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Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics
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Vehicle/Tire/Road
Dynamics
Handling, Ride, and NVH

Tan Li
Maxxis Technology Center, Maxxis
International—USA, Suwanee, GA, United States
Elsevier
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Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Literature 2
1.3 Organization 3
References 12

2 Definitions and fundamentals 15

2.1 Multibody dynamics 15
2.2 Vibrations 19
2.3 Control 25
2.4 Structure-borne acoustics 44
2.5 Airborne acoustics 63
2.6 Acoustic resonance 84
References 93

3 Tire and vehicle handling dynamics 95

3.1 Tire handling theory 95
3.2 Vehicle handling theory 138
3.3 Handling test, measurement, and evaluations 174
3.4 Handling simulation approaches 220
References 270

4 Tire and vehicle ride dynamics 275

4.1 Vehicle ride theory 275
4.2 Tire ride theory 295
4.3 Ride test, measurement, and evaluations 310
4.4 Ride simulation approaches 347
References 356

5 Tire and vehicle NVH 359

5.1 Structure-borne acoustics 360
5.2 Airborne acoustics 372
5.3 Sound quality theory 380
5.4 NVH test, measurement, and evaluations 391
5.5 NVH simulation approaches 434
References 454
vi Contents

6 Dependence between handling, ride, and NVH 459

6.1 Fundamental tire material properties 459
6.2 Stress and deformation distribution in tire contact patch 485
6.3 Conflicts between safety and comfort 512
6.4 Optimization with active suspension control 518
6.5 Braking and cornering noise 525
References 536

7 Road effect on handling, ride, and NVH 539

7.1 Surface texture characterization 539
7.2 Influence of surface texture on tire grip 539
7.3 Influence of the road profile on vehicle comfort 559
7.4 Influence of pavement parameters on NVH 560
7.5 Road dynamics 581
References 584

8 Intelligent tire and autonomous electric vehicle 589

8.1 Vehicle/tire state and parameter estimation 589
8.2 Dynamics control for electric vehicles 600
8.3 Smart tire 603
References 614

Appendix 1: Example specifications of different types of vehicles 617

Appendix 2: Literature review for tire modal analysis 631
Index 647
Introduction
1
1.1 Background
Kinematics is a subfield of classical mechanics that describes the motion of points,
bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the
forces that cause them to move. Dynamics is the branch of classical mechanics con-
cerned with the study of forces and their effects on motion. Obviously, the topic in this
book considers underlying forces and computes motion from initial conditions and
physics, so vehicle dynamics is the correct term.
Dynamics is governed by equations of motion or Newton’s Second Law of Motion.
In this book, dynamics is an alternative term to motion. In physics, motion is the phe-
nomenon in which an object changes its position over time. Motion is mathematically
described in terms of displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time. The motion of a
body is observed by attaching a frame of reference to an observer and measuring the
change in position of the body relative to that frame. In this book, motion is categorized
into movement and vibration. In philosophy, everything in the Universe moves and
vibrates. Movement is defined as a continual change of physical location relative to
a reference frame. Generally, the removal of applied external forces will not lead to
the body returning to its original location. For vehicle handling analysis focusing on
planar/horizontal motion, the vehicle system is usually treated as a single body having
only one movement without considering the wheel movements. Vibration is defined as
the oscillation of a mechanical or structural system around its point of equilibrium. After
the removal of external excitations, a system will eventually return to a state of equi-
librium as long as damping exists. For vehicle ride analysis focusing on vertical motion,
the vibrations of body and wheels usually modeled as lumped masses (rigid bodies) are
both considered. Modal analysis techniques are typically applied to linear systems to
study their modal properties as described by system natural frequency, mode shape,
and damping ratio. In this book, oscillation is an alternative term to vibration.
NVH stands for noise, vibration, and harshness. Noise is usually considered as an
unwanted sound. However, “wanted” or “unwanted” depends upon the listener and the
circumstances. For example, rock music can be pleasurable sound to one person but an
annoying noise to another. In this book, sound is an alternative term to noise. Vibration
can generate noise by sound radiation and noise can also cause vibration by fluid-
structure interaction. Harshness is the subjective impressions of the noise. In handling
and ride analysis, the vehicle is considered as a single body or an integrated system of
multiple bodies connected elastically with each other, that is, each body is one lumped
mass where motions of its parts are in phase. However, in NVH analysis, the body has
to be distributed mass where motions of its parts are not in phase, allowing acoustic
waves to propagate inside the structure or radiate into the air. The sound field and
vibration map in the vehicle cabin are highly nonuniform. The sound pressure level
at driver’s ear closer to the window can be 3 dB higher than that at the other ear; the
Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90176-5.00003-6
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

sound pressure level at the rear seat can also be 3 dB higher than at the front seat. The
vibration levels can also be different on the floor, seat, and steering wheel, which is
usually not in the scope of ride vibrations focused on smoothness at the vehicle center
of gravity. It is also implied that NVH is a highly subjective performance, which is
why sound quality becomes more and more important for vehicle product quality.
Similarly, handling quality and ride quality in terms of subjective evaluations have
drawn higher attention recently.
In summary, there is a spectrum of vehicle performance areas: handling for low fre-
quency (<10 Hz), ride for middle frequency (10–100 Hz), and NVH for high frequency
(>100 Hz). Conventionally, “vehicle dynamics” only implied handling that is most crit-
ical relating to safety, later it merged with ride because comfort became important, now
NVH has drawn higher attention for product quality. All of the three areas are actually
dynamics, but we are not used to calling NVH dynamics yet. All three areas can be ana-
lyzed in frequency and time domain, though handling is usually analyzed in time
domain while NVH in frequency domain. In this book, both frequency domain analysis
and time domain analysis will be presented for all three areas. A summary comparison
between vehicle handling, ride, and NVH is shown in Table 1.1.
Generally, there are five major noise sources for a vehicle with internal combustion
engine (ICE): powertrain, intake system, exhaust system, aerodynamic turbulence
(wind), and tire-road interaction. For an electric vehicle (EV), the powertrain noise from
electric motor is much lower than ICE, and the intake/exhaust noise is removed. This
book mainly focuses on tire-road-induced NVH, which is dominant for regular vehicle
speeds. Traditionally, vehicle performance is limited by the ICE, as the engine deter-
mines the vehicle traction capability and generates most of the interior noise under reg-
ular conditions. However, electric motor with high torque and low noise can eliminate
those disadvantages of ICE. Hence, the performance of EVs will be largely dependent
on tires providing sufficient grip and minimizing road noise. Vehicle electrification can
also provide more spacious passenger compartment due to compact powertrain/
drivetrain system and lower height of center of gravity due to the battery arrangement
under the vehicle body, which improves ride comfort and roll stability. The advanced
suspension technology also puts tire in a more important role in improving vehicle com-
fort. Therefore, tire, as a component of vehicle system, will be critical for the major
vehicle performances including handling, ride, and NVH. The tire contact patch is
the only interaction between a vehicle and the road; the forces generated in this patch
dictate the movement and vibration of the vehicle. For the autonomous vehicle, due to
little or no control of the vehicle, occupants may have different perspectives regarding
handling (lower requirements for steering feel but higher requirements for safety/stabil-
ity) and higher standards for ride comfort and NVH.

1.2 Literature
A comprehensive search for published books on vehicle handling/ride/NVH has been
performed, as listed in Table 1.2. These are good references for readers to delve into
specific areas of interest. However, it can be seen that there is a need to put together a
book covering all the areas.
Introduction 3

Table 1.1 Comparisons between vehicle handling, ride, and NVH.

