DHARMASHASTRA NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY
JABALPUR (M.P)

ACADEMIC SESSION: 2023-2024

SUBJECT: CONSTITUTIONAL LAW

TOPIC: LINGUISTIC FEDERALISM

SUBMITTED TO
Mr. ASHIT SRIVASTAVA
(ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF LAW)

SUMITTED BY
APOORVA RAMAVATH
(BALLB/021/23)
ARAMBH SHANKAR
(BALLB/022/23)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to the supreme being for blessing me with good health and potential to be able to successfully
put in all my efforts to complete the project and to manage all tasks in the way of accomplishing the project.
Without his blessings it would have been difficult for us to achieve my task and work to the fullest of my
potential. I would extend our warm thanks to our professor and mentor Mr. Ashit Srivastava sirfor being so
supportive and generous towards the students and guiding me all through the project. And being very
benevolent towards all the students and actually being very encouraging about my topic of interest and her
helpful nature proved to be an aid in the completion of the task. He has been an inspiration behind choosing
the topic and we felt a deep sense of assurance in my trajectory. And we are very grateful to the vice
chancellor Dr. Manoj Sinha and the university for making the task less tedious by providing enough
assistance in the form of good study environment and resources and primarily aiding our task. The
completion of the project wouldn’t have been possible without all the key stakeholders and their support in
my project. I therefore wholeheartedly thank all of them once again.
 INDEX

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I. CHAPTER ONE
 Introduction
 Research questions
 Research objectives
 Scope of the project
 Research methodology
II. CHAPTER TWO
 How linguistic Federalism is practised in India
 Formation of states based on linguistic demography
 Language classifications
III. CHAPTER THREE
 Language policies and constitutional provisions
 Fight for national language in India
IV. CHAPTER FOUR
 Advantages of linguistic federalism
 Disadvantages of linguistic federalism
 challenges
V. CHAPTER FIVE
 Conclusion
 CHAPTER ONE

Linguistic federalism is a concept that pertains to the accommodation and recognition of linguistic
diversity within a federal or quasi-federal system of government 1. It involves the integration of
language-related policies and mechanisms into the framework of federal governance to address the
linguistic needs, rights, and identities of different linguistic communities within a country.

In countries with diverse linguistic populations, linguistic federalism 2 plays a crucial role in
fostering unity, inclusivity, and equitable representation. It recognizes that language is not just a
means of communication but also a marker of identity, culture, and heritage for various
communities. As such, linguistic federalism aims to balance the promotion of a common national
language, where applicable, with the protection and promotion of minority and regional languages 3.
Key aspects of linguistic federalism include:

 Recognition of Linguistic Diversity: Linguistic federalism acknowledges and respects the

linguistic diversity present within a country's borders. It recognizes multiple languages as
integral parts of the nation's identity and heritage.
 Official Language Policies: It involves formulating official language policies that designate
one or more languages as official at the federal or state level. These policies may include
provisions for the use of multiple languages in official communication, administration, and
education.
 Language Rights: Linguistic federalism emphasizes the protection of language rights,
including the right to use, preserve, and promote one's language without discrimination. This
includes access to education, government services, and cultural expression in one's language.
 Regional Autonomy: In federal systems, linguistic federalism often intersects with regional
autonomy. It may involve the creation of linguistic regions or provinces where the dominant
language(s) of the population are recognized and supported by regional authorities.
 Bilingualism and Multilingualism4: Many countries with linguistic federalism promote
bilingual or multilingual education and public services to accommodate diverse language
preferences and ensure equal opportunities for linguistic minorities.
 Conflict Resolution: Linguistic federalism also addresses linguistic conflicts and tensions by
providing mechanisms for dialogue, negotiation, and the peaceful resolution of language-
related disputes.

1
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/specials/text-and-context/quasi-federalism/article65375428.ece, (last visited
March 31, 2024)
2
Forum of Federations, https://forumfed.org/document/language-policy-and-federalism-in-independent-india/, (last
visited March 31,2024)
3
Choudhary, Sujit. "Linguistic Federalism and Its Role in Nation-Building: The Indian Experience." Journal of
Federalism 49, no. 3 (2019): 531-552.
4
ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287446419_BilingualismMultilingualism_and_Second-
Language_Acquisition, (last visited March. 30,2024)
 Overall, linguistic federalism reflects a commitment to inclusive governance, cultural diversity, and
the protection of linguistic rights within the framework of a federal or decentralized political
system.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

i. What is the historical background of linguistic federalism in India, particularly focusing on

the creation of linguistic states post-Independence?
ii. What are the challenges and opportunities of implementing linguistic federalism in a diverse
country like India, considering the coexistence of multiple languages and linguistic
communities?
iii. How does linguistic federalism contribute to national integration, cultural diversity, and
inclusive governance?
iv. How has linguistic federalism evolved in India over time, especially in terms of language
policies, official language status, and language rights?

RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS

The Indian Constitution provides a robust framework for linguistic federalism, including provisions
for language recognition, language rights, and official language policies 5. Linguistic federalism
gives opportunities for cultural expression, identity preservation, and democratic representation; it
also poses challenges such as language conflicts, communication barriers, and the need for effective
language planning and implementation.

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

In this project we will try to understand the concept of linguistic federalism with the special
reference to India. We will try to understand how linguistic federalism is practised in a quasi federal
country like India.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research is a doctrinal research. The researcher has used the secondary data for evaluating the
topic. I have also taken several instances from various sources to put my point of view for successful
completion of this research.

5
MeitY, https://www.meity.gov.in/content/official-language-policy-union, (Last visited March. 30,2024)
 CHAPTER TWO
HOW LINGUISTIC FEDERALISM IS PRACTISED IN INDIA
Federalism6 is a governmental system characterized by the division of powers between multiple
levels of government, such as a central authority and regional entities like states or provinces. It
facilitates the accommodation of diversity and regional autonomy within a larger political entity.
The Indian Constitution establishes a federal system with some unitary features, often referred to as
a quasi-federal system7. This means that while India has elements of federalism, such as the division
of powers between the central government and state governments 8, there are also aspects of
centralization that give the central government significant authority.
Linguistic federalism is practiced in India through a combination of constitutional provisions, legal
frameworks, administrative mechanisms, and policy initiatives aimed at recognizing, preserving,
and promoting linguistic diversity while ensuring national unity.
India follows the linguistic federalism through two major ways:
i. Linguistic states : Formation of states based on the language 9
After Independence, India faced its first significant test of democratic politics with the
creation of linguistic states. This process involved redrawing the boundaries of existing states
to form new states where people speaking the same language lived together like Andhra
Pradesh. States like Nagaland and Uttarakhand were established to recognize variations based
on culture, ethnicity, or geographical location.
The development of linguistic states has shown that India has become more cohesive as a
nation through this experience. It has also streamlined administration by aligning governance
with linguistic and cultural affinities, contributing to better governance and regional
development.
ii. Language policies:
The Indian Constitution does not designate any language as a national language. While Hindi
is recognized as the official language, it is spoken as a first language by only about 40% of

6
Research Gate, https://books.google.com/books?
hl=en&lr=&id=0CQBBAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR7&dq=federalism&ots=7-
wgmXnETl&sig=koKyGzqyooqbLRSTe_MXPw9LCoU, (last visited March 31,2024)
7
Indian Institute of Legal Studies, https://www.iilsindia.com/study-material/810726_1618671525.pdf, (last visited
March. 30,2024)

8
ConstitutionNet, https://constitutionnet.org/vl/item/division-powers-federations, (last visited March. 30,2024)

9
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/andhra-pradesh/first-linguistic-state-gets-split/
article6072332.ece, (last visited march. 30,2024)
 the population.10 Additionally, the Constitution acknowledges 21 other languages as
Scheduled Languages11.
In Central Government employment exams, candidates can choose to take the exam in any of
these languages. Each state also has its official language, which is predominantly used for
government activities within that state.
Despite efforts to promote Hindi as an official language, the government must approach this
cautiously due to the preferences of non-Hindi-speaking states for English. While the
Constitution initially aimed to end the use of English for official purposes by 1965, many
states have continued to insist on using English rather than Hindi. As a result, the Central
Government cannot impose Hindi on states where other languages are spoken.

Formation of states based on linguistic demography

The formation of states based on linguistic demography in India 12 has been a significant aspect of
the country's political and administrative history. This process was initiated to address linguistic

diversity and regional aspirations, particularly after independence . The demand for linguistic states
emerged as a result of linguistic movements and agitations during the pre-independence and post-
independence periods. Linguistic communities advocated for the creation of states where their
languages were spoken predominantly, aiming for better governance, cultural preservation, and
administrative efficiency.
Dhar commission and JVP committee13
Different regions, particularly South India, demanded the reorganization of states based on
linguistic considerations. In response, the Indian government established the Linguistic Provinces
14
Commission in June 1948, with S.K. Dhar as the chairman, to assess the feasibility of such
linguistic-based state organization. The commission released its report in December 1948. The
commission's findings concluded that given India's diverse religious and demographic landscape,
implementing linguistic changes in state organization was not feasible. The Commission
ultimately rejected the idea of linguistic-based state reorganization and instead recommended
organizing states based on the following criteria:

10
The Indian Express, https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-the-languages-india-speaks-7865060/, (last
visited march. 30,2024)
11
Departmant of Official Language, https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/languages-included-eighth-schedule-indian-constitution,
(last visited march. 30,2024)

12
Research Gate,
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Harvinder-Negi/publication/349396348_Linguistic_demography_of_Himachal_Pr
ades/links/602e4d0f92851c4ed57c6e35/Linguistic-demography-of-Himachal-Prades.pdf, (last visited March 31,2024)
13
Ministry Of Home affairs, https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/State%20Reorganisation%20Commisison
%20Report%20of%201955_270614.pdf, (last visited March.31,2024)
14
Times of India, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/language-and-the-land/articleshow/21568536.cms,(Last
visited March 31,2024)
 1. Geographical contiguity
2. Financial independence
3. Administrative feasibility
4. Development potential15
Upon receiving the state analysis report, the ministry identified research gaps in the Dhar
Committee's work. To address these gaps comprehensively, the Indian government formed a new
committee known as the JVP Committee. The primary members of this committee were Jawaharlal
Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. Upon reviewing the recommendations put
forth by the JVP committee, it is evident that they are against the idea of restructuring India's states
based on language. The committee aligns with the argument and advice given by SK Dhar,
emphasizing that linguistic considerations are not suitable for the country. Furthermore, the JVP
committee advocates for state reorganization based on factors like economic prosperity, national
security, and unity. They also suggest postponing the creation of new provinces to allow for a
thorough identification of other issues and challenges. It can be observed that the JVP committee
supports the recommendations made by the SK Dhar committee. In a detailed analysis of the JVP
committee's recommendations, it becomes clear that their primary objective is not to reorganize
states based on language.16

However, the Indian Government was forced by the death of Potti Sriramulu to create the first
linguistic state, known as Andhra Pradesh, by separating the Telugu speaking areas from the
Madras presidency. Potti Sriramulu became famous for undertaking the hunger strike in support of
the formation of an Indian state for the Telugu-speaking population of Madras Presidency; he lost
his life in the process.17 His death sparked public rioting, and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru declared Andhra Pradesh as a new state in 1953.18

FAZL ALI COMMISSION

Chairman: Fazl Ali

Members: Hridaynath Kunzru and K.M.Panikkar

After the formation of Andhra Pradesh on the basis of linguistic factor, all hell breaks loose. The
other regions also started demanding for creation of separate states on the basis of linguistic factor.
The intense pressure forced the Indian Government to form a new commission to visit the whole
question of whether the linguistic basis of separation of states can be considered or not. It led to the
formation of Fazl Ali Commission in December 1953. This commission is also known as state
15
Dhar Commision, JVP Committee and Fazl Ali Commission, polity of India, (last visited march. 30,2024)
https://polityofindia.blogspot.com/2013/08/dhar-commision-jvp-committee-and-fazl.html
16
https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/State%20Reorganisation%20Commisison%20Report%20of
%201955_270614.pdf, (last visited March.31,2024)
17
https://unacademy.com/content/wbpsc/study-material/polity/dhar-commission/,(last visited March.31,2024)
18
Deccan Chronical, https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/current-affairs/191217/andhra-pradesh-first-linguistic-
state-forgets-its-formation-day.html, (last visited March.31,2024)
reorganization commission. The commission submitted its report on September 1955 and
acknowledged 4 major factors to be taken into account in any scheme of reorganization of states:

1. Linguistic and Cultural homogeneity

2. Preservation and strengthening of the unity and security of the nation.

3. Financial, Economic and Administrative considerations.

4. Planning and promotion of the welfare of the people in each state as well as of the Nation as a
whole.19

It rejected the theory of one language one state. It suggested the reorganization of 27 states of
various categories into 16 states and 3 Union Territories. The recommendations of the Fazl Ali
Commission were accepted by the Indian Government with minor modifications. As a result, the
State Reorganization Act of 1956 was passed by the Parliament to give effect to the
recommendation of the commission. It led to the formation of 14 states and 6 Union Territories on
1st November, 1956

STATE REORGANIZATION OF INDIA 1956.

The State Reorganization Act of 1956 in India was a significant legislative measure that reorganized
the boundaries of Indian states and union territories based on linguistic and administrative
considerations. The State Reorganization Act of 1956 laid the foundation for linguistic federalism in
India, setting a precedent for future state formations and administrative reorganizations based on
linguistic and regional considerations. The State Reorganization of India in 1956 was a
transformative process that reshaped the country's political and administrative landscape, fostering
linguistic diversity, regional identity, and administrative efficiency.

India’s language classifications

There are four major groups of Indian languages:

 Indo-Aryan: Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, Kashmiri, Nepali, Konkani,
Punjabi and Urdu.
 Dravidian: Telugu, Tamil, Kannada, Malayalam and Tulu.
 Mongoloid: Manipuri, Tripura, Garo, and Bodo.

19
Dhar Commision, JVP Committee and Fazl Ali Commission, polity of India,( Mar. 31, 2024 , 4:20 PM)
https://polityofindia.blogspot.com/2013/08/dhar-commision-jvp-committee-and-fazl.html
  Tribal Language and Dialects: Gond, Oraon, Santal, Mundari, etc.20

As per the 2011 census, India boasts 121 spoken languages. States and union territories have the
autonomy to select their official language(s 21). Among these, 22 languages hold the status of
'scheduled languages' under the constitution. India's language policies extend beyond just language
usage in specific policy domains; they are intricately linked with socio-political, cultural, and
economic considerations. A beneficial approach is to analyze the officially recognized language
categories to elucidate the impact and role of various stakeholders in shaping and defining
language.

The central government uses three broad categories for languages in India: official, scheduled and
classical.

OFFICIAL LANGUAGES

When the Indian constitution came into effect in 1950, Hindi in the Devanagari script was declared
as the official language of the Indian Union (art. 343.1) 22. Furthermore, the constitution provided
that “for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English
language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being
used immediately before such commencement” (art. 343.2). 23Language riots in different parts of
southern, western, and north-eastern India in the early 1960s led to the amendment of the original
plan, which would have established a Hindi-only policy. Instead, English was allowed to continue
as the medium of communication between the central government and the states in which Hindi was
not spoken. Thus, since India’s independence, both Hindi and English have played the role of
official languages in the legislative, administrative, economic, occupational, cultural, educational,
and judicial spheres. Furthermore, the administrative domains at the central and state levels use
Hindi and/or English along with any other dominant regional languages of the state as the official
languages to issue orders, decrees, and communications of various kinds between states and
between the states and the central government (art. 345–347).2425

SCHEDULED LANGUAGES

20
Priya Misra, The Controversy Of The National Language In India, The Law Brigade Publishers,(Mar. 30,2024),
https://thelawbrigade.com/constitutional-law/the-controversy-of-the-national-language-in-india/
21
Census of India. 2011. Language: India, States and Union Territories. https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-
16_25062018_NEW.pdf (Mar. 31 ,2024)
22
The Constitution Of India, 1950, § 343.2
23
The Constitution Of India, 1950, § 343
24
The Constitution Of India, 1950, §345

25
Asha Sarangi and Abhimanyu Sharma, Language Policy and Federalism in Independent India (Forum of Federations,
Occasional Paper Series, 2022).
 26
The term ‘schedule’ in ‘scheduled languages’ refers to the Eighth Schedule of the Indian
Constitution. The Eighth Schedule offers a list of languages that widely perceived as official
languages of India. At present, the Eighth Schedule lists 22 languages. As noted above, although
these languages are widely perceived as official languages of India, the constitution does not
describe them as such. Only Hindi is referred to as the official language of the Union (art. 343.1).
The scheduled languages could be viewed as associate or additional official languages. As Sarangi
(2009, 27) points out, the category of scheduled languages is “a powerful source to provide formal
and constitutional recognition to various languages and their communities in the spheres of
administration, education, economy, and social status.”

List of languages in the Eighth Schedule the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution consists of the
following 22 languages:-

(1) Assamese, (2) Bengali, (3) Gujarati, (4) Hindi, (5) Kannada, (6) Kashmiri, (7) Konkani,
(8) Malayalam, (9) Manipuri, (10) Marathi, (11) Nepali, (12) Oriya, (13) Punjabi, (14) Sanskrit,
(15) Sindhi, (16) Tamil, (17) Telugu, (18) Urdu (19) Bodo, (20) Santali, (21) Maithili and (22)
Dogri. 27
Of these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Sindhi language was added in
1967. Thereafter three more languages viz., Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali were included in
1992. Subsequently Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali were added in 200428.
The Constitution of India includes specific directives aimed at safeguarding the interests of
linguistic minorities and promoting the development of the Hindi language. These provisions
are as follows:

1. Every individual who feels aggrieved has the right to file a representation for the resolution
of any grievance with any officer or authority of the Union or a state using the languages
recognized in the Union or the state, respectively. This implies that a representation cannot be
rejected solely on the basis of it not being in an official language.

2. Each state and local authority within the state must ensure sufficient facilities for teaching in
the mother tongue at the primary level of education for children from linguistic minority
communities. The president has the authority to issue directives in this regard29.30

26
The Constitution Of India, 1950 , Schedule VIII
27
The Constitution Of India, 1950 , Schedule VIII

28
Ministry of Home affairs, https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/EighthSchedule_19052017.pdf (last visited Mar.
31 ,2024)
29

30
Ministry of Home affairs, https://www.mha.gov.in/sites/default/files/EighthSchedule_19052017.pdf (last visited Mar.
31 ,2024)
 3. The president is required to appoint a special officer for linguistic minorities to investigate all
matters related to the constitutional protections for linguistic minorities and to submit reports to
the president. These reports must be presented before Parliament, and copies must be sent to the
respective state governments31.

CLASSICAL LANGUAGES
As more languages seek inclusion in the Eighth Schedule, there is a growing trend among older
scheduled languages to seek recognition as classical languages.
To be classified as a classical language, a language must meet the following criteria:
 It must have a documented history spanning 1500 to 2000 years.
 It should possess a rich body of ancient literature that is highly esteemed by successive
generations of speakers.
 Its literary tradition should be original and not borrowed from another speech community,
with a clear distinction between classical language and literature and the modern form of the
language (Rajya Sabha Debates, 2014).32

The first language to be given this status was Tamil (2004).2 in 2005, Sanskrit was given this status,
followed by Kannada (2008), Telugu (2008), Malayalam (2013), and Odia (2014).33

CHAPTER THREE

LANGUAGE POLICIES AND CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS

WHICH SUPPORTING LINGUISTIC FEDERALISM

India has several policies and laws which recognises the different kinds of language. India is a
multilingual country. So the fathers of our Constitution felt the need to specify the languages to be
used in the state functions. Therefore, Part XVII of the Indian Constitution came into existence
which not only provides for the official language of the Union (Article 343 34-34435) and official
languages of the states (Article 345) 36but also the language of interstate-communication (Article
31
Asha Sarangi and Abhimanyu Sharma, Language Policy and Federalism in Independent India (Forum of Federations,
Occasional Paper Series, 2022).
32
Asha Sarangi and Abhimanyu Sharma, Language Policy and Federalism in Independent India (Forum of Federations,
Occasional Paper Series, 2022).
33
Declaring Tamil as a “classical language” was part of the Common Minimum Programme, the document outlining
key policy priorities of the first United Progressive Alliance government (2004– 09). Tamil was recognized as “classical
language” via the Ministry of Home Affairs’ notifications no. IV–14014/7/2004–NI–II dated 12.10.2004 and
29.10.2004 (Rajya Sabha Debates 2004).
34
The Constitution of India, Art. 343
35
The Constitution of India, Art.344
36
The Constitution Of India, 1950, , § 345
346-347), language to be used in the courts and in legislative processes (Article 348) 37. Apart from
these provisions, there are some special directives too (Article 350-351).38

In this section we discuss three key policy domains: administration, provisions for linguistic
minorities, and education.

ADMINISTRATION

The Official Languages Rules 1976 in India mandate a Hindi/English bilingual approach for central
level policies in administration. 39This means that all manuals, codes, procedural literature, registers,
nameplates, signboards, letterheads, and inscriptions used in central government offices must be in
both Hindi and English40. The rules require that such materials be printed, cyclostyled, or inscribed
in diglot (bilingual) form, ensuring that both languages are represented in official documents and
communication within central government offices. This approach aims to accommodate the
linguistic diversity of India while also promoting the use of Hindi and English as official languages
at the central level.41

The policy of institutional bilingualism extends to parliamentary affairs in India as well. Article 120
specifies that business conducted in Parliament should be in Hindi and/or English. However,
Members of Parliament who are unable to effectively communicate in either language are permitted
to use their mother tongue. Similarly, state legislatures are required to use Hindi, English, or the
official language(s) of the respective state during their proceedings, as outlined in Article 210.
Additionally, both state legislatures and Parliament have the authority to allow the use of a mother
tongue other than the specified languages42.

However, there are differences in the multilingual policy concerning communication between the
central government and certain states and union territories, as outlined in the Official Languages
(Use for Official Purposes of the Union) Rules 1976 43. These rules categorize communications into
three categories:

1. Category A: Communications with non-central government offices in certain states are conducted
only in Hindi or require a Hindi translation if English is used.

2. Category B: Communications with some states are conducted only in English.

37
The Constitution Of India, 1950, , § 348
38
Priya Misra, The Controversy Of The National Language In India, The Law Brigade Publishers,(Mar. 30,2024),
https://thelawbrigade.com/constitutional-law/the-controversy-of-the-national-language-in-india/
39
The Official Language Act ,1976
40
MeitY, https://www.meity.gov.in/content/official-languages-use-official-purpose-union, (Mar. 31 2024)
41
Department of official languages, https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-language-rules-1976 , (Mar. 31 2024)
42
The Constitution Of India, 1950, , §120
43
Ministry Of Home Affairs, https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-language-rules-1976#:~:text=Both%20Hindi%20and
%20English%20shall,in%20Hindi%20and%20in%20English. (Mar. 31 2024)
3. Category C: For communications received in Hindi, central government offices must reply in
Hindi.44

This system ensures that communication between the central government and various entities,
including states and union territories, is conducted in a manner that takes into account the linguistic
diversity and preferences across different regions of India.45

PROVISIONS FOR PROTECTION OF MINORITY LANGUAGES

Article 350A of the Indian Constitution emphasizes the importance of providing adequate facilities
for education in the mother tongue to children belonging to linguistic minority groups at the
primary stage.46 It also grants the President the authority to issue directions to states for ensuring the
provision of such facilities. Additionally, Article 350B establishes the position of a Special Officer
for linguistic minorities, appointed by the President, whose duty is to investigate matters related to
the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities and report to the President and Parliament. 47

In recent years, the Indian government has taken steps to address the concerns of minority
languages, particularly those spoken by fewer than 10,000 speakers 48. Initiatives like the 2013
Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages and Bharatavani, launched in
2015, aim to protect and preserve these languages 49. While the former focuses specifically on
endangered languages, the latter aims to create a repository of knowledge in all Indian languages.

However, there are challenges that both central and state governments need to address. One such
challenge is the "rationalization" policy used in the census to categorize languages. This approach
often leads to the underrepresentation of smaller languages, as respondents' mother tongues are
sometimes categorized under larger, politically stronger languages. This can result in the lack of
recognition for various smaller languages and dialects seeking official status.

Furthermore, the census data indicates that there are 64 languages with fewer than 10,000 speakers,
yet these languages are not recognized as distinct languages but rather grouped under "others."
Endangered languages are mainly concentrated in certain states and union territories, but these
regions often lack substantial measures to protect and promote linguistic diversity 50. For example,
Arunachal Pradesh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands have a high proportion of endangered
languages, but there has been limited government support or funding for minority language
institutions in these areas.51
44
Department of official languages, https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-language-rules-1976 , (Mar. 31 2024)
45
Department of official languages, https://rajbhasha.gov.in/en/official-language-rules-1976 , (Mar. 31 2024)
46
The Constitution Of India, 1950, §350 A
47
The Constitution Of India, 1950, §350 A
48
UNESCO Digital Library, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000146468, (Mar. 31 2024)
49
Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered Languages, https://www.sppel.org/,(Mar. 31 2024)
50
The India Forum, https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/what-census-obscures, (Mar. 31 2024)
51
Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities. 2016. 52nd Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India.
New Delhi: Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. Constitution of India.
Overall, there is a need for stronger efforts from state governments to invest resources and
implement policies that protect and promote linguistic diversity, especially for minority languages
and endangered languages 52across India.

EDUCATION

The language policy in India, particularly regarding language education, is significant for promoting
linguistic diversity and national integration53. The three-language formula, initially introduced in
1968 and reiterated in subsequent years including in the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020,
plays a crucial role in this policy framework.54

The three-language formula 55was proposed by the Kothari Commission to address language-based
inequalities and foster national integration. 56 It emphasizes the study of a modern Indian language,
preferably a southern language, along with Hindi and English in Hindi-speaking states, and Hindi
along with the regional language and English in non-Hindi speaking states. However, the
implementation of this formula has varied across states and has faced opposition in some regions. 57

In practice, the three-language formula is applied differently across different boards and states. It
typically involves learning three languages from Standards 6 to 10 in most state boards, with
variations in some boards and institutions. For linguistic minority language speakers, it becomes a
four-language formula58, including their mother tongue, the dominant regional language, English,
and Hindi. There are also variations such as Sanskrit being included as the third language instead of
a modern regional language in some Hindi-speaking states. Additionally, some boards permit the
learning of foreign languages like Spanish, French, and German instead of Hindi or Sanskrit.59

The NEP 2020 maintains the three-language formula but provides greater flexibility and ensures
that no language is imposed on any state60. It emphasizes learning three languages as a choice for
states, regions, and students, as long as at least two of the languages are native to India. The policy

https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india
52
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/india-has-lost-220-languages-in-50-years/
article66536389.ece, (Mar. 31,2024)
53
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/open-page/preserve-the-linguistic-diversity/article29542642.ece, ,
(Mar. 31,2024)
54
Ministry Of Education , https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf , (Mar.
31,2024)
55
The Print, https://theprint.in/theprint-essential/all-about-3-language-formula-the-bone-of-contention-between-
centre-southern-states/471419/,(Mar. 31,2024)
56
Ministry Of Education, https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/NPE-1968.pdf,
(Mar. 31,2024)
57
The Print, https://theprint.in/theprint-essential/all-about-3-language-formula-the-bone-of-contention-between-
centre-southern-states/471419/,(Mar. 31,2024)
58
Times Of India, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/topic/four-language-formula-in-puducherry/news, /,(Mar.
31,2024)
59
Ministry Of Education, https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/document-reports/NPE-1968.pdf,
(Mar. 31,2024)

60
Ministry Of Education, https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf, , (Mar.
31,2024)
encourages the use of the home language or mother tongue as the medium of instruction, especially
until Grade 5 or preferably till Grade 8. It also aims to bridge any gaps between the language
spoken by the child and the medium of teaching, provide high-quality textbooks in home languages,
promote language learning through technology, and introduce fun projects on Indian languages.61

Furthermore, the NEP 2020 includes provisions for learning classical Indian languages, foreign
languages, standardizing Indian Sign Language (ISL), and teaching local sign languages where
relevant and feasible. These measures aim to enhance language education, promote cultural
understanding, and support linguistic diversity across India.62

STRUGGLE FOR THE NATIONALAL LANUGUAGE IN INDIA

There is no national language for India63. Hindi is used as a official language of India 64

Imposition of Hindi

The imposition of Hindi as the sole official language in India faced significant resistance,
particularly in regions like Madras (now Chennai). In 1965, as part of a 15-year plan, there was a
push to transition from English to Hindi as the official language. However, this move triggered
protests, notably the Madras State Anti-Hindi Conference organized by the Dravida Munnetra
Kazagham (DMK) party. The situation escalated with student pickets and cries against "Hindi
Imperialism," leading to a two-month period of agitation and repression. Tragically, sixty-six
people died during this time, including two DMK members who self-immolated in protest.65

Simultaneously, pro-Hindi groups in northern India staged demonstrations against "English

imperialism" and urged the Union government to proceed with the Hindi transition. The lack of
awareness within the ruling Congress party about the sentiments regarding language further fueled
the unrest. According to Jyotirindra Das Gupta in his book "Language Conflict and National
Development," the violence in Madras played a crucial role in highlighting the disconnect between
the leadership and the people, ultimately pushing for a resolution.66

A compromise was eventually reached, but it faced challenges from both pro-Hindi and anti-Hindi
factions. In February 1965, the Congress Working Committee passed a resolution stating that
English would remain an official language unless all states agreed otherwise.67
61
Ministry Of Education , https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf , (Mar.
31,2024)
62
Ministry Of Education , https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Final_English_0.pdf , (Mar.
31,2024)
63
Times Of India, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/learning-with-the-times-india-doesnt-have-any-national-
language/articleshow/5234047.cms, (Mar. 31,2024)
64
Ministry of External Affairs, https://www.mea.gov.in/Images/pdf1/Part17.pdf, (Mar. 31,2024)
65
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/explained-hindi-imposition-and-its-discontents/
article66023522.ece, (Mar. 31,2024)
66
Jstor, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2776422, (Mar. 31,2024)
67
NATIONAL LANGUAGE OR OFFICIAL LANGUAGE?

A distinction should be made between a national language and an official language. A national
language is one that is widely used across a nation in political, social, and cultural contexts, serving
as a symbol of national identity 68. On the other hand, an official language is used specifically for
government operations. While a national language is often an official language as well, the reverse
is less common. In the context of India, there has been ambiguity regarding whether Hindi is the
national language, the official language, or both. According to the Constitution of India, Hindi is
designated as the official language. However, during the independence era, leaders viewed Hindi
more as a national language. This semantic confusion has persisted over time, with Hindi being
referred to as both the national and official language in various discussions and writings.69

Despite Hindi being widely spoken and having a geographically diverse population of speakers in
India, significant portions of the country have little or no knowledge of the language, and some
regions strongly oppose its dominance. This has led to divisions rather than unity, as attempts to
promote Hindi as a national language have been met with resistance from linguistic and cultural
diversity within India.70

CHAPTER FOUR

ADVANTAGES OF LINGUISTIC FEDERALISM

 Preserving language and culture: diving states based on language can help in preserving
and protecting the language and culture of a particular linguistic group. Linguistic federalism
allows linguistic communities to preserve their cultural identity by having administrative
units where their language is officially recognized and used for governance.71
 Effective governance: it can lead to better governance and administration as it allows for
policies and services to be tailored to the specific linguistic and cultural needs of the
population.
 Political Representation: Linguistic federalism ensures that diverse linguistic groups have
adequate political representation, both at the regional and national levels, promoting
inclusivity and diversity in democratic processes.

Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment,, https://socialjustice.gov.in/common/64581, (Mar. 31,2024)

68
The Swaddle, https://www.theswaddle.com/hindi-isnt-indias-national-language-why-does-the-myth-continue, (Mar.
31,2024)
69
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/official-language-or-national-language/
article4743140.ece, (Mar. 31,2024)
70
Times Of India, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/parenting/moments/explainer-for-kids-is-hindi-indias-
national-or-official-language-know-the-difference/articleshow/91152734.cms, , (Mar. 31,2024)
71
ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/287202702_Language_Preservation_and_Publishing, , (Mar.
31,2024)
  Inclusivity : Linguistic federalism creates inclusivity among people by recognizing and
respecting linguistic diversity, ensuring equal representation and participation, promoting
cultural identity, protecting language rights, resolving conflicts, and providing policy
flexibility tailored to the needs of linguistic communities.
 Sense of belonging: Linguistic federalism fosters a sense of belonging by recognizing
linguistic identity, implementing inclusive policies, ensuring representation, promoting
cultural activities, protecting language rights, resolving conflicts, engaging communities,
creating safe spaces, and fostering mutual respect among linguistic communities.
 SOCIAL SECURITY: In linguistic federalism, social security entails ensuring equal access
to services, providing language accessibility, promoting cultural sensitivity, supporting
community networks, upholding legal protections, fostering integration, and government
responsiveness to diverse linguistic communities' social welfare needs.72

DISADVANTAGES OF LINGUISTIC FEDERALISM

The disadvantages of linguistic federalism include:

 Fragmentation: Linguistic federalism can lead to fragmentation and divisions within a country as
different linguistic groups may prioritize their own interests over national unity, potentially
leading to separatist movements or conflicts.
 Administrative Complexity: Managing a federal system based on linguistic lines can be
administratively complex and costly, requiring resources for translation services, language-
specific programs, and governance structures for each linguistic group.
 Language Dominance: Linguistic federalism may result in the dominance of one or a few major
languages over smaller languages, leading to linguistic inequality and the marginalization of
minority languages and cultures.
 Political Instability: In some cases, linguistic federalism can exacerbate political tensions and
power struggles between linguistic communities, leading to instability and difficulties in forming
cohesive national policies.73
 Economic Disparities: Linguistic federalism could contribute to economic disparities between
regions based on linguistic demographics, as regions with larger populations or dominant
languages may receive more resources and development opportunities.
 Limited Mobility: Language barriers within a linguistic federal system may hinder social and
economic mobility for individuals who do not speak the dominant or official languages, affecting
access to education, employment, and services.

72
Oxford Academic, https://academic.oup.com/book/28383/chapter/228484366,(March.31,2024)
73
The Hindu, https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/enhancing-representation-for-a-just-electoral-system/
article67529548.ece, ,(March.31,2024)
 National Identity Challenges: Overemphasis on linguistic identities in federalism may dilute or
overshadow a shared national identity, leading to challenges in fostering a sense of unity and
common purpose among citizens.
 Legal Complexity: Managing legal frameworks and regulations in multiple languages can be
legally complex, leading to inconsistencies, ambiguities, and challenges in enforcing laws
uniformly across linguistic regions.

These disadvantages highlight the potential challenges and drawbacks associated with
implementing linguistic federalism, requiring careful consideration of its implications for
governance, unity, equality, and social cohesion.74

CHALLENGES OF LINGUISTIC FEDERALISM

Language Dominance: The dominance of certain languages, such as Hindi and English, can
marginalize smaller linguistic communities and lead to concerns about linguistic equality and
representation75.

Regionalism: Linguistic federalism may fuel regionalism, with different linguistic regions
advocating for greater autonomy or even separation, leading to potential conflicts and challenges to
national unity.

Administrative Complexity: Managing a federal system with multiple official languages and
diverse linguistic policies can be administratively complex and resource-intensive, requiring
effective governance structures and mechanisms.

Educational Issues: Ensuring quality education in multiple languages and promoting linguistic
diversity in education can be challenging, especially in areas where certain languages are
dominant76.

Economic Disparities: Economic disparities between regions based on linguistic demographics can
arise, requiring policies to address socio-economic inequalities and promote equitable development
across linguistic communities.

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION
74
Oxford Academic, https://academic.oup.com/book/28383/chapter/228484366,(March.31,2024)
75
ResearchGate,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331314411_LANGUAGE_DOMINANCELINGUISTIC_DOMINANCE,
(March.31,2024)
76
ResearchGate,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356539572_Language_education_problems_and_possible_solutions,
(March.31,2024)
Linguistic federalism in India was established through the formation of linguistic states and
language policies. Following demands for linguistic-based state reorganization, the Linguistic
Provinces Commission and later the Fazl Ali Commission were instrumental in assessing the
feasibility of linguistic separation. Despite initial reluctance, the creation of Andhra Pradesh in 1953
marked the beginning of linguistic states in India. The State Reorganization Act of 1956, based on
the Fazl Ali Commission's recommendations, reorganized states and union territories, laying the
groundwork for linguistic federalism. This transformative process recognized linguistic diversity,
regional identities, and administrative efficiency, shaping India's political and administrative
landscape with a focus on unity in diversity and inclusive governance.

India's language landscape is diverse, encompassing Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Mongoloid, