (CPU) is often called as the brain of the computer because it is
designed to process data and perform calculation. The number of instructions carried out by the
CPU in one second is used to calculate the speed of that computer. That speed of the computer is
calculated in Hertz. Nowadays the speed of the computer is in gigahertz (GHz), which is equal
to 1,000,000 times Hertz. Every type of computer whether it is small or large must have a
processor/CPU within it. A normal desktop computer can execute an instruction in time less
than 1/millionth of a second whereas a supercomputer (which is fastest of all the computers) can
execute an instruction in less than 1/billionth of a second.
Memory is a holding place for data and instructions. A storage device records and retrieves data
to and from a storage medium.
1.1.1 Block Diagram of Computer and Operations Performed by Computer (figure 1.1)

Storage Unit

Secondary
Storage
Input Output
Unit Unit
Primary
Storage
Program Information
and Data (Result)
Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
Instructions and Data
Arithmetic
Logic Unit
Indicates Control
by Control Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Figure 1.2 Block Diagram of Computer System

Before proceeding further, we shall be aware of the fact that, Computer understands binary i.e. 0’s
and 1’s language which is also called as Low Level Language (LLL) and human being understands
English Like Languages, also called as High level Language (HLL).

1.1.2 Operations Performed by Computer:

There are five basic units of a computer system, which are as follows:
1. Input 4. Output
2. Storage 5. Controlling
3. Processing
These operations are performed by different units of computer. Let us understand, how these
units perform these operations.
1. Input Unit:
Input unit links the external environment with the computer system. Computer cannot perform
anything unless it is instructed to do something. The instructions and data must be entered into the
computer before performing any operation. These instructions data can be entered through input
devices like Keyboard, mouse etc. Input Unit performs the following function:
1. It accepts data or instructions from external world.
2. It convert these instructions and data in computer acceptable form (LLL).
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer for further processing.
Keyboard is one of the input devices which is used to enter text, numbers and many more symbols
and commands into the computer system. Keyboard comes in many styles or layouts.
2. Output Unit:
Output unit links the computer with the external world.
This unit takes care of receiving processed information from processing unit and present it to the
user in suitable (Human Understandable) form. The devices that can output information from
computer are known as output devices. Monitors, Speakers, Projectors are soft copy output
devices whereas printers, plotters produce hard copy output devices.
Softcopy output is something that is temporary or is available only as long as output device is
turned on. E.g. the Output which person gets on the monitor only when the monitor is turned on.
Contrary to these, the output which is permanent, is provided by Hard Copy Output Devices. E.g.
the printout on a paper is not lost when the printer is turned off.
A computer prepares results in binary code. Output unit convert these results into human
acceptable form. In short, it perform the following functions.
1. It accepts the results produced by the computer.
2. It convert these coded results to human acceptable form.
3. It supplies the converted results to the outside world.
3. Storage Unit:
Before actual processing starts, data & instructions entered to the computer must be stored
somewhere inside the computer. Similarly, results produced by the computer are required to be
stored before these are passed to the output unit. The intermediate results produced by the computer
must also be stored for further processing. Thus, the importance of storage unit in a computer
system is vital. Based on whether storage device is inside the main machine or not, it can be
internal or external storage. Similarly, looking at whether the storage device works close to CPU
or works as backup media, they can be primary storage or secondary storage.
Primary storage is also called primary memory. Secondary storage is known with other names
such as backup storage or secondary memory.
For the storage purpose, a computer system may have different devices such as registers, cache,
RAM/ROM, flash, magnetic disks and optical disks. CPU directly operates on the data stored in
Primary Memory.
In short, the main operations which are performed by storage unit are:
1. It stores all the data to be processed.
2. It stores intermediate results.
3. It stores results which are to be passed to an output device.
4. Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU):
This unit performs the arithmetic and logical operations on the stored data. The data is transferred
from the memory unit to the arithmetic logical section where it is processed and then returns back
to memory unit. Intermediate results are also transferred back to the ALU for the final processing.
Before the completion of processing, data may be transferred back and forth several times between
these two sections. Subsequently the results are transferred from storage unit to output unit.
Looking at the diagram given below, Register is a storage unit which works close to CPU. Control
Signals can be used to control the overall working of ALU. Flags can be set to 1 or 0 to perform
various arithmetic and logical operations by the ALU. Data on which operations are to be
performed by the ALU, can be passed through Input Registers. Contrary to these, Output
Registers can be used to store the results generated by ALU. Instead of having individual registers
for performing the micro-operations (Operations performed on the data Stored in Registers are
Called as Micro-Operations), computer system provides several other registers connected to a
common unit called as Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU). ALU performs the given micro-operation
and then transfers result to the destination register.

Control Signals Flags

ALU

Input Registers Resulting Register

Figure 1.3 ALU

An ALU performs basic arithmetic and logic operations. Examples of arithmetic operations are
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Examples of logic operations are NOT, AND,
and OR. Number of arithmetic & logical operation that a computer can perform is determined by
its design.

Note: Before we study Control Unit, we shall know that what is an Instruction and what is a
Program.
An Instruction is a statement written in some language to tell computer, “What to do”.
A Program is a set of Instructions. (Group of Instructions). Set of Programs is known as Software.
5. Control Unit:
This unit checks the correctness of “sequence of operations”. It fetches the instructions from
memory unit, interpret them, and ensures correct execution of the program. It also controls the
input/output devices and directs the overall functioning of the other units of the computer.
ALU does not know “what should be done with the data”, likewise output unit does not know
“when the result should be displayed”. This is CU which controls all these. CU maintains the
sequence and direct the operations of the entire system. CU doesn’t perform any actual processing
on data, yet it is known as a central nervous system of the computer. It manages and co-ordinates
the entire system. In Short, Various functions of CU are: -
1. Coordinating and controlling various parts of computer system such as main memory,
arithmetic logical unit and peripheral devices.
2. Controlling transfer of data to, from and within the working storage.
3. Retrieving and decoding program instructions from the internal storage, in their correct
sequences, interpret these instructions and tell the computer to execute these instructions.
4. Connecting the required circuits to enable the arithmetic unit to process the data in storage
or as specified by the program.
5. Control the activities of all units of computer by using appropriate control signals.
6. Store results in the CPU memory.
7. Determine the location of the next instruction to be retrieved.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) is composed of above two components i.e. ALU and CU

ALU CU CPU

Figure 1.4 CPU

CPU is the brain of a computer system. It performs all major calculations and comparisons. It
activates and controls the operations of other units of a computer system

1.2 COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Various components of a computer system can be categorized into hardware and software
components. Computer hardware is any physical device, something that you can touch. For
example, the “computer monitor” which you use to read the text displayed on it and the “mouse”
you use to navigate a web page are hardware. Software is a collection of instructions (code)
installed in the computer and cannot be touched. For example, The “Internet browser” (e.g.:
Chrome) that allows you to visit a website (e.g.: www.facebook.com) and the operating system
(e.g.: windows, android) on which the browser runs are software.

1.2.1 Hardware
All physical contents of computer are hardware. This include all electrical and mechanical devices
attached to the computer to serve the purpose of input, process, store and output operations.
Primary Hardware is the CPU and its other units i.e. circuits and IC's. Secondary Hardware is
the memory or storage area of computer.
Various Hardware Components which resides inside the computer are:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): It is the heart of computer. (Figure 1.1)
 Arithmetic Logical Unit: Discussed in Section 1.1
 Control Unit: - Discussed in Section 1.1
 Keyboard: This is an input device which is used to input the data into the computer. (Will be
discussed in Section 1.9)
 Mouse: This is also an input device which is used to input the data into the computer. (Will
be discussed in Section 1.9)
 Monitor: This is an output device which is used to show the results to user. There are varieties
of monitors available in the market such as CRT, LCD, TFT etc. (Will be discussed in Section
1.9)
 Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS): This is an electronic device which is used to manage
the power supply of computer.
 Hard Disk (HDD): This is used to store massive amount of data. There are many types of
HDD available in the market, i.e. SATA, PATA, External HDD, and Internal HDD.
 Printer: This is an output device which is used to show results on the paper. There are various
types of printers available in the market like inkjet, Laser printer, dot matrix printer etc. (Will
be discussed in Section 1.9)
 Universal Serial Bus (USB): This is used to connect the external devices to the computer.
 Ethernet Cable: This is used to connect computer with another computer or with internet.
 CD/DVD ROM: A Secondary Storage Unit, used to store data for Backup.
 Speaker: An output device used to listen voice, songs, etc.
 Mike: An Input device used to record sound.
 Random Access Memory (RAM): This is called primary memory or main memory. Data
written in this memory is lost when the system is switched off.
 Read Only Memory (ROM): This is called primary memory. Data is written in this memory
by the vendor (Manufacturer) of the computer.
 Pen Drive: A popular storage device these days used to carry data on move.
 Blue Ray Disk: This is same as CD/DVD but with more space to store data on it.
 Scanner: An input device used to scan the document to keep its soft copy. (Will be discussed
in Section 1.9)
 LCD: It is known as Liquid Crystal Display. It is a type of monitor. (Will be discussed in
Section 1.9)
 Motherboard: This is a combination of electronic circuits. This board contain various ports
(holes) where rest of the components like RAM, CPU and HDD etc. fits in.
  Sound Card: A sound card is an expansion component that is also referred to as a soundboard,
audio output device, or audio card. It offers audio input and output capabilities in computers,
which can be heard with the help of speakers or headphones. Although it is not necessary for
the computer to have a sound card, every machine includes it as either built into the
motherboard (onboard) or in an expansion slot.
 Graphics Card: Graphics card is a hardware which is used to increase the video memory of a
computer, and make its display quality more high-definition. It makes the computer more
powerful and gives it the capacity to do more high-level works. The quality of the image
depends on the quality of the graphics card. It is very much important for gaming and video
editing on a PC.

1.2.2 Computer Software

Software is a general term used for “set of computer Programs”. A computer program is a planned,
step by step set of instructions that directs the computer “what to do” and “how to do”.

Types of Software
Various types of software are:
A. System Software
The programs directly related to the computer hardware and perform tasks associated with
controlling and utilizing computer hardware are known as system software. System software does
not solve a specific problem for the user rather it helps to solve a problem. This is special type of
software which is responsible for handling the whole computer system. System software consists
of the programs that control the operations of a computer and its devices.
System softwares are given below:
i) Operating System
Without operating system a computer cannot do anything useful. A user cannot communicate
directly with the computer hardware, so the operating system acts as an intermediary between user
of a computer and the computer hardware.
Operating systems are the most important system softwares. Operating system (e.g.: windows,
android) is a set of programs that control and supervises the hardware of a computer and provides
services to application softwares (e.g.: MS Word, Music Player App installed on Android),
programmers and users of computer.
The primary goal of an operating system is to make the computer convenient to use. The
secondary goal is to use the computer efficiently.
Some important tasks of an operating system are managing the resources of the computer such
as Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, disk drives, printer and running user programs.
Every type of computer has its own operating system. Operating system for mainframe and other
large computers are very complex since they must keep track of several programs from several
users, all running in the same time frame.
Following are some of the popular operating systems used in personal computers: DOS, Windows,
UNIX, Lanus, Solaris, etc.
Types of Operating Systems

(a) Batch Operating System

In Batch operating system, access is given to more than one person; they submit their respective
jobs to the system for the execution. The system put all of the jobs in a queue on the basis of first
come first serve and then executes the jobs one by one. The users collect their respective output
when all the jobs get executed. The purpose of this operating system was mainly to transfer control
from one job to another as soon as the job was completed. It contained a small set of programs
called the resident monitor that always resided in one part of the main memory. The remaining
part is used for servicing jobs.

(b) Multiprogramming Operating System

Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU is always kept busy. Each
process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time. In a multiprogramming
environment, when a process does its I/O, The CPU can start the execution of other processes.
Therefore, multiprogramming improves the efficiency of the system.

(c) Multiprocessing Operating System

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. There are more than one processors present in
the system which can execute more than one process at the same time. This will increase the
throughput of the system.

(d) Multitasking Operating System

The multitasking operating system is a logical extension of a multiprogramming system that
enables multiple programs simultaneously. It allows a user to perform more than one computer
task at the same time.

(e) Network Operating System

An Operating system, which includes software and associated protocols to communicate with other
computers via a network conveniently and cost-effectively, is called Network Operating System.

(f) Real Time Operating System

In Real-Time Systems, each job carries a certain deadline within which the job is supposed to be
completed, otherwise, the huge loss will be there, or even if the result is produced, it will be
completely useless.

(g) Time-Sharing Operating System

In the Time Sharing operating system, computer resources are allocated in a time-dependent
fashion to several programs simultaneously. Thus it helps to provide a large number of user's direct
access to the main computer. It is a logical extension of multiprogramming. In time-sharing, the
CPU is switched among multiple programs given by different users on a scheduled basis.
(h) Distributed Operating System
The Distributed Operating system is not installed on a single machine, it is divided into parts, and
these parts are loaded on different machines. A part of the distributed Operating system is installed
on each machine to make their communication possible. Distributed Operating systems are much
more complex, large, and sophisticated than Network operating systems because they also have to
take care of varying networking protocols.

ii) Utility Software

These are programs that users can purchase as separate products to perform a wide range of
functions. Some examples are PC-Tools, Scan Disk, Norton Disk Doctor (NDD), and Anti-virus.
Some utilities are bundled with the operating system.
iii) Language Translators
Computer does not understands a programming language (HLL), it only understands the machine
language or binary language (LLL). A program must be translated into machine language before
the machine can execute it. Language translators are used for this purpose. These can be
assemblers, interpreters and compilers.
(a)Interpreter: -
An interpreter translates and executes each program statement one at a time. After execution,
the translation of a statement is removed from memory and next statement is loaded for
translation. Translation is required if program is executed again. Therefore, interpreter has
limitations that it forgets translation after execution of a statement. Interpreters are suitable
for short programs developed by beginners to programming. GWBASIC is an interpreter for
BASIC language programs.
(b)Compiler: -
Compilers translate the whole program at a time and store their translated program (binary
code) on the disk. The original program is called "Source Program" while its translated version
is called "Object Program".
(c) Assembler: -
Assembler is a language translator for a middle-level programming language called
"Assembly language". Assembly language is a Symbolic language. The symbols used in
assembly language are called as Pneumonic. E.g. of pneumonic are ADD, DIV for addition
and division respectively.
iv) Editors
Editors allow a user to type-in a program, generate text and make modifications whenever
necessary. A program is first written in an editor and then compiled. It is possible that the
compiler of any language has its own editor for writing programs.

B. Application Softwares
An application is a job or task which a user wants to accomplish through computer. Application
Software is a special type of software used to solve a problem. Popular application softwares
include word processing software (used to write documents), spreadsheet software (used to
perform operations on tabular data), database software (used to store and organise database), and
presentation software (used to prepare presentations).

Types of Application softwares based on the span of usage

i) General Purpose Application Softwares
These are called package software or commercial software. Single software can be applied to a
wide variety of tasks. By using such software, a user can fulfill his or her general needs.
General purpose softwares include MS Office, Corel Draw, Page maker, Adobe Photo shop, etc.
(ii) Special Purpose Application Softwares
Software that is designed to perform a specific task is known as special purpose application
software. This is also called as Custom software. It can perform only one task for which it is
designed. Custom software to perform the tasks of a large organization may be extremely
complex and takes lot of time to develop.
For example, Software to process inventory control, software to maintain Bank Accounts,
software used in Airline Booking System, etc.

Types of Application Software Based on Shareability and Availability

i) Freeware
As the name indicates, it is available free of cost. You can download freeware application
software from the Internet and use it without any fee. However, this software does not allow you
to modify it or charge a fee for distributing it. Adobe PDF, Mozilla Firefox, and Google Chrome
are good examples of this type of application software.
ii) Shareware
This is distributed freely to the users on a trial basis, usually with a limited time offer. The users
are expected to pay if they want to continue to use this application software. Some examples of
shareware are WinZip, SnapTouch, and Adobe Acrobat.
iii) Open source
This type of application software is available along with the source code that allows you to
modify the software, and even add features to the software. These could either be free or paid.
Moodle and Apache Web Server are examples of open-source application software.
iv) Closed source
Most of the application software packages that you use belong to this category. These are
usually chargeable and have intellectual property rights or patents over the source code. It usually
comes with restricted use. Examples include Microsoft Windows, Adobe Flash Player, WinRAR,
mac OS, etc.

Here is a more detailed guide to various application softwares.

1. Word processors
2. Graphics software
3. Database software
4. Spreadsheet software
5. Presentation software
6. Web browsers
7. Enterprise software
8. Information worker software
9. Multimedia software
10. Education and reference software
11. Content access software
1. Presentation software
Presentation is a type of application software that enables you to represent your thoughts and
ideas with ease and clarity by using visual information. It lets you display the information in the
form of slides. You can make your slide more informative and engrossing by adding text, images,
graphs, and videos.
2. Web browsers
Web browsers are application software used to browse the internet for locating and retrieving
data across the web. The most popular web browsers are Google Chrome and Internet Explorer.
Other examples of browsers include Firefox, MS Edge, Safari, etc.
3. Multimedia software
Multimedia application software lets you create or record images, and create audio or video
files. This software is extensively used in animation, graphics, image, and video editing. Popular
examples are VLC media player and Windows media player.
4. Education and reference software
This application software, also termed as academic software, is specifically designed to
facilitate learning of a particular subject. Various kinds of tutorial software are included in this
category. Some of these are JumpStart, MindPlay, Moodle, and KidPix.
5. Graphics software
Graphics application software allows you to edit or make changes in visual data or images. It
comprises illustration and picture editor software. Adobe Photoshop and PaintShop Pro are a few
examples of graphics software.
6. Spreadsheet software
Spreadsheet application software is used to perform calculations. In this software, data is stored
in a table format. It allows the users to provide formulas and functions to perform calculations.
Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets are examples of spreadsheet software.
7. Database software
Database application software is used to create and manage a database. Also known as a DBMS
(Database Management System), it helps you organize your data. So, when you run an
application, data is fetched from the database, modified, and is stored back in the database.
Oracle, MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, PostgreSQL, MongoDB, and IBM Db2 are some of the
popular databases.
 8. Word processing software
Word processing application software is used to format and manipulate text, thus, creating
memos, letters, faxes, and documents. Word processing software is also used to format and
beautify the text. It provides you a whole lot of features, including thesaurus, synonyms and
antonyms. Along with Word Art features, the font option lets you change font colour, effect, and
style as per your choice. Grammar and spell check options are also available to check for errors.
Leading examples include G Doc and Microsoft Word Doc.
9. Simulation software
Simulation application software is used in the fields of military engineering, practical education
in certain industries, machinery testing, industrial training, video games, etc. It is used where
work on the actual system or physical environment can be hazardous. It is a program that lets
you study or observe an operation, or phenomenon through simulation without actually doing
that operation. The best examples of simulation are in the field of robotics, flight systems, and
weather forecast, etc.

1.3 USES OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

A computer is an electronic device that executes certain actions through user-based commands.
Computers are used in every walk of life to assist us in various tasks we perform. The wide
availability of internet has enhanced the use of computer for information sharing and
communication. A Computer system allows us to store, process and display and communicate
information. Let's look at various uses of computers.
 Word Processing: - A Word Processing software automatically corrects spelling and
grammatical mistakes. If content needs to be replicated, there are options known as 'copy'
and 'paste' that allow you to do this without re-typing the content. You can print documents
and make several copies too. It is easier to read a word-processed document than a
handwritten one, making it effectual for paperwork. You can add images to your document
as well.
 Accessing Internet: - Internet is a network that connect computers worldwide to attain
information that is free to all, at a minimal fee per month from one's service provider.
Through Internet, you can browse more information than you could do in a library. This is
because, computers can store enormous amount of information. Through internet, you also
have very fast and convenient access to information. E.g.: Through 'email', you can
communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away within a few seconds. Chat
software applications enable one to speak to another person in real time. Video conferencing
tools are becoming readily available to the common man, making it a convenient feature for
one-on-one meetings.
 Digital Video or Audio Composition: - Audio or video composition and editing have been
made much easier by computers. It no longer costs thousands of dollars in equipment, to
compose music or make a film. Graphic engineers can use computers to generate short or
full-length films or even create 3D models. Anybody owning a computer can now enter the
 field of media production. Special effects in science fiction and action movies are created
using computers. Designers of all kinds from the media industry are finding innovative ways
of putting the internet to use.
 Desktop Publishing: - With desktop publishing, you can create page layouts for entire books
on your personal computer. Aspiring writers can use computers to take advantage of this
feature.
 Medicine: - You can diagnose diseases. You can perform studies related to them. Certain
softwares can be used in 'magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)' to examine the internal organs
of the human body. Now a days, Softwares are used for performing surgery too. Computers
are also used to store valuable patient data, and other information that doctors need private
access to.
 Mathematical Calculations: - Thanks to computers, which are have computing speeds of
over a million calculations per second. We can perform the biggest of mathematical
calculations without having to worry if the result is incorrect, since computers are designed
to produce accurate results.
 Banks: - All financial transactions are done by a computer softwares these days. It provides
security, speed, and convenience. Valuable customer information is stored and can be
retrieved whenever an employee at the bank wishes to access or verify certain facts.
 Travel: - One can book air tickets or railway tickets and also make hotel reservations using
internet. All sorts of travel packages are available to customers, including a variety of
websites that offer innumerable options that one can choose from, while highlighting certain
factors like budget, tour guide assistance, visa know-how, and the like.
 Telecommunications: - Softwares are widely used these days to help keep lines of
communication constantly buzzing. Also, all mobile phones have softwares embedded in
them, making it easier to handle certain tasks, as well as multitask, when it comes to everyday
chores and responsibilities. Even online games are accessible where two players from
different parts of the world can compete and interact merely through the power of internet.
 Defense: - There is softwares embedded in almost every weapon that require control by an
authorized person. Softwares are also used in controlling flights and targeting in ballistic
missiles. Softwares are used to control access to atomic bombs, as well as track various
activity that coincides with terrorist-based acts, including areas of civilian safety.
 E-Learning: - Instead of studying from textbooks, computers make it easier to learn from
an E-learning softwares. These are available electronically online and are accessible either
freely or through a course that one pays for - much like what is taught in any
college/university.
 Gambling: - You can gamble online instead of going to a casino. While this isn't advisable
to take part in when it comes to money, there are ways to do this without betting on actual
money.
 Examinations: - You can give online exams and get instant results. You can also check your
examination results online, after professors or examiners update a university's network.
  Business: - Shops and supermarkets use computer softwares that calculate a customer's bills,
as well as keeps track of how much is made monthly. Taxes can be calculated and paid online
too. Accounting is done using computers, where large amounts of data are fed into a system.
One can predict future trends of a business using artificial intelligence. Softwares are used
in major stock markets to keep track of the fall and rise of stock rises. One can even trade
stocks online. There are fully automated factories running on softwares, to help keep track
of the business without missing out on important updates.
 Certificates: - Different types of certificates can be generated. It is very easy to create and
change layouts, using designing softwares that can help one achieve this.
 ATM Machines: -
 Computer softwares authenticate the users through their credit/debit cards, before they
dispense cash.
 Marriage/Dating: - There are matrimonial sites through which one can search for a suitable
groom or bride. A very popular trend today is online dating, where couples around the globe
met their future wives/husbands by signing up to one or more of many dating portals.
 News: - There are many websites through which you can read the latest news, as well as
access old articles and videos related to a past events.
 University Websites: - There are many alumni websites through which you can regain
contact with long-lost classmates, since a database of student’s information is stored away in
a computer.
 Electronics: - Electronic gadgets run with the help of computers. There are various softwares
which are used to increase the efficiency of these devices. Timers, self-controlled switches
ensure that the machines ask for minimum human effort.
 Planning and Scheduling: - Softwares can be used to store contact information, generate
plans, schedule appointments, and meet deadlines.
 Plagiarism: - Softwares can examine content for plagiarism; this is where it checks if
information has been copied or tweaked to resemble previously published work.
 Greeting Cards: - You can send and receive greeting cards using themes (predefined
designs) for various occasions, available through numerous websites. These can either be
free of cost, or require payment.
 Sports: - Softwares are used for making umpiring decisions. There are simulation (situation
like real world) softwares that can be used by a sportsperson to practice his skills. Computers
are also able to identify flaws in certain techniques that players follow.
 Airplanes: - Pilots train using softwares, which simulates (presents a real world scenario) a
flight to help aircraft (both big and small) to take off and land.
 Weather analysis: - Supercomputers are used to analyze and predict weather conditions and
all other phenomena.
Computers have leapfrogged humans into another league. These are used in each aspect of human
life. They have spearheaded the human quest of eradicating social problems like illiteracy and
poverty. It is difficult to imagine a world without computers. This revolutionary technology is
indeed a boon to us all.

1.4 CHARACTERICS OF COMPUTER

The various features of computer system are given as:-
1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it automatically without human
interventions
2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs very fast, usually measured in
microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)
3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of its accuracy
depends upon its design. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable
programs are often referred to as Garbage – In – Garbage - Out (GIGO)
4) Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration. It can
continuously work for hours without creating any error and without grumbling
5) Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced
to a finite series of logical steps
6) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and recall any amount of information
because of its secondary storage capability. It forgets or loses certain information only
when it is asked to do so
7) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed to do. It cannot take its own decision
in this regard
8) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their judgment is based on the
instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us (human beings)

1. 5 CATEGORIES/TYPES OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be categorized on the basis of various factors.
A. Based on the operational principle, computers can be classified as analog, digital and hybrid.
B. Depending on their processing powers, size and area of use, they have been classified into
various types.
C. Depending on Performance and Capacity, these can be Super Computer, Mini-Computer,
Micro- Computer, Mainframe-Computer.

A. Based upon Operational Principle

1. Analog 2.Digital 3. Hybrid
1. Analog Computers: Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range
of values. The results given by the analog computers will only be approximate since they deal with
quantities that vary continuously. It generally deals with physical variables such as voltage,
pressure, temperature, speed, etc.
2. Digital Computers: Digital computer operates on digital data such as binary numbers in which
there are only two digits 0 and 1. Data on these computers is represented as a series of 0s and 1s.
Digital computers are suitable for complex computation and have higher processing speeds. They
are programmable.
Based on the purpose, Digital computers can be further classified as,
 General Purpose Computers
 Special Purpose Computers
Special purpose computer is one that is built for a specific application.
General purpose computers are used for any type of applications. They can store different
programs and do the jobs as per the instructions specified on those programs.
Most of the computers that we see today are general purpose computers.
3. Hybrid Computers: A hybrid computer combines the desirable features of analog and digital
computers. Now-a-days analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for
transforming the data into suitable form for either type of computation. For example, in hospitals
ICUs, analog devices might measure the patient’s temperature, blood pressure and other vital
signs. These measurements which are in analog form, might then be converted into numbers and
supplied to digital components in the system. These components are used to monitor the patient’s
vital sign and send signals if any abnormal readings are detected.
Hybrid computers are mainly used for specialized tasks.

B. Based on Processing Power, Size and Area of Usage, computers are:-

1. Personal Computer 3. Netbook 5. Server 7. Computer Tablet
2. Laptop 4. PDA 6. Wearable
1. Personal Computers: These are Non-portable, general-purpose computer that fits on a
normal size office table. These are designed to meet personal computing needs of individuals.
These are often used by children and adults for education and entertainment also. Generally
used by one person at a time and supports multitasking (Multiple tasks can be accomplished
at the same time). Two common models of PCs are desktop model and tower model. Popular
OS are MS-DOS, MS-Windows, Windows-NT, Linux, and UNIX.
 Figure 1.5 Common PC Models
2. Laptops: Similar in operation to personal computers, laptop computers are miniaturized and
optimized for mobile (can be taken away from one location to another with ease) use. Laptops
run on battery or an external adapter that charge batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt
keyboard, touch pad acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Their portability and
capacity to operate on battery power have proven to be of great help to mobile users.
3. Netbooks: They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively smaller in
size. They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to regular laptops, at
the time they came into the market. But with the passage of time, Netbooks too began featuring
almost everything that notebooks have. By the end of 2008, Netbooks begun to overtake
notebooks in terms of market share and sales.
4. Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs): It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a
palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be used
as portable audio players, web browsers and smart phones. Most of them can access the
Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.
5. Servers: They are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a computer
network (Figure 1.6 Client Server Model). They have larger storage capacities and powerful
processors. They run on them the programs that serve client requests and allocate resources
like memory and time to client machines. Usually they are very large in size, as they have
large processors and many hard drives. They are designed to be fail-safe and resistant to crash.

Figure 1.6 Client Server Model

6. Wearable Computers: A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation
of wearable computers. These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the
study of behavior modeling and human health. Military and health professionals have
incorporated wearable computers into their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When the
user’s hands and sensory organs are engaged in other activities, wearable computers are of
 great help in tracking human actions. Wearable computers do not have to be turned on and off
and remain in operation without user intervention.
7. Tablets: Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They use the touch screen
technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or a digital pen. Apple’s
iPad redefined the class of tablets.

C. Types of Computers based on Performance and Capacity

There are four different types of computers when we classify them based on their performance and
capacity.
1. Super Computers 3. Mini Computers
2. Mainframe Computers 4. Micro Computers
1. Super Computers
Supercomputers: Most powerful and most expensive computers available at a given time.
Primarily used for processing complex scientific applications that require enormous processing
power. Well known supercomputing applications include:
 Analysis of large volumes of seismic data
 Simulation of airflow around an aircraft
 Crash simulation of the design of an automobile
 Solving complex structure engineering problems
 Weather forecasting
Supercomputers also support multiprogramming. Supercomputers primarily address processor-
bound applications (The applications which takes more processor time instead of input output
time). Perhaps the best known super computer manufacturer is Cray Research. Some of
the "traditional" companies which produce super computers are Cray, IBM and Hewlett-
Packard. As of July 2009, the IBM Roadrunner, located at Los Alamos National Laboratory, is
the fastest super computer in the world.
2. Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are large and powerful. They can perform large amount of tasks at same
time. They can send numerous amount of data within a single second through its I/O devices.
Largest mainframe computers can handle processing needs of thousands of users at any moment.
These computers can generally be used in insurance companies, banks etc. where many people
frequently need to use the same data at the same time. Mainframe computers can also process data
at very high speed i.e. hundreds of million instructions per second and they are also quite
expensive.
3. Mini Computers
Mini computers are lower to mainframe computers in terms of speed and storage capacity. Though
minicomputers are little larger in size than the microcomputers but are still called mini because of
their working efficiency which is far more when compared to microcomputers. They can handle
much more input and output operations than microcomputer. Most powerful minicomputers can
server I/O requests of hundreds of users at a time using different terminals. They are also less
expensive than mainframe computers. Some of the features of mainframes will not be available in
mini computers. Hence, their performance also will be less than that of mainframe computers.
They are used for interactive applications.
4. Micro Computers
'Mirco' means very small. Thus, as the name implies, microcomputers are small in size and built
with microprocessors. They have CPU, ROM, RAM storage and I/O interfaces. This sort of
computers costs less than others and are good for personal use. This is why these are also called
as Personal Computers. Desktop, Laptop computers are microcomputers.
The invention of microprocessor (single chip CPU) gave birth to the much cheaper
microcomputers. Desktop computers, Laptops and Handheld computers (PDAs) falls under this
category also.

1.6 HISTORY AND GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

 The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of computing devices.
 “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth
of computer industry
 Originally it was used to distinguish between various hardware technologies, but now it has
been extended to include both hardware and software
 Till today, there are five computer generations
 Each of the five generations of computers is characterized by a major technological
development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, and powerful and more efficient and reliable computing devices.
 In its most basic form, a computer is any device which aids humans in performing various
kinds of computations or calculations. In that respect, the earliest computer was the abacus
(Figure 1.7) used to perform basic arithmetic operations.

Figure 1.7 Abacus

 Every computer supports some form of input, processing, and output. This is less obvious on
a primitive device such as the abacus where input, output and processing are simply the act of
moving the pebbles into new positions, seeing the changed positions, and counting.
Regardless, this is what computing is all about, in a nutshell. We input information; the
computer processes it according to its basic logic or the program currently running, and output
the results.
 Modern computers do this electronically, which enables them to perform a vast number of
calculations or computations in less time. Despite the fact that we currently use computers to
 process images, sound, text and other non-numerical forms of data, all of it depends on nothing
more than basic numerical calculations. Graphics, sound etc. are merely abstractions of the
numbers being crunched within the machine; in digital computers these are the ones and zeros,
representing electrical on and off states, and endless combinations of those. In other words
every image, every sound, and every word have a corresponding binary code.
 While abacus may have technically been the first computer most people today associate the
word “computer” with electronic computers which were invented in the last century, and have
evolved into modern computers we know of today.
 Various generations of Computer as follows:

1. First Generation (1946-1959)

The period of first generation was from 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse
frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive and only large organizations were able to afford
it.
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper tape,
and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used
machine code as the programming language.

Figure 1.8
The main features of the first generation are −
 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated a lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of AC
 Non-portable
 Consumed a lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were −
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

2. Second Generation (1959-1965)

The period of second generation was from 1959-1965. In this generation, transistors were used
that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the
first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as
the primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN,
COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating
system.

Figure 1.9
The main features of second generation are −
 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 AC required
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

3. Third Generation (1965-1971)

The period of third generation was from 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable,
and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-sharing, multiprogramming operating
system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

Figure 1.10
The main features of third generation are −
 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Costly
 AC required
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were −
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP (Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

4. Fourth Generation (1971-1980)

The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980. Computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements with their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation.
Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a
result, it gave rise to Personal Computer (PC) revolution. In this generation, time sharing, real
time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++,
DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

Figure 1.11
The main features of fourth generation are −
1. VLSI technology used
2. Very cheap
3. Portable and reliable
4. Use of PCs
5. Very small size
6. Pipeline processing
7. No AC required
8. Concept of internet was introduced
9. Great developments in the fields of networks
10. Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were −
1. DEC 10
2. STAR 1000
3. PDP 11
4. CRAY-1(Super Computer)
5. CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

5. Fifth Generation Computers (1980 – onwards)

The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor
chips having ten million electronic components.
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets the means and method of making
computers think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc.,
are used in this generation.
 Figure 1.12
AI includes −
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real-life situations
 Natural language understanding and generation
The main features of fifth generation are −
 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are −
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

1.7 REGISTERS IN COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

The register is the fastest of all the memory devices. A Register is generally made up of flip-flops
with each flip-flop capable of storing one bit of information. An n-bit register has a group of n flip-
flops and is capable of storing binary information of n-bits.
A register can consist of a group of flip-flops or flip-flop and gates. The flip-flops hold the binary
information and gates control when and how new information is transferred into a register. Various
types of registers are available commercially. The simplest register is one that consists of only flip-
flops with no external gates.
A 64-bit processor should have at least 64-bit registers and 32-bit register are required for a 32-
bit processor.
The transfer of new information into a register is referred to as loading the register. If all the bits
of register are loaded simultaneously with a common clock pulse than the loading is said to be
done in parallel. If all the bits are loaded one after the other then loading is said to be done in
serial.
We also need to understand the format of instruction before moving further.
Opcode Address
An instruction given to a computer generally have two parts. Opcode tells which operation is to
be performed. Address part tells the address of memory which is to be accessed to perform the
operation.
Following are some commonly used registers:
1. Accumulator: This is the most common register, used to store data taken out from the
memory. This Register is used for storing the results which are produced by the System.
2. MAR: Memory Address Register are those registers that holds the address of memory location
to be accessed. Suppose CPU wants to store some data in the memory location or to read the
data from the memory location. It places the address of required memory location in the MAR.
3. MBR: Memory Buffer Register stores instruction and data received from the memory and sent
from the memory. MBR stand for Memory Buffer Register. This register holds the contents of
data or instruction read from, or written in memory. It means that this register is used to store
data/instruction coming from the memory or going to the memory. For example, to retrieve the
contents of cell 123, we would load the value 123 (in binary, of course) into the MAR and
perform a fetch operation. When the operation is done, a copy of the contents of cell 123 would
be in the MBR.
4. PC: Program Counter points to the next instruction to be executed. It keeps track of the next
memory address of the instruction that is to be executed once the execution of the current
instruction is completed.
5. IR: Instruction Register holds the instruction to be executed.
6. Index Register:-A hardware element which holds a number that can be added to (or, in some
cases, subtracted from) the address portion of a computer instruction to form an effective
address. Also known as base register. An index register in a computer's CPU is a processor
register used for modifying operand addresses during the run of a program.
7. INPR: Used to communicate with input devices.
8. OUTR: Used to communicate with output devices.

1.8 MEMORY HIERARCHY

Memory is categorized into volatile and nonvolatile memories, with the former requiring constant
power ON, to maintain data storage. Furthermore, a typical computer system provides a hierarchy
of different types of memories for data storage.
Memory hierarchy is a concept that is necessary for the CPU to be able to manipulate data. In a
perfect world, a computer would have a processor and a very large amount of very fast memory,
as fast as the processor. But the problem is, high performance parts are expensive and nobody can
afford a computer unless compromises are made. The memory hierarchy displays different "levels"
of memory that have different performance, speed, rates, and also serve specific purposes. What
the processor needs, if isn't in one level, it moves on to the next to look for what it needs.
The first three hierarchies, registers, cache, and main memory, are volatile memory. This means
once the power is cut from them, they lose their data. The last two are not volatile and are
considered "permanent storage". Computer memory is classified in the below hierarchy:-
1. Internal Register:
It is used for holding the temporary results and variables. Accessing data from these registers
is the fastest way of accessing instructions or data. Typical access time is one clock cycle.
Registers are typically Static RAM in the processor that hold a data word, which on modern
processors is typically 64 or 128 bits. The most important register, found in all processors, is
the program counter. This tells “where the next instruction is at”. Most processors have a
status word register which is used for decision making and the accumulator which is used
to store the result of a math operation. CISC (Complex instruction set computers) usually have
around a dozen or so registers since they're geared more for accessing main memory. RISC
(Reduced instruction set computers) have lot more registers.

Access Time Decreases/ Performance Increases

Cost Decreases/ Capacity Increases

CPU
Direct Registers Temporary
Storage
Access
Areas
to
CPU Cache
(Level 1)
(Level 2)
(Level 3)

Primary Storage / Main Memory

Secondary Storage (Permanent Storage Area)

Figure 1.13 Memory Hierarchy

2. Cache:
It is the second fastest accessible memory of a computer system whose typical access time is
equal to tens to hundreds of clock cycles. Its access speed is in the order of a few nanoseconds.
It is volatile and expensive, so the typical cache size is in the order of megabytes. Cache is
used by the CPU for memory which is being accessed over and over again. Instead of pulling
it every time from the main memory, it is put in cache for fast access. It is also a smaller
memory, however, larger than internal register. Cache Memory is a type of memory which is
placed in the processor’s chip or may be placed separately connected by a bus. When the CPU
 processes data, the data is first looked into the cache memory. If the data is found (called as
cache hit), then it uses the data accordingly and if not (cache miss), then the processor starts
to look in the larger memory, which is actually time-consuming. Cache memory is costly but
it is really lightning fast.
There Are Levels of Cache Memory: - L1, L2 and L3:-
a) L1 cache: It is accessed without any delay. L1 cache is extraordinary fast but it is very small.
It is mainly placed on the CPU chip.
b) L2 cache: It takes more clock cycles to access than L1 cache. L2 cache has more data
holding capacity than L1 cache. It is situated in CPU chip or in the separate chip but connected
to CPU with the high-speed alternative data bus (path on which data moves from one part of
computer to another).
c) L3 cache: It takes more clock cycles to access than L2 cache.

3. Main memory:
The main memory is reasonably fast, with access speed around 100 nanoseconds. It also offers
larger capacity at a lower cost. Typical main memory is in the order of 10 GB. It can be
increased provided the operating system can handle it. This memory is made up of RAM as
well as ROM. Main memory is arguably the most used memory.
When discussing computer algorithms such as quick sort, balanced binary sorted trees, or fast
Fourier transform, one typically assumes that the algorithm operates on data stored in the main
memory.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM (Random Access Memory) is a part of computer’s Main Memory which is directly
accessible by CPU. RAM is used to Read and Write data into it which is accessed by CPU
randomly. RAM is volatile in nature, it means if the power goes off, the stored information is
lost. RAM is used to store the data that is currently processed by the CPU. Most of the programs
and data that are modifiable are stored in RAM.
Integrated RAM chips are available in two form:
1. SRAM (Static RAM)
2. DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
The SRAM memories consist of circuits capable of retaining the stored information as long as
the power is applied. That means this type of memory requires constant power. SRAM
memories are used to build Cache Memory. DRAM stores the binary information in the form
of electric charges applied to capacitors. The stored information on the capacitors tends to lose
over a period of time and thus the capacitors must be periodically recharged to retain their
usage. The main memory is generally made up of DRAM chips.
Difference between SRAM and DRAM:
Below table lists some of the differences between SRAM and DRAM:
Sr. SRAM DRAM
No.
 1 SRAM has lower access time, so it is
faster compared to DRAM
2 SRAM is costlier than DRAM.
3 SRAM requires constant power supply,
which means this type of memory
consumes more power.
4 Due to complex internal circuitry, less
storage capacity is available compared
to the same physical size of DRAM
memory chip.
DRAM has higher access time, so it is
slower than SRAM
DRAM costs less compared to SRAM.
DRAM offers reduced power
consumption, due to the face that the
information is stored in the capacitor.
Due to small internal circuitry, large
storage capacity is available compared to
the same physical size of SRAM memory
chip.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM a non-volatile memory chip. Data stored in ROM can only be read and used – they cannot
be changed. ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which do not change and are
frequently used. For example, system boot program (Process of Turning a Computer ON is
called as Booting). Data on ROM chips can be erased, based on which there are different types
of ROMs available.
Types of ROMs
Type Usage
Ultra Violet EPROM A type of EPROM chip in which the stored
(UVEPROM) information is erased by exposing the chip for some
time to ultra-violet light
Electrically EPROM (EEPROM) A type of EPROM chip in which the stored
or information is erased by using high voltage electric
Flash memory pulses
Manufacturer-programmed Data is burnt by the manufacturer of the electronic
ROM equipment in which it is used.
User-programmed ROM The user can load and store “read-only” programs
or and data in it
Programmable ROM (PROM)
Erasable PROM (EPROM) The user can erase information stored in it and the
chip can be reprogrammed to store new information

4. Secondary storage:
Secondary storage refers to nonvolatile data storage units that are external to the computer system.
Hard drives and solid state drives are examples of secondary storage. They offer very large storage
capacity in the order of terabytes at very low cost. Therefore, database servers typically have an
array (collection) of secondary storage devices with data stored as distributed and redundantly
(when same data is stored at multiple locations) across these devices.
Despite the continuous improvements in access speed of hard drives, secondary storage devices
are several times slower than main memory. Modern hard drives have access speed in the order of
few milliseconds. Hard disk is a secondary device where data is kept permanently. Hard disk is
not directly accessed by the CPU, hence it is slower. There are various types of secondary storage
devices available.
For secondary storage we use Hard Disk now a days.
Let us have brief about, “how data is stored or accessed in Hard Drive?” The hard drive has a
local data cache. The hard drive will be instructed to fetch or save data from a physical location of
a certain size. The hard drive controller will acknowledge the instruction right away, and will
take some time to populate the disk cache with the requested data block, and then, at a later time,
raise an interrupt to notify the interested party that the data access is complete. This model of
interrupt based data transfer is asynchronous. The data transfer speed (from memory to hard drive
or vice versa) depends on contiguousness of the accessed physical locations on the disk and the
size of the accessed data per request.
The mechanical designs of the hard drive leads to sequential access. A hard drive consists of an
array of rotating disks. Each disk has a head, driven by a mechanical arm which performs the
bitwise read and write. If a sequential data block is accessed, all bits can be read or written during
a single rotation. However, random access of the hard drive data may require multiple rotations
for the head to reach all the regions on the disk. Seek time is the average time it takes the head to
travel to the region of interest on disk. Typically, the seek time is a few milliseconds. Data transfer
rate is the steady speed at which the head can be read or written on the disk.
Typical access time: Millions of clock cycles.
Another secondary storage medium is Magnetic tape.
Magnetic tape memory is usually used for backing up large data. When the system needs to access
a tape, it is first mounted to access the data. When the data is accessed, it is then un-mounted. The
memory access time is slower in magnetic tape and it usually takes few minutes to access a tape.

The memory hierarchy characteristics mainly include the following:

1. Performance
Previously, the designing of a computer system was done without memory hierarchy, and thus the
speed gap among the main memory as well as the CPU registers enhanced. The huge disparity in
access time caused “lower performance” of the system. So, the enhancement was mandatory. The
enhancement was made possible with the design of memory hierarchy model. In this way the
system’s performance increased.
2. Ability (Capacity)
The ability of the memory hierarchy is the total amount of data the memory can store. In a memory
hierarchy, whenever we move from top to bottom, then the capacity increases.
3. Access Time
 The access time is the intervals of the time taken to access data when the data is read from or
written to a specific type of memory. Whenever we move from top to bottom inside the memory
hierarchy, then the access time increases.
4. Cost per bit
When we move from bottom to top inside the memory hierarchy, then the cost for each bit will
increase which means an internal Memory is expensive compared with external memory.
Note: Smallest unit of information in a computer is “Bit”. We can call either 0 or 1 a Bit.
4 – Bits = 1 Nibble
8 – Bits = 1 Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte (GB)
1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte (TB)
These are also known as Units of Memory Measurement.
1.9 I/O DEVICE
Input/output devices provide means of communication between a computer and outer world. These
are also known as peripheral devices because they surround the CPU and memory of a computer
system. Input devices are used to enter data from the outside world into primary storage. Output
devices supply results of processing from primary storage to users.

A. Role of I/O Devices

Input devices accepts data from external world. This data is converted into computer understandable
form by the input devices. The data is then processed by the Processing Unit. Processed data is then
passed to output devices where it is again converted to human readable form so that it could be
understand by human beings. Figure shown below represents the role of I/O devices.

Input Results of
Input CPU Output processing
data
Devices and Devices in human
from
Memory acceptable
external
world form

Input data coded Processed data in

in internal form Internal form

Figure 1.14 Role of Input/output Devices

B. Input Devices
1. Keyboard 8. Microphone
2. Mouse 9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
3. Joy Stick 10. Optical Character Reader(OCR)
4. Light pen 11. Bar Code Reader
5. Track Ball 12. Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
 6. Scanner 13. Speech Recognition System
7. Digitizer 14. Vision Input System

1. Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet. The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
Sr. No Keys & Description

Typing Keys:-These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
1
generally give the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad:-It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement.

2 Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys:-The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
3 arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique
meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

Control Keys:-These keys provide cursor and screen control. They include four
4 directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page
Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys:-Keyboard also contain some special purpose keys such as
5
Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

2. Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round-ball/laser-light-beam at its base, which senses the movement of
the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot be
used to enter text into the computer.

3. Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves
in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

4. Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

5. Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

6. Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Two Common Types of Image Scanners

7. Digitizer
Input device used for converting (digitizing) pictures, maps and drawings into digital form for
storage in computers. It is commonly used in the area of Computer Aided Design (CAD) by
architects and engineers to design cars, buildings medical devices, robots, mechanical parts, etc. It
is also used in the area of Geographical Information System (GIS) for digitizing maps available in
paper form.
8. Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia presentation
or for mixing music.

9. Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR is used by banking industry for faster processing of large volume of cheques. Banks
identification code (name, branch, etc.), account number and cheque number are pre-printed
(encoded) using characters from a special character set on all cheques. Special ink is used that
contains magnetizable particles of iron oxide. MICR reader-sorter reads data on cheques and sorts
them for distribution to other banks or for further processing.

MICR Character Set (E13B

It consists of numerals 0 to 9 and four special characters. MICR is not adopted by other industries
because it supports only 14 symbols.

10. Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable code,
and stores the text on the system memory.

11. Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer to which the bar code reader is connected to.

12. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

13. Speech Recognition Devices

Input device that allows a person to input data to a computer system by speaking to it. Today’s
speech recognition systems are limited to accepting few words within a relatively small domain
and can be used to enter only limited kinds and quantities of data.

Types of Speech Recognition Systems

 a) Single word recognition systems can recognize only a single spoken words, such as YES,
NO, MOVE, and STOP, at a time. Speaker-independent systems are mostly of this type.
b) Continuous speech recognition systems can recognize spoken sentences, such as MOVE
TO THE NEXT BLOCK. Such systems are normally speaker-dependent.

Uses of Speech Recognition Systems

 These are used for inputting data to a computer system by a person in situations where
his/her hands are busy, or his/her eyes must be fixed on a measuring instrument or some
other object.
 For data input by dictation of long text or passage for later editing and review.
 For authentication of a user by a computer system based on voice input.
 For limited use of computers by individuals with physical disabilities.
14. Vision-Input Systems
These allow computer to accept input just by seeing an object. Input data is normally an object’s
shape and features in the form of an image. Mainly used today in factories for designing industrial
robots that are used for quality-control and assembly processes.

C.Output Devices
Following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.
1. Monitors
2. Printer
3. Speakers and Head Sets
4. Plotter
5. Multimedia Projectors
6. Voice response systems

1. Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output devices of a
computer. They form images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels available on the screen called as
resolution. There are two kinds of viewing screen used as monitors.
i) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
ii) Flat-Panel Display

i) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into
a series of character boxes/ fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed.
Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
 Large in Size
 High power consumption

ii) Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

a) Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. For
example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
b) Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light
from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device).

2. Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
i) Impact Printers
ii) Non-Impact Printers
i) Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −
 Very low consumable costs
  Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

a) Character printers
b) Line printers

a) Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
I. Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
II. Daisy Wheel

I. Dot Matrix Printer

In market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and printing head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which
come out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
 Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

II. Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 Fonts of character can be easily changed
 Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP

b) Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of two types −

I. Drum Printer
II. Chain Printer

I. Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper width
of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track. Different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation
of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
 Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed

II. Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
1. Character fonts can easily be changed.
2. Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
1. Noisy

ii) Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types −
a) Laser Printers
b) Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers
 They are not noisy
 High quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size

a) Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output
 Good graphics quality
 Supports many fonts and different character size
Disadvantages
 Expensive
 Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

b) Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
 Disadvantages
 Expensive as the cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

3. Speaker and Headsets

Speakers and headsets produce sound output. We can listen recorded voices, sounds or music with
the help of speaker or headset. Speaker produces sound output with the help of sound card.

4. Plotter
A plotter is an output device used to produce quality-image graphics in a variety of colors. Plotters
are used to print large maps, architectural drawings, graphs and charts. Plotters are used to draw
different designs of buildings or internal structure of machines. Plotters offer the fastest way to
efficiently produce very large drawings or color high-resolution graphics. Engineers and
Architects use plotters.

5. Multimedia Projector.

Multimedia projector is used to produce computer output on a big screen. These are used in
meeting rooms or in classrooms of educational institutes. Since the output produced by multimedia
projector is displayed on a large screen, it can be viewed by a large number of people in a hall,
meeting/conference room or a class room. Mostly teachers use data projectors in class rooms for
delivering lectures (a use of audio visual aids technology).

6. Voice Response Systems

Voice response system enables a computer to talk to a user. It has an audio-response device that
produces audio output.
Such systems are of two types:
i) Voice reproduction systems
ii) Speech synthesizers
i) Voice Reproduction Systems
 Produce audio output by selecting an appropriate audio output from a set of pre-
recorded audio responses.
 Applications include audio help for guiding how to operate a system, automatic
answering machines, video games, etc.
 ii) Speech Synthesizers
 Converts text information into spoken sentences
 Used for applications such as:
 Reading out text information to blind persons
 Allowing those persons who cannot speak to communicate effectively
 Translating an entered text into spoken words in a selected language

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:

[1] Which is not a computer classification?
a) Mainframe
b) maxframe
c) mini
d) notebook
[2] The control unit of a microprocessor
a) Stores data in the memory
b) Accepts input data from keyboard
c) Performs arithmetic/logic function
d) None of above
[3] The fastest data access is provided using _______
a) Caches
b) DRAM
c) SRAM
d) Registers
[4] The last on the hierarchy scale of memory devices is ______
a) Main memory
b) Secondary memory
c) TLB
d) Flash drives
[5] In the memory hierarchy, as the speed of operation increases the memory size also increases.
a) True
b) False
[6] A Device which converts drawings, printed text into images is
a) Keyboard
b) Plotter
c) Scanner
d) OMR
[7] The smallest unit of Information in computer is
a) Bit
b) Byte
c) Block
 d) Nibble
[8] Which of the following is an output device?
a) Keyboard
b) Mouse
c) Light pen
d) VDU
[9] Which of the following is an input device?
a) Plotter
b) Printer
c) VDU
d) Mouse
[10] The central processing unit is located in the _____
a) Hard Disk
b) System Unit
c) Memory Unit
d) Monitor
[11] Which of the following is equal to a gigabyte?
a) 1024 bytes
b) 512 GB
c) 1024 MB
d) 1024 bits
[12] Which type of program acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the computer
hardware?
a) Operating System
b) Application Program
c) Browser
d) None of the Above
[13] What kind of language can computer understand?
a) Binary Language
b) Assembly Language
c) High Level language
d) None of the Above
[14] IC were introduced in _____ generation of Computer
a) 1st generation
b) 2nd generation
c) 3rd generation
d) 4th generation
[15] Which of the following memory cannot be directly accessed by CPU?
a) Primary memory
b) Secondary Memory
c) RAM
d) DRAM
[16] What is the full form of the EEPROM?
a) Electrically Erasable Process Read-Only Memory
b) Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
c) Electrical Erase Program Read-Only Memory
d) Electron Erase Program Read-Only Memory
[17] In which of the following, the second-generation computer was based?
a) Transistor
b) Electron tube
c) Electron ray
d) Vacuum tube
[18] Which one of the following parts is called the brain of the computer?
a) ALU
b) Monitor
c) RAM
d) DRAM
EXERCISE:
[1] Explain the role of memory in computer. Also Discuss Memory Hierarchy along with its
characteristics.
[2] Explain the Block diagram of Computer System.
[3] What is a register? Explain various types of registers used in Computer?
[4] What is the role of input/output devices? Explain any five input and five output Devices?
[5] What do you mean by generation of computer? Discuss History and Generations of
Computers?
[6] How can we classify Computer Systems based on their usage?
[7] Explain various features/characteristics of Computer System?
[8] Explain the uses of Computers.
[9] Explain the various types of printers.
[10] Explain the difference between SRAM and DRAM?
[11] Explain various types of ROMs.
[12] What are the various units of a computer system? Explain each.
[13] What are the various types of computers based on Processing Power, Size and Area of
Usage?