Handling Ride NVH

Vehicle One lumped mass Multiple Multiple distributed/

model lumped/discrete continuous masses
masses (rigid (flexible component)
body)
Tire model Spring Spring or finite Finite element
element
Driver Steering wheel, throttle/ Mostly cruise Mostly cruise/coast
input brake, gear
Excitation Tire-road friction Road Tire-pavement
irregularity roughness
impact
Motion Movement Movement and Vibration
category vibration
Vibration NA Free response Forced response
response
Typical Time Time and Frequency (above
analysis frequency 100 Hz)
domain (below 100 Hz)
Time Max performance Impact peak and Sound quality:
domain damping fluctuation,
scope roughness
Frequency Stability control Modal Spectral distribution
domain oscillation and weighting
scope
State Steady-state or transient Mostly transient Mostly steady-state
Parameters Max vehicle longitudinal/ Roll/pitch angle, Sound pressure, rms
of interest lateral acceleration/ max, and rms of of accelerations
velocity, yaw rate, sideslip accelerations
angle
Implication Safety, stability, reliability Comfort, ease Pleasantness,
quality, identity

1.3 Organization
To fill the knowledge gap between different areas, Chapter 2 presented the basic def-
initions and fundamentals related to vehicle handling, ride, and NVH.
In the generalized vehicle/tire dynamics, the steady state or the short-time transient
tire forces dominate the vehicle handling behavior (Chapter 3); then, the fluctuation of
the reaction forces influences the ride quality (Chapter 4); finally, the stabilized oscil-
lation of each vehicle/tire component relates to NVH performance (Chapter 5). How-
ever, there are no clear-cut boundaries between vehicle handling, ride, and NVH.
Table 1.2 List of relevant books (✓ denotes over 20%;  denotes 5–20%; X denotes below 5%).
Scope System Depth Application
Unique
Author/Editor Year Publisher Title Handling Ride NVH Vehicle Tire Road Theory Practice Experiment Simulation feature

Handling series
Yong et al. [1] 1984 Elsevier Vehicle Traction ✓ X X ✓   ✓ ✓ ✓ X Vehicle-terrain
Science Mechanics: energy transfer,
Volume 3 FEM,
trafficability
Garg and 1984 Academic Press Dynamics of ✓ X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓   Railway vehicle
Dukkipati [2] of Elsevier Railway Vehicle
Systems
Haug [3] 1989 Allyn and Computer Aided X X X X X X ✓ X X ✓ Multibody
Bacon Kinematics and application to
Dynamics of vehicle
Mechanical
Systems: Basic
Methods
Gillespie [4] 1992 SAE Fundamentals of ✓  X ✓  X ✓ X X X Steering,
International Vehicle Dynamics rollover
Milliken and 1994 SAE Race Car Vehicle ✓ X X ✓  X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Race handling
Milliken [5] International Dynamics metrics,
aerodynamics
Genta [6] 1996 World Motor Vehicle ✓  X ✓  X ✓  X ✓ Vehicle model
Scientific Dynamics: datasets
Publishing Modeling and
Simulation
Dixon [7] 1996 SAE Tires, Suspension ✓ X X ✓  X ✓  X X Tire-suspension
International and Handling (2nd system
Edition)
Wong [8] 2001 John Wiley & Theory of Ground ✓  X ✓  X ✓ ✓  ✓ Tracked vehicle,
Sons Vehicles (3rd terramechanics
Edition)
Howard et al. [9] 2004 SAE Car Suspension ✓ ✓ X ✓  X ✓ ✓   Suspensions,
International and Handling (4th durability
Edition)
Dukkipati et al. 2008 SAE Road Vehicle ✓ ✓ X ✓   ✓ X ✓ X Theory of
[10] International Dynamics dynamics,
accident
Jazar [11] 2008 Springer Vehicle ✓  X ✓  X ✓ ✓ X  Vehicle
Dynamics: kinematics
Theory and
Application
Wong [12] 2009 Butterworth- Terramechanics ✓ X X ✓  X ✓ ✓  ✓ Terrain
Heinemann of and Off-Road behavior,
Elsevier Vehicle computer-aided
Engineering: method
Terrain Behavior,
Off-Road Vehicle
Performance and
Design (2nd
Edition)
Popp and 2010 Springer Ground Vehicle ✓  X ✓ X X ✓ X X ✓ Multibody
Schiehlen [13] Dynamics
Pacejka [14] 2012 Butterworth- Tire and Vehicle ✓ ✓ X  ✓ X ✓   X Tire models
Heinemann of Dynamics (3rd
Elsevier Edition)
Rajamani [15] 2012 Springer Vehicle Dynamics ✓ ✓ X ✓  X ✓  X  Autonomous
and Control (2nd control
Edition)
Doumiati et al. 2012 John Wiley & Vehicle Dynamics ✓ X X  ✓ X ✓ ✓   Tire variable
[16] Sons Estimation Using estimation
Kalman Filtering:
Experimental
Validation
Mastinu and 2014 CRC Press of Road and Off- ✓  X ✓  X ✓   X Comprehensive,
Ploechl (Eds.) Taylor & Road Vehicle man vehicle
[17] Francis System Dynamics
Handbook
Blundell and 2015 Butterworth- The Multibody ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X ✓ X X ✓ Data set for full
Harty [18] Heinemann of Systems vehicle
Elsevier Approach to
Vehicle Dynamics
(2nd Edition)
Abe [19] 2015 Butterworth- Vehicle Handling ✓ X X ✓  X ✓ ✓ X  Handling
Heinemann of Dynamics: quality, rear-
Elsevier Theory and wheel steering
Application (2nd
Edition)
Continued
Table 1.2 Continued
Scope System Depth Application
Unique
Author/Editor Year Publisher Title Handling Ride NVH Vehicle Tire Road Theory Practice Experiment Simulation feature

Meywerk [20] 2015 John Wiley & Vehicle Dynamics ✓ ✓ X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X ✓ Mechatronics

Sons
Pauwelussen 2015 Butterworth- Essentials of ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ X  State space,
[21] Heinemann of Vehicle Dynamics vehicle-driver
Elsevier interface
Chen et al. [22] 2016 John Wiley & Integrated Vehicle ✓ X X ✓  X ✓ ✓  ✓ ASS, AFS, ABS,
Sons Dynamics and EPS, VSC, 4WS,
Control DYC
Taghavifar and 2017 Springer Off-road Vehicle ✓  X ✓  X ✓ X X X Off-road,
Mardani [23] Dynamics: energy, AI
Analysis,
Modeling and
Optimization
Balkwill [24] 2017 Butterworth- Performance ✓ X X ✓  X ✓ ✓  ✓ Performance
Heinemann of Vehicle cost functions,
Elsevier Dynamics: ADAMS
Engineering and
Applications
Guiggiani [25] 2018 Springer The Science of ✓  X ✓   ✓ ✓ X ✓ Race car, MAP,
Vehicle VIP
Dynamics:
Handling,
Braking, and Ride
of Road and Race
Cars (2nd Edition)
Maclaurin [26] 2018 John Wiley & High-Speed Off- ✓ ✓ X ✓   ✓ ✓   Off-road magic
Sons Road Vehicles: formula
Suspensions,
Tracks, Wheels
and Dynamics
Zhang et al. 2018 Woodhead Modeling,  X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X  EV components
(Eds.) [27] Publishing of Dynamics, and and control
Elsevier Control of
Electrified
Vehicles
Schramm et al. 2018 Springer Vehicle ✓ ✓ X ✓  X ✓  X ✓ Complete
[28] Dynamics: multibody
Modeling and vehicle model
Simulation (2nd
Edition)
Minaker [29] 2019 John Wiley & Fundamentals of  ✓ X ✓  X ✓ ✓ X ✓ Multibody
Sons Vehicle Dynamics dynamics
and Modeling: A
Textbook for
Engineers With
Illustrations and
Examples
Rill and Castro 2020 CRC Press of Road Vehicle ✓  X ✓   ✓ ✓ X ✓ MATLAB
[30] Taylor & Dynamics:
Francis Fundamentals and
Modeling with
MATLAB® (2nd
Edition)
Vangi [31] 2020 Butterworth- Vehicle Collision X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓  ✓ Crash
Heinemann of Dynamics:
Elsevier Analysis and
Reconstruction
Azadi et al. [32] 2021 Elsevier Vehicle Dynamics ✓ X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X  Fleet and
and Control: articulated
Advanced vehicle control
Methodologies

Ride series
Henry and 1992 ASTM Vehicle, Tire, ✓ ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X Road profile and
Wambold (Eds.) Pavement roughness
[33] Interface
Guglielmino 2008 Springer Semi-active X ✓ X ✓ X  ✓ ✓  ✓ Suspension
et al. [34] Suspension control
Control:
Improved Vehicle
Ride and Road
Friendliness
Continued
Table 1.2 Continued
Scope System Depth Application
Unique
Author/Editor Year Publisher Title Handling Ride NVH Vehicle Tire Road Theory Practice Experiment Simulation feature

Yang et al. [35] 2015 Springer Dynamics of X ✓ X ✓  ✓ ✓ ✓  ✓ Road dynamics

Vehicle–Road
Coupled System
Genta and Genta 2016 World Road Vehicle ✓ ✓ X ✓  X ✓ ✓ X ✓ Rigid vehicle vs.
[36] Scientific Dynamics: elastic
Publishing Fundamentals of suspensions
Modeling and
Simulation
Inman [37] 2017 John Wiley and Vibration with X ✓  X X X ✓ ✓ X  Modal control
Sons Control (2nd
Edition)

NVH Series
Ewins [38] 1984 Research Modal Testing: X X ✓ X X X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Modal analysis
Studies Press Theory and
Practice
Kinsler et al. 2000 John Wiley and Fundamentals of X X ✓ X X X ✓ X X X Acoustics
[39] Sons Acoustics (4th
Edition)
Sandberg and 2002 INFORMEX Tyre/Road Noise X X ✓  ✓ ✓  ✓ ✓ X Classic book on
Ejsmont [40] Reference Book TRN
Harrison [41] 2004 Butterworth- Vehicle X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Interior and
Heinemann of Refinement: exterior noise
Elsevier Controlling Noise assessment and
and Vibration in control
Road Vehicles
Fahy and 2007 Academic Press Sound and X X ✓ X X X ✓ X X  Vibroacoustics
Gardonio [42] of Elsevier Structural
Vibration:
Radiation,
Transmission and
Response
Fastl and 2007 Springer Psychoacoustics: X X ✓ X X X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Sound quality
Zwicker [43] Facts and Models
(3rd Edition)
Crocker (Ed.) 2008 John Wiley & Handbook of X X ✓ X X X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Comprehensive
[44] Sons Noise and NV control
Vibration Control
Thompson [45] 2009 Elsevier Railway Noise X X ✓ X X X ✓ ✓   Railway NVH
Science and Vibration:
Mechanisms,
Modeling and
Means of Control
Wang (Ed.) [46] 2010 Woodhead Vehicle Noise and X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓  X Vehicle NVH
Publishing of Vibration refinement
Elsevier Refinement
Sheng [47] 2012 SAE Vehicle Noise, X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ ✓ X NVH
International Vibration, and fundamentals
Sound Quality and evaluations
Kraft and White 2013 Woodhead Mems for X X X  X X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Sensors
(Eds.) [48] Publishing of Automotive and
Elsevier Aerospace
Applications
Inman [49] 2014 Pearson Engineering X  ✓ X X X ✓ ✓   FEM for
Vibration (4th vibration
Edition) systems
Fuchs et al. 2016 Springer Automotive NVH X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Vehicle
(Eds.) [50] Technology components
NVH
Bies and Hansen 2017 Spon Press of Engineering X X ✓ X X X ✓ ✓   Noise
[51] Taylor & Noise Control: engineering
Francis Theory and
Practice (4th
Edition)
Pang [52] 2018 John Wiley & Noise and X X ✓ ✓ X X ✓ ✓ ✓  Vehicle body
Sons Vibration Control NVH
in Automotive
Bodies
Continued
Table 1.2 Continued
Scope System Depth Application
Unique
Author/Editor Year Publisher Title Handling Ride NVH Vehicle Tire Road Theory Practice Experiment Simulation feature

Wang (Ed.) [53] 2020 Butterworth- Automotive Tire X X ✓  ✓  ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tire NVH

Heinemann of Noise and
Elsevier Vibrations

Tire series
Hays and 1974 Springer The Physics of ✓ X X X ✓  ✓ ✓ ✓ X Tire traction
Browne (Eds.) Tire Traction:
[54] Theory and
Experiment
Kovac [55] 1978 Goodyear Tire Technology X X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X Tire
(5th Edition) manufacture
Fleming and 1979 ASTM Tire X X X X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Tire cord
Livingston Reinforcement
(Eds.) [56] and Tire
Performance
Clark [57] 1981 NHTSA Mechanics of ✓ X X  ✓ X ✓ ✓  X First book on tire
Pneumatic Tires (bias)
Meyer and 1983 ASTM Frictional ✓ X  X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ X Tire/Road
Walter (Eds.) Interaction of Tire traction
[58] and Pavement
Ridha and 1994 iSmithers Rapra Advances in Tyre  X  X ✓ X ✓ ✓  X Tire
Theves [59] Publishing Mechanics performance,
references
Rivers [60] 2001 Charles C Tire Failures and X X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X Tire failure
Thomas Pub Evidence Manual:
Ltd For Traffic
Accident
Investigation
Evans [61] 2002 iSmithers Rapra Tyre X X X X ✓ X X ✓ X X Tire compound,
Publishing Compounding for references
Improved
Performance
Gent and Walter 2005 NHTSA The Pneumatic ✓   X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ X Passenger car
(Eds.) [62] Tire radial tire
TRB [63] 2006 The National Tires and  X X  ✓ X X ✓ X X Fuel economy
Academies Passenger Vehicle
Press Fuel Economy:
Informing
Consumers,
Improving
Performance
Giapponi [64] 2008 SAE Tire Forensic X X X X ✓ X X ✓ X ✓ Tire forensic
International Investigation:
Analyzing Tire
Failure
Mark et al. 2013 Academic Press The Science and X X X X ✓ X ✓   X Rubber
(Eds.) [65] of Elsevier Technology of properties
Rubber (4th
Edition)
Leister [66] 2018 Springer Passenger Car X X X X ✓ X X ✓ ✓ X Tire/Wheel
Tires and Wheels: development
Development -
Manufacturing -
Application
Nakajima [67] 2019 Springer Advanced Tire    X ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Tire structural
Mechanics mechanics
Statistics for 67 reference books ✓ 34 13 15 38 21 4 60 52 22 22
 5 12 5 7 23 8 1 7 20 16
X 28 42 47 22 23 55 6 8 25 29

Present book
Tan Li 2023 Elsevier Vehicle/Tire/ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Full system for
Road Dynamics: spectral vehicle
Handling, Ride, dynamics
and NVH
12 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

For example, the ride movement of the vehicle and tire has an effect on the distribution
of vehicle load and tire force and, thus, influences the handling; the ride vibration of
the vehicle and tire contributes to the noise generation (low-frequency NVH). That is
to say, ride dynamics is something bridging handling dynamics and NVH. In this
book, the chapter for handling dynamics provides elementary introduction to ride
dynamics, and the chapter for ride dynamics provides elementary introduction to
NVH, presenting better coherence and synergy between these three major areas of
vehicle/tire dynamics. Several topics on the dependence between handling, ride,
and NVH are discussed in Chapter 6.
Chapter 7 highlights the road effect on handling, ride, and NVH. Chapter 8 talks
about intelligent tire and autonomous EV where the vehicle/tire/road dynamics plays a
great role.
Accompanying the fundamental theories, case studies are given to facilitate com-
prehension throughout the chapters. Besides the experimental implementations, the
state-of-the-art approaches to simulating vehicle/tire dynamics are also presented
from the viewpoint of both industry and academia.

References
[1] R.N. Yong, E.A. Fattah, N. Skiadas, Vehicle Traction Mechanics, Vol. 3, Elsevier Sci-
ence, 1984.
[2] V.K. Garg, R.V. Dukkipati, Dynamics of Railway Vehicle Systems, Academic Press,
1984.
[3] E.J. Haug, Computer Aided Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems: Basic
Methods, Allyn and Bacon, 1989.
[4] T.D. Gillespie, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE International, 1992.
[5] W.F. Milliken, D.L. Milliken, Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, SAE International, 1994.
[6] G. Genta, Motor Vehicle Dynamics: Modelling and Simulation, World Scientific Publish-
ing, 1996.
[7] J.C. Dixon, Tires, Suspension and Handling, second Edition, SAE International, 1996.
[8] J.Y. Wong, Theory of Ground Vehicles, third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
[9] G. Howard, J.P. Whitehead, D. Bastow, Car Suspension and Handling, fourth Edition,
SAE International, 2004.
[10] R. Dukkipati, J. Pang, M. Qatu, G. Sheng, S. Zuo, Road Vehicle Dynamics, SAE Inter-
national, 2008.
[11] R.N. Jazar, Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Application, Springer, 2008.
[12] J.Y. Wong, Terramechanics and Off-Road Vehicle Engineering: Terrain Behaviour, Off-
Road Vehicle Performance and Design, second Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann of
Elsevier, 2009.
[13] K. Popp, W. Schiehlen, Ground Vehicle Dynamics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg,
2010.
[14] H.B. Pacejka, Tire and Vehicle Dynamics, third Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2012.
[15] R. Rajamani, Vehicle Dynamics and Control, second Edition, Springer, 2012.
[16] M. Doumiati, A. Charara, A. Victorino, D. Lechner, Vehicle Dynamics Estimation Using
Kalman Filtering: Experimental Validation, John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
[17] G. Mastinu, M. Ploechl (Eds.), Road and Off-Road Vehicle System Dynamics Handbook,
Taylor & Francis, 2014.
Introduction 13

[18] M. Blundell, D. Harty, The Multibody Systems Approach to Vehicle Dynamics, second
Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
[19] M. Abe, Vehicle Handling Dynamics: Theory and Application, second Edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
[20] M. Meywerk, Vehicle Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, 2015.
[21] J.P. Pauwelussen, Essentials of Vehicle Dynamics, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.
[22] W. Chen, H. Xiao, Q. Wang, L. Zhao, M. Zhu, Integrated Vehicle Dynamics and Control,
John Wiley & Sons, 2016.
[23] H. Taghavifar, A. Mardani, Off-Road Vehicle Dynamics: Analysis, Springer, Modelling
and Optimization, 2017.
[24] J. Balkwill, Performance Vehicle Dynamics: Engineering and Applications, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2017.
[25] M. Guiggiani, The Science of Vehicle Dynamics: Handling, Braking, and Ride of Road
and Race Cars, second Edition, Springer, 2018.
[26] B. Maclaurin, High Speed Off-Road Vehicles: Suspensions, Tracks, Wheels and Dynam-
ics, John Wiley & Sons, 2018.
[27] H. Zhang, D. Cao, H. Du (Eds.), Modeling, Dynamics, and Control of Electrified Vehicles,
Woodhead Publishing, 2018.
[28] D. Schramm, M. Hiller, R. Bardini, Vehicle Dynamics: Modeling and Simulation, second
Edition, Springer, 2018.
[29] B.P. Minaker, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics and Modelling: A Textbook for Engi-
neers with Illustrations and Examples, John Wiley & Sons, 2019.
[30] G. Rill, A.A. Castro, Road Vehicle Dynamics: Fundamentals and Modeling with
MATLAB®, second Edition, Taylor & Francis, 2020.
[31] D. Vangi, Vehicle Collision Dynamics: Analysis and Reconstruction, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2020.
[32] S. Azadi, R. Kazemi, H.R. Nedamani, Vehicle Dynamics and Control: Advanced Meth-
odologies, Elsevier, 2021.
[33] J.J. Henry, J.C. Wambold (Eds.), Vehicle, Tire, Pavement Interface, ASTM, 1992.
[34] E. Guglielmino, T. Sireteanu, C.W. Stammers, G. Gheorghe, M. Giuclea, Semi-Active
Suspension Control: Improved Vehicle Ride and Road Friendliness, Springer, 2008.
[35] S. Yang, S. Li, L. Chen, Dynamics of Vehicle-Road Coupled System, Springer, 2015.
[36] G. Genta, A. Genta, Road Vehicle Dynamics: Fundamentals of Modeling and Simulation,
World Scientific Publishing, 2016.
[37] D.J. Inman, Vibration with Control, second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2017.
[38] D.J. Ewins, Modal Testing: Theory and Practice, Research Studies Press Ltd., 1984,
pp. 1–269.
[39] L.E. Kinsler, A.R. Frey, A.B. Coppens, J.V. Sanders, Fundamentals of Acoustics, fourth
Edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2000.
[40] U. Sandberg, J.A. Ejsmont, Tyre/Road Noise Reference Book, INFORMEX, Kisa, Swe-
den; Harg, Sweden, 2002.
[41] M. Harrison, Vehicle Refinement: Controlling Noise and Vibration in Road Vehicles,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 2004.
[42] F. Fahy, P. Gardonio, Sound and Structural Vibration: Radiation, Transmission and
Response, Academic Press of Elsevier, 2007.
[43] H. Fastl, E. Zwicker, Psychoacoustics: Facts and Models, third Edition, Springer, 2007.
[44] M.J. Crocker (Ed.), Handbook of Noise and Vibration Control, John Wiley & Sons, 2008.
[45] D. Thompson, Railway Noise and Vibration: Mechanisms, Modelling and Means of Con-
trol, Elsevier Science, 2009.
14 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

[46] X. Wang (Ed.), Vehicle Noise and Vibration Refinement, Woodhead Publishing, 2010.
[47] G. Sheng, Vehicle Noise, Vibration, and Sound Quality, SAE International, 2012.
[48] M. Kraft, N.M. White (Eds.), Mems for Automotive and Aerospace Applications,
Woodhead Publishing, 2013.
[49] D.J. Inman, Engineering Vibration, fourth Edition, Pearson, 2014.
[50] A. Fuchs, E. Nijman, H.-H. Priebsch (Eds.), Automotive NVH Technology, Springer,
2016.
[51] D.A. Bies, C.H. Hansen, Engineering Noise Control: Theory and Practice, fourth Edition,
Spon Press of Taylor & Francis, 2017.
[52] J. Pang, Noise and Vibration Control in Automotive Bodies, John Wiley & Sons, 2018.
[53] X. Wang (Ed.), Automotive Tire Noise and Vibrations, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2020.
[54] D.F. Hays, A.L. Browne (Eds.), The Physics of Tire Traction: Theory and Experiment,
Springer, 1974.
[55] F.J. Kovac, Tire Technology, fifth Edition, Goodyear Tyre & Rubber Company, 1978.
[56] R.A. Fleming, D.I. Livingston (Eds.), Tire Reinforcement and Tire Performance, ASTM,
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[57] S.K. Clark, Mechanics of Pneumatic Tires, U.S. Department of Transportation, National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1981.
[58] W.E. Meyer, J.D. Walter, Frictional Interaction of Tire and Pavement, ASTM, 1983.
[59] R.A. Ridha, M. Theves, Advances in Tyre Mechanics, iSmithers Rapra Publishing, 1994.
[60] R.W. Rivers, Tire Failures and Evidence Manual: For Traffic Accident Investigation,
Charles C Thomas Pub Ltd, 2001.
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2002.
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tration, 2005.
[63] Transportation Research Board, Tires and Passenger Vehicle Fuel Economy: Informing
Consumers, Improving Performance, The National Academies Press, 2006.
[64] T. Giapponi, Tire Forensic Investigation: Analyzing Tire Failure, SAE International,
2008.
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fourth Edition, Academic Press, 2013.
[66] G. Leister, Passenger Car Tires and Wheels: Development - Manufacturing - Application,
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[67] Y. Nakajima, Advanced Tire Mechanics, Springer, 2019.
Definitions and fundamentals
2
The vehicle/tire/road dynamics in this book covers handling, ride, and NVH (noise,
vibration, and harshness). The fundamentals of vehicle handling are multibody
dynamics, which will be introduced in Section 2.1. The fundamentals of vehicle ride
are vibrations of discrete systems and will be discussed in Section 2.2. Control theory
is typically accompanied with vibrations and thus will be introduced in Section 2.3,
which is also the foundation for the autonomous vehicle that will be discussed in
Chapter 8. As higher level dynamics, NVH includes both structure-borne acoustics
(Section 2.4) and airborne acoustics (Section 2.5). In Section 2.6, the acoustic reso-
nance is discussed, which is also a common phenomenon in the vehicle/tire/road
system.

2.1 Multibody dynamics

Advanced vehicle handling analysis is typically conducted through nonlinear (with all
sources of compliance, stiffness, and damping) multibody vehicle models, including
powertrain/drivetrain, suspensions, steering system, tire/wheel assemblies, and vehi-
cle body. In this section, the brief theory of kinematics and dynamics of the multibody
system is introduced.
Multibody dynamic systems are mechanical systems that contain several rigid bod-
ies connected by joints, such as industrial robots, heavy machinery, spacecraft, auto-
mobile suspension and steering system, machine tools, and so on. A joint allows
certain degrees of freedom (DOFs) and prevents others, as shown in Table 2.1 [1].
For example, Fig. 2.1 shows a planar slider-crank system (2D), composed of four
bodies: the crank (body 1), the connecting rod (body 2), the slider (body 3), and the
ground (body 4). Body 1 and body 4 are connected by revolute joint; body 1 and body
2 are connected by revolute joint; body 2 and body 3 are connected by revolute joint;
body 3 and body 4 are connected by translational joint.
To completely describe a multibody system, a set of parameters (coordinates) must
be chosen to unequivocally define the position, velocity, and acceleration of the sys-
tem at all times. The number of coordinates should be equal to the number of DOF plus
the number of constraints. A planar body has three DOFs (two translations and one
rotation) whereas a spatial body has six DOFs (three translations and three rotations).
In the planar slider-crank system, each body has three DOFs (xi, yi, φi); the generalized
coordinates are expressed in vector form as

T
q ¼ rT1 , φ1 , rT2 , φ2 , rT3 , φ3 , rT4 , φ4
: (2.1)
¼ ½ x 1 , y 1 , φ1 , x 2 , y 2 , φ2 , x 3 , y 3 , φ3 , x 4 , y 4 , φ4  T

Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90176-5.00002-4

Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Table 2.1 Different types of joint in multibody dynamics.
Class Joint Symbol DOF Illustration

Class I joint (2D, Revolute R 1 rotation

allows 1 DOF)

Prismatic or P or T 1 translation
translational

Class II joint Cylindrical C 1 rotation and 1 translation

(3D, allows 2
DOFs)

Universal U 2 rotations
Others Spherical S 3 rotations

Helical or screw H 1 rotation and 1 translation, which

are dependent

Gear G 1 motion about two axes that cross in

space but never intersect each other

Planar Pl 1 rotation and 2 translations

18 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

Fig. 2.1 Schematic of a planar slider-crank system.

The coordinates without prime symbol in Fig. 2.1 are in global reference frame,
whereas the coordinates with prime symbol are in local reference frame of each body.
The constraint equation vector is written as
 
ΦK ðq, tÞ
Φðq, tÞ≡ D ¼ 0, (2.2)
Φ ðq, tÞ

where ΦK(q, t) is the kinematic constraint vector based on the joints and ΦD(q, t) is the
driving constraint vector based on the actuators.
As shown in Fig. 2.2, the location of a rigid body i in the global XY plane can be
defined by the vector ri and angle of rotation φi. The vector rPi that locates point P of
rigid body i in global reference frame can be written as

rPi ¼ ri + sPi ¼ ri + Ai s0iP

cos φi  sin φi (2.3)
Ai ¼
sin φi cos φi

where s0i P is the position vector in the local reference frame Xi0 Yi0 for point P. The
expression for the virtual displacement of point P can be obtained by taking the dif-
ferential of the above equation:

δrPi ¼ δri + δφi Bi s0 i

P
" #
 sin φi  cos φi (2.4)
Bi ¼
cos φi  sin φi

The equation derivations for the 3D multibody dynamics are omitted here, but a vehi-
cle’s front suspension system and the kinematic chain modeling are illustrated in
Fig. 2.3 for the reference.
Definitions and fundamentals 19

Fig. 2.2 Transformation from local coordinate system to global coordinate system.

There are typically two types of problems for a multibody system: kinematic prob-
lem and dynamic problem. The former studies the position or the motion of the mul-
tibody system, irrespective of the forces and reactions that generate it; the latter
involves the forces that act on the multibody system and its inertial characteristics
(mass, inertia tensor, the position of its center of gravity or CG). The governing equa-
tions are summarized in Table 2.2.

2.2 Vibrations
Vehicle ride comfort is associated with the oscillations of the cabin. This section
begins with the vibration of single-lumped mass without damping, then the vibration
of single-lumped mass with damping, and lastly the vibration of multiple-lumped
masses.

2.2.1 Single degree-of-freedom undamped oscillation

To describe the motions of bodies, Newton’s equations that balance the forces asso-
ciated with their motion need to be set up. A simple oscillator (one DOF spring-mass
system) is shown in Fig. 2.4, where m is the mass, k is the stiffness or spring constant,
x is the displacement, and F is the restoring force [2].
20 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

Fig. 2.3 Multibody system for MacPherson strut with dissolved lower wishbone: (A) structure,
(B) topology.
Modified from D. Schramm, M. Hiller, R. Bardini, Vehicle Dynamics: Modeling
and Simulation, 2nd ed., Springer, 2018. Reprinted with permission from Springer.

The equation of motion is given by

 2 
d x
F ¼ kx ¼ m , (2.5)
dt2

where t is time. Eq. (2.5) can be rewritten as

Table 2.2 Governing equations for multibody dynamics.

Category Equation Note

Kinematic Φ _ ðq, q,
_ tÞ ¼ Φq q_ + Φt ¼ 0 The single dot denotes first-order derivative with respect to time. The
velocity ν≡Φq q_ ¼ Φt subscript denotes first-order derivative with respect to that variable/
q_ ¼ Φ1 q Φt
vector

Kinematic Φ€ ðq, q,
_ q€ , tÞ ¼ Φq q € + Φq q_ q q_ + 2Φtq q_ + Φtt ¼ 0 The double dot denotes second-order derivative with respect to time
acceleration € ðq, q, _ q q_ + Φ
_t¼0
Φ _ q€ , tÞ ¼ Φq q €+Φ

γ≡Φq q € ¼  Φq q_ q q_  2Φtq q_  Φtt
γ≡Φq q € ¼ Φ _ q_  Φ _t
h q i
€ ¼ Φ1
q q Φq q_ q q_ + 2Φtq q_ + Φtt

€ ¼ Φ1 _ _ +Φ _t
q q Φq q
" # " #
Dynamic T € M is mass matrix, QA is applied force vector, and λ is Lagrange
M Φq q QA
¼ multiplier vector. F and T with prime denote reaction forces and torque
Φq 0 λ γ
8 in local reference frame with origin at CG. F and T without prime denote
< F’ki ¼ ATi ΦkT ri λ k
reaction forces and torque in global reference frame
: T’ki ¼ s’PT
i Bi Φri  Φφi λ
T kT kT k
8
< Fki ¼ Ai F’ki ¼ ΦkTri λ
k

: T ki ¼ T’ki ¼ s’PT
i Bi Φri  Φφi λ
T kT kT k
22 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

Fig. 2.4 Schematic representation of a simple oscillator.

d2 x
+ ω20 x ¼ 0
dt2 , (2.6)
k
02
ω ¼
m

where ω0 is called the undamped natural frequency of the system. To solve the above
differential equation, a solution in the form of power series is assumed as

x ¼ a0 + a1 t + a2 t2 + a3 t3 + :…, (2.7)

where a0, a1, a2 … are coefficients to be solved. Substituting Eq. (2.7) into Eq. (2.6)
yields
   
ω0 2 t2 ω0 4 t4 ω0 6 t6 ω0 3 t3 ω0 5 t5
x ¼ a0 1  +  + … + a1 t  +  :…
2 24 720 6 120 , (2.8)
¼ a0 cos ðω0 tÞ + a1 sin ðω0 tÞ

where the constants a0 and a1 are determined by applying the boundary conditions (the
initial displacement/velocity conditions) to the problem. The solution can alterna-
tively be written in the form of complex number as

x ¼ A0 eiω0 t ¼ A0 cos ðω0 tÞ  iA0 sin ðω0 tÞ, (2.9)

where e iω0t indicates a rotating vector at the angular velocity ω0 on the complex
plane, and A0 is the complex amplitude indicating magnitude and phase. Convention-
ally, the real part of the complex solution is used to represent the actual physical
behavior. However, the imaginary part associated with phase of the motion is needed
when adding it to another motion.

2.2.2 Single degree-of-freedom damped oscillation

In reality, there is always dissipative force due to friction contributing to the restoring
force, leading to damped oscillation, as shown in Fig. 2.5, where c is the damping coef-
ficient or mechanical resistance of the system [2].
Definitions and fundamentals 23

Fig. 2.5 Schematic representation of a damped oscillator.

The equation of motion is given by

d2 x dx
m +c + kx ¼ 0, (2.10)
dt2 dt

or rewritten as

d2 x dx
+ 2ζω0 + ω20 x ¼ 0
dt2 dt
c c
ζ ¼ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi , (2.11)
c0 2 mk
rffiffiffiffi
k
ω0 ¼
m

where ζ is called the damping ratio. The damping ratio is a dimensionless measure
describing how oscillations in a system decay after a disturbance, which can vary from
undamped (ζ ¼ 0), underdamped (ζ < 1, system oscillates with the amplitude gradu-
ally decreasing to zero at a slightly lower frequency than the undamped case) through
critically damped (ζ ¼ 1, amplitude returns to zero as quickly as possible without
oscillating) to overdamped (ζ > 1, amplitude exponentially decays without
oscillating).
The solution of the 1-DOF damped system is given by

x ¼ A0 eβt eiωd t
c
β¼
2mqffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi : (2.12)

ωd ¼ ω 0 1  ζ2

The Q factor of a damped oscillator represents the ratio of energy stored to energy lost
per cycle and is calculated by

1
Q¼ : (2.13)
2ζ
24 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

2.2.3 Multiple degree-of-freedom discrete system

For a n-DOF discrete system, as illustrated in Fig. 2.6 [3], the governing equation of
motion is

Mnn €
xn1 + Cnn x_ n1 + Knn xn1 ¼ f n1 , (2.14)

where x is the vector of generalized coordinates (physical DOFs) and f is the vector of
the externally applied force. M, C, and K are mass, damping, and stiffness matrices,
which are constant for linear systems, whereas for nonlinear systems, the elements of
these matrices are functions of generalized displacements/velocities that are time
dependent. In this section, only linear system is considered.
First, we assume the system is undamped under free vibration, that is, C and f
are null

x + Kx ¼ 0:
M€ (2.15)

Typically, the matrices for M and K are nondiagonal, meaning the n-DOFs are
coupled and cannot be solved separately. To address this, a modal transformation
matrix Φ needs to be specified to convert the generalized coordinates x to the principal
coordinates p (modal DOFs), given by

x ¼ Φp: (2.16)

Substituting Eq. (2.16) into Eq. (2.15) yields

p + KΦp ¼ 0,
MΦ€ (2.17)

which needs to satisfy after premultiplying ΦT

ΦT MΦ p € + ΦT KΦ p ¼ 0, (2.18)
|fflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
⁎ ⁎
M K

where M⁎ and K⁎ should be diagonal, meaning the principal coordinates p are

decoupled.

Fig. 2.6 Schematic representation of a multiple degree-of-freedom (MDOF) discrete system.

Source from G. Sheng, Vehicle Noise, Vibration, and Sound Quality. SAE International, 2012.
Reprinted with permission from SAE International.
Definitions and fundamentals 25

Φ is composed of orthogonal eigenvectors ϕi (mode shapes) of the system, which

can be derived by solving the characteristic equation


M1 K  λi I ϕi ¼ 0, (2.19)

where λi ¼ ω2i is called eigenvalue (ωi is the natural frequency for the ith principal
coordinate).
Now we assume the system is damped under forced vibration. Substituting
Eq. (2.16) into Eq. (2.14) and premultiplying ΦT yields

ΦT MΦ p € + ΦT CΦ p_ + ΦT KΦ p ¼ ΦT f: (2.20)
|fflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflfflffl{zfflfflffl}
⁎ ⁎ ⁎
M C K

It is noted that C⁎ is not necessarily diagonal. If the system has proportional damping,
meaning

C ¼ αM + βK, (2.21)

where α and β are proportionality constants, C⁎ is diagonal and the equations of

motion can be completely decoupled. The ith equation is written as

p€i + 2ζ i ωi p_ i + ω2i pi ¼ f i
, (2.22)
2ζ i ωi ¼ α + βω2i

where fi is normalized/weighted external force. Thus, the solution for each normal
mode is obtained as
ðt
1
pi ðtÞ ¼ f i ðτÞ exp ½ζ i ωi ðt  τÞ sin ωdi ðt  τÞdτ, (2.23)
ωdi 0

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
where ωdi ¼ ωi 1  ζ 2i . The physical response of the system can be calculated by
modal transformation Eq. (2.16), which is known as the normal mode
summation method.

2.3 Control
A dynamics control system regulates the movements of mechatronic devices by con-
trolling the position, velocity, or force using some type of actuators (hydraulic, pneu-
matic, magnetic, or electric motors), the performance of which can be evaluated by
fast response, moderate overshoot, and minimal steady-state error [4]. A typical
motion control system is illustrated in Fig. 2.7, which includes sensors/estimators,
actuators, and controllers. This is analogous to a forced vibration system with specific
targets.
26 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

Fig. 2.7 Block diagram of a typical dynamics control system.

Source from Y. Wang, H. Fujimoto, Dynamics control for EVs, in: Modeling, Dynamics and
Control of Electrified Vehicles, Woodhead Publishing, 2018, pp. 309–337. Reprinted with
permission from Elsevier.

In this section, some mathematics for signal processing is introduced, which is also
the basis for NVH data analysis. The control design techniques based on state-space
representations are demonstrated.

2.3.1 Some mathematics

2.3.1.1 Fourier transform
Fourier transform (FT), named after Joseph Fourier, is a mathematical transform that
decomposes functions depending on time f(t) into functions depending on frequency
g(ω), defined as

ð
∞
1
gð ω Þ ¼ f ðtÞeiωt dt: (2.24)
2π
∞

The inverse FT is defined as

ð
∞

f ðt Þ ¼ gðωÞeiωt dω: (2.25)

∞

Some commonly seen FTs are illustrated in Fig. 2.8. When the signal in the time
domain is periodic, the frequency domain is discrete, such as Fig. 2.8A. When the sig-
nal in the time domain is nonperiodic, the frequency domain is continuous, such as
Fig. 2.8B, C, and D.
Definitions and fundamentals 27

Fig. 2.8 Fourier transform and inverse Fourier transform for some commonly seen signals:
(A) sine wave, (B) impulse signal, (C) symmetric square wave, and (D) asymmetric
square wave.
Modified from Wikipedia “Fourier transform”.

2.3.1.2 Laplace transform

Laplace transform, named after Pierre-Simon Laplace, is an integral transform that
converts a function of time t (real variable) to a function of frequency s (complex var-
iable), which transforms differential equations (convolutions difficult to solve) into
algebraic equations (multiplications easy to solve), defined as
28 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

ð
∞

XðsÞ ¼ L½xðtÞ ¼ xðtÞest dt, t > 0, (2.26)

0

where s ¼ iω is a complex number frequency parameter. Some functions and their

Laplace transforms are listed in Table 2.3.
As an example, take the Laplace transform of the equation of motion for the 1-DOF
mass-spring-damper system discussed in Section 2.2.2, assuming zero initial
conditions.

x + cx_ + kx ¼ F0 cos ωt≡f ðtÞ

m€
+ , (2.27)
 2 F0 s
ms + cs + k XðsÞ ¼ 2 ≡FðsÞ
s + ω2

Table 2.3 Partial list of functions and their Laplace transforms with zero initial conditions
and t > 0.

Laplace
Function Time domain x(t) s-domain X(s)

Unit impulse δ(t) 1

Delayed impulse δ(t  τ) e τs
Unit step 1 1
s
Ramp t 1
s2
nth power (for integer n) tn n!
sn+1
nth power with frequency shift tne αt n!
ðs + αÞn+1
(for integer n)
Exponential decay e αt s+α
1

Exponential approach (1  e αt) α

s ð s + αÞ
ω
Sine sin(ωt) s 2 + ω2
s
Cosine cos(ωt) s 2 + ω2
α
Hyperbolic sine sinh(αt) s2 α2
s
Hyperbolic cosine cosh(αt) s2 α2
Exponentially decaying sine wave e αt sin(ωt) ω
ð s + α Þ 2 + ω2
Exponentially decaying cosine e αt cos(ωt) s+α
ð s + α Þ 2 + ω2
wave
Derivative d
xðtÞ sX(s)  x(0)
Ðdtt
Integration XðsÞ
0x(τ)dτ
 at s
For inverse Laplace transform 1
ba e  ebt 1
ðs + aÞðs + bÞ
For inverse Laplace transform 1
ω2 ð1  cos ωtÞ 1
sðs2 + ω2 Þ
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1
For inverse Laplace transform p1ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2ffi eζωt sin ω 1  ζ 2 t s2 + 2ζωs + ω2
ω 1ζ
Definitions and fundamentals 29

where f(t) ¼ F0cosωt is the sinusoidal force input on the system. Solving the algebraic
equation for X(s),

F0 s
X ðsÞ ¼ , (2.28)
ðms2 + cs + kÞðs2 + ω2 Þ

which can be inverse transformed to get the time response x(t), defined as

γ +ði∞
1 1
xðtÞ ¼ L ½XðsÞ ¼ XðsÞest ds, (2.29)
2πi
γi∞

where γ is a real number so that the contour path of integration is in the region of con-
vergence of X(s).
Eq. (2.27) can be rewritten as transfer function format,

ms2 + cs + k XðsÞ ¼ FðsÞ
+ , (2.30)
X ðsÞ 1
H ðsÞ ¼ ¼
FðsÞ ms2 + cs + k

where H(iω) is the frequency response function, representing the amplitude/phase

relations between output x(t) and input f(t). Therefore, this approach is widely used
in control analysis to examine the response.
The FT provides a frequency domain representation of time domain signals, which
is an expansion of Fourier series to the nonperiodic signals. The so-called fast Fourier
transform is FT for discrete signals. The Laplace transform maps a function of time to
a function of frequency with the advantage of converting linear differential equation to
algebraic equation (e.g., x_ðtÞ ¼ dxdtðtÞ mapped to sX(s)). The so-called Z transform is
essentially a discrete version of the Laplace transform and, thus, can be used for solv-
ing difference equations (the discrete version of differential equations). That is, FT has
direct physical meaning, whereas Laplace transform has obvious mathematical
benefits.

2.3.1.3 Stochastic signal

Assuming a scalar continuous and stationary random variable x(t), its probability dis-
tribution can be described by the cumulative distribution function (CDF):

Pðx1 Þ ¼ Pr½xðtÞ  x1 , (2.31)

where x1 is a real number. The probability density function is the derivative of CDF
with respect to x1
30 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

d
pð x 1 Þ ¼ Pðx1 Þ: (2.32)
dx1

The first-order statistical properties include mean x, mean square Ehx2i, and variance
σ 2, defined by
ð∞
x ¼ Eh x i ¼ xpðxÞdx
ð ∞ ∞
 
E x2 ¼ x2 pðxÞdx , (2.33)
∞
D E ð ∞
σ 2 ¼ E ðx  xÞ2 ¼ ðx  xÞ2 pðxÞdx
∞

where E is the expectation operator and means “average.” The second-order statistical
properties include autocorrelation ρxx(τ), cross-correlation ρxy(τ), auto-covariance
cxx(τ), and cross-covariance cxy(τ), defined by

ð
∞ ð
∞

ρxx ðτÞ ¼ EhxðtÞxðt + τÞi ¼ x1 x2 pðx1 ðtÞ, x2 ðt + τÞÞdx1 dx2

|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
∞ ∞ Joint Density Function
ð
∞ ð
∞

ρxy ðτÞ ¼ EhxðtÞyðt + τÞi ¼ xypðxðtÞ, yðt + τÞÞ dxdy : (2.34)

|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
∞ ∞ Joint Density Function
cxx ðτÞ ¼ EhðxðtÞ  xÞðxðt + τÞ  xÞi
cxy ðτÞ ¼ EhðxðtÞ  xÞðyðt + τÞ  yÞi

The cross-covariance can be related to the cross-correlation by

cxy ðτÞ ¼ ρxy ðτÞ  x  y: (2.35)

Two scalar random variables x and y are called uncorrelated if

Ehxyi ¼ EhxiEhyi , ρxy ðτÞ ¼ x  y , cxy ðτÞ ¼ 0, (2.36)

orthogonal if

Ehxyi ¼ 0 , ρxy ðτÞ ¼ 0, (2.37)

and independent if

pðx, yÞ ¼ pðxÞpðyÞ: (2.38)

Assume x(t) is an N-dimensional random vector signal, and the mean is

Definitions and fundamentals 31

2 3 2 3
Ehx1 ðtÞi x1
6 7 6 7
x ¼ EhxðtÞi ¼ 4 ⋮ 5 ¼ 4 ⋮ 5: (2.39)
EhxN ðtÞi xN

Similarly, the correlation matrix R(τ) and covariance matrix C(τ) associated with x(t)
are
2 D E D E3 2 3
E x1 ðtÞx1 ðt + τÞ ⋯ E x1 ðtÞxN ðt + τÞ ρ ðτÞ ⋯ ρ1N ðτÞ
6 7 6 11 7
D E 6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
RðτÞ ¼ E xðtÞxT ðt + τÞ ¼ 6 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 7≡6 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 7
6 7 6 7
4 D E D E5 4 5:
E xN ðtÞx1 ðt + τÞ ⋯ E xN ðtÞxN ðt + τÞ ρN1 ðτÞ ⋯ ρNN ðτÞ
D E
CðτÞ ¼ E ðxðtÞ  xÞðxðt + τÞ  xÞT ¼ RðτÞ  xx T

(2.40)

The components of x(t) are said to be uncorrelated if all off-diagonal elements (i.e.,
element-wise cross-correlations) of R(τ) are zero.
If the components of x(t) are zero-mean uncorrelated Gaussian random variables,
2 3
σ 211 ⋯ 0
RðτÞ ¼ CðτÞ ¼ 4 ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 5δðτÞ ≡ QδðτÞ
, (2.41)
0 ⋯ σ 2NN
Q ¼ EhxxT i

where δ(τ) Dirac delta function.

2.3.2 Classical control system

There are typically two types of control systems: feed-forward control (open loop) and
feedback control (closed loop), as illustrated in Fig. 2.9. The control objective is to
find the command (control) signal u to generate a desired response (measurement)
signal y by designing appropriate controller (compensator) G. The process (a.k.a.
plant) H represents a dynamic system (assuming not adaptable here) that transforms
the input u into the output y. For the feed-forward control, the input of controller G is
simply the reference (target) signal r, which has the same physical unit as y but not
affected by the value of y; in this case, controller G is something like the inverse
of plant H. For the feedback control, the input of controller G is the error
e between the reference r and response y. When disturbance (noise) d exists, the
feed-forward control may not generate the desired y because the input u is completely
decided by r. However, the feedback control can sense the error continuously and
adjust the input u accordingly to correct the output.
For the feedback control shown in Fig. 2.9B, the output in the Laplace domain is
given by
32 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

Fig. 2.9 Control system: (A) feed-forward control (open loop) and (B) feedback control
(closed loop).

Y ðsÞ ¼ HðsÞU ðsÞ + DðsÞ ¼ H ðsÞ½GðsÞEðsÞ + DðsÞ

: (2.42)
¼ HðsÞGðsÞ½RðsÞ  Y ðsÞ + DðsÞ

Rearranging Eq. (2.42) yields closed-loop input/output relationship

   
GðsÞHðsÞ 1
Y ðsÞ ¼ Rð s Þ + DðsÞ: (2.43)
1 + GðsÞH ðsÞ 1 + GðsÞH ðsÞ

For tracking and disturbance rejection, that is, Y(s)  R(s), it is desirable to have G(s)
H(s) ≫ 1, which can be achieved by turning up the compensator gain j G(0)j. However,
too much compensator gain can cause instability, which is even worse than the uncon-
trolled process. Instability occurs when not all the roots of the characteristic equation 1
+ G(s)H(s) ¼ 0 are located in the left-half plane (further left indicates faster response).
There are two common choices for classical controller/compensator designs: PID
controller GPID(s) and lead/lag controller GL(s), defined as

1
GPID ðsÞ ¼ kP + kI + kD s
|{z} s
|{z} |{z}
Proportional control Derivative control
(
Integral control
: (2.44)
s+b a>b Lead control
GL ðsÞ ¼ k ,
s+a a<b Lag control

For single input single output system, the plant H can typically be represented or esti-
mated by a transfer function format:

bm sm + bm1 sm1 + …+b1 s + b0

H ðsÞ ¼ eτs , (2.45)
an sn + an1 sn1 + …+a1 s + a0
Definitions and fundamentals 33

where m is the order of the numerator polynomial function, n is the order of the
denominator polynomial function, bi are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial
function, ai are the coefficients of the numerator polynomial function, and τ is the
transport delay.

2.3.3 State-space representation

For multiple input multiple output system, many control design techniques require the
process H be described by state-space equations [5]:

x_ N1 ¼ ANN xN1 + BNM uM1 , State Equation

, (2.46)
yP1 ¼ CPN xN1 + DPM uM1 , Output Equation

where u(t) is input vector, y(t) is output vector, x(t) is state vector collecting gener-
alized coordinates and their derivatives, x_ ðtÞ is time derivative state vector, A is state
matrix representing the dynamics of the open-loop system, B is input matrix, C is out-
put matrix, and D is direct transmission matrix.
The state is a set of variables summarizing the current status of a system, which can
be positions, velocities, accelerations, forces, momentum, torques, pressure, voltage,
current, charge, and so on. For example, the state of the 1-DOF spring-mass oscillator
discussed in Section 2.2.1 (c.f. Fig. 2.4) can be the displacement x(t) and velocity x_ðtÞ
of the mass (Fig. 2.10)
   
x1 xðtÞ
x¼ ¼ : (2.47)
x2 x_ ðtÞ

The input of the system is u(t) ¼ F(t). Suppose the output of interest is the spring force
and the mass acceleration, that is,
    " kx1 #
y1 kxðtÞ
y¼ ¼ ¼ u  kx1 : (2.48)
y2 x€ðtÞ
m

Thus, the full state-space equations for this system can be written as

Fig. 2.10 Schematic representation of a forced 1-DOF spring-mass oscillator.

34 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

" # 2 3" # 2 3
x_ 1 ðtÞ 0 1 x1 ðtÞ 0
¼4 k 5 + 4 1 5 uðtÞ
x_ 2 ðtÞ  0 x2 ðtÞ
|{z}
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflm
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflffl{zffl
m ffl} u
x_ A
x
B
2 3" 2 3 : (2.49)
" # k 0
# 0
y1 ðtÞ x1 ðtÞ
¼4 k 5 + 4 1 5 uðtÞ
y2 ðtÞ  0 x2 ðtÞ
|{z}
|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}|fflfflffl{zfflfflffl} |fflffl{zffl
|fflfflfflfflfflfflm m ffl} u
y x
C D

The order of a system N is the minimal number of state variables required to describe
it. The 1-DOF spring-mass oscillator needs to be described by a second-order differ-
ential equation, which should be reduced to two first-order differential equations for
state-space representation. Therefore, the order of the 1-DOF spring-mass oscillator is
N ¼ 2. The choice of state variables is not unique; one may instead choose the spring
force and momentum as the two state variables. Because x_ ðtÞ and y(t) are linear com-
binations of x(t) and u(t), this system is called linear system. In addition, due to the fact
that all the coefficients A, B, C, and D are constants, this system is called linear time
invariant (LTI) system. This control system discussed in this subsection is focused
on LTI system; nonlinear systems can be linearized about a specified operating point
(x0,u0).
With derivation omitted here, the solution of the state vector is given by
ðt h i
xðtÞ ¼ eAðtt0 Þ xðt0 Þ + eAðtτÞ B uðτÞdτ, (2.50)
t0

where the first term represents the response due to initial conditions at t0 and the sec-
ond term represents the forced response (a convolution integral where eAtB is the sys-
tem impulse response). By defining the state transition matrix indicating how the state
evolves from initial conditions,

Φðt, t0 Þ ¼ eAðtt0 Þ )
ðt : (2.51)
xðtÞ ¼ Φðt, t0 Þxðt0 Þ + ½Φðt, τÞBuðτÞdτ
t0

The solution for the state can also be calculated by Laplace transform method. By tak-
ing the Laplace transform of the state and output equations Eq. (2.46),

sxðsÞ  xðt ¼ 0Þ ¼ AxðsÞ + BuðsÞ

: (2.52)
yðsÞ ¼ CxðsÞ + DuðsÞ

Assuming zero initial conditions x(0) ¼ 0,

Definitions and fundamentals 35

yðsÞ
HðsÞ ¼ ¼ C½sI  A1 B + D
uðsÞ
, (2.53)
1 adj½sI  A
½sI  A ¼
jsI  Aj

which is alternative to the transfer function format in Eq. (2.45). The eigenvalues of
the A matrix are the solutions of the characteristic equation jsI  A j ¼ 0, that is, the
poles of the transfer functions. The matrix exponential eAt can be related to the state
matrix A through the inverse Laplace transform:
n o
L1 ½sI  A1 ¼ eAt ¼ Φðt, 0Þ: (2.54)

Numerical methods can also be used to find the solution of the state [6].
The discrete state-space formulation can be deduced from the continuous one by
using the first-order Euler approximation formula

xk  xk1
x_ k1 ¼ , (2.55)
ts

where k is the index of the discrete sequence and ts is the sampling time (a.k.a. sam-
pling interval or sampling period).

2.3.4 Full state feedback

If all of the states x(t) are available for feedback, and the feedback control law is

uðtÞ ¼ GxðtÞ, (2.56)

where G is a matrix of static (constant) gains. Substituting Eq. (2.56) into the state
equation Eq. (2.46) gives

x_ ðtÞ ¼ ½A  BGxðtÞ
, (2.57)
yðtÞ ¼ ½C  DGxðtÞ

where [A  BG] is the closed-loop state matrix. By appropriately designing G (pole

placement), the system dynamics and the time response (rise time, overshoot, settling
time, etc.) can be changed. If the closed-loop poles can be arbitrarily placed in the
s-plane, the system (and states) is considered controllable. A formal definition of con-
trollability is, an LTI system is said to be completely controllable if and only if it can
be transferred from any initial state x0 at any initial time t0 to any terminal state x(t1) ¼
x1 within a finite time t1  t0. Controllability can also be determined by whether the
controllability matrix Q has full rank, rank(Q) ¼ N, which is equivalent to whether the
controllability Gramian P(t1,t0) is nonsingular.
36 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics


Q ¼ BABA2 B…AN1 B
ð t1
: (2.58)
Pðt1 , t0 Þ ¼ eAðt1 τÞ BBT eA ðt1 τÞ dτ
T

t0

If the system is not completely controllable, a controllable subspace can still be

defined, which consists of all of the states that can be reached from the zero state
within a finite time. Similar concept applies to stability: the full states can be par-
titioned into stable and unstable subspaces. In order to control the system properly,
the open-loop unstable subspace must be controllable; controllability implies
closed-loop stability because closed-loop poles can be arbitrarily placed. Moreover,
the full state feedback provides more DOFs (static gains from G) to place the poles
and increases the chance of stability, the control objective of which is to shape the time
response evolving from some initial condition x0.

2.3.5 Output feedback (observer/estimator)

Usually, the full states x(t) are not available or measurable. In that case, the output y(t)
has to be used for feedback control. Meanwhile, a state estimator or dynamic observer
can be designed to estimate the full state vector b xðtÞ using the actual outputs y(t). The
estimated state vector b xðtÞ can be used in a full state feedback control law u ¼ Gb x. A
common Luenberger observer is shown in Fig. 2.11.
This dynamic observer has two vector inputs (y and u) and one vector output b x. By
designing the (fixed/static) observer feedback matrix K, the state estimation error
e ¼ xb x can converge to zero in a finite and desired amount of time if the matrix
[A  KC] is asymptotically stable (i.e., all its poles are located in the left-half plane;
the further left the faster convergence). Comparing Eq. (2.59) and Eq. (2.57) indicates
that the problem of designing an observer is mathematically equivalent to designing a

Fig. 2.11 Block diagram of a

Luenberger observer.
Modified from Prof. Steve
Southward’s lecture notes on
ME 5554 Applied Linear
Systems, Virginia Tech.
Definitions and fundamentals 37

full state feedback controller except that BG (converging x) is replaced with KC (con-
verging e).

e_ ðtÞ ¼ ½A  KCeðtÞ: (2.59)

Similarly, the definition of observability is: the poles of an observer can be placed
arbitrarily if and only if the system is observable or the observability matrix has full
rank, rank(O) ¼ N,
h   i
N1
O ¼ CT AT CT AT 2 CT … AT CT : (2.60)

Observability is a measure of how well the internal states of a system can be inferred
by knowledge of its inputs and external outputs [7].
The state feedback problem and the observer problem can be decoupled and solved
separately. It is also noted that there is not a unique solution for G or K; one just needs
a satisfactory or balanced solution that meets the response criteria (faster response typ-
ically associates with higher overshoot). One set of poles selected leads to one set of
solutions, determining the response performance such as convergence rate. As
increasing the convergence rate of the observer can recover the performance of the
full-state feedback controller, it is generally considered good design practice to place
the observer poles to the left of the closed-loop poles. However, increasing the con-
vergence rate of the observer typically increases the control effort, compensator gain,
and compensator bandwidth.
The augmented system dynamics are
" # " #" #
x_ A BG x
¼
x_
b KC ðA  KC  BGÞ bx
" # " #" # , (2.61)
y C DG x
¼
b
y 0 C  DG b x

and the augmented error dynamics are

    
x_ A  BG BG x
¼ , (2.62)
e_ 0 A  KC e

Observer is widely used for estimating parameters that cannot be measured/sensed

directly in the system (even if not for the purpose of feedback control), which is
why it is also called state estimator.

2.3.6 Exogenous inputs (reference/disturbance)

For most practical control systems, as shown in in Fig. 2.9, there exist reference inputs
r and disturbances d, referred to as exogenous variables. The control goal is (1) track
38 Vehicle/Tire/Road Dynamics

Fig. 2.12 Block diagram for integral control with exogenous inputs.
Modified from Prof. Steve Southward’s lecture notes on ME 5554 Applied Linear Systems,
Virginia Tech.

the reference inputs by minimizing the steady-state error between the outputs and the
reference outputs and (2) minimize the system response to external disturbances.
There are typically two types of disturbances, namely, process noise and measure-
ment (or sensor) noise. As shown in Fig. 2.12, process noise w affects both the
states x and the outputs y, whereas measurement noise θ only affects the outputs
y but not the states x.
The control law includes both integral control (typically effective to eliminate
steady-state tracking error) and full state feedback, given by

uðtÞ ¼ GxðtÞ  GI xI ðtÞ

: (2.63)
x_ I ðtÞ ¼ eðtÞ ¼ rðtÞ  yðtÞ

Therefore, the augmented state-space system is written as

" # " #" # " # " # " # " #
x_ A 0 x B 0 F 0
¼ + u+ r+ w+ θ
x_ I C 0 xI D I 0 I
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
OpenLoop Augmented State Equations Exogenous Inputs
" # " #" # " # " # " # , (2.64)
x_ ABG BGI x 0 F 0
¼ + r+ w+ θ
x_ I C + DG DGI xI I 0 I
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} |fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
ClosedLoop Augmented State Equations Exogenous Inputs

If the full state vector x is not available, the compensator using a linear observer (static
gains K) to estimate the states for state feedback can be developed, as discussed in
Section 2.3.5. The complete open-loop state equations with observer are
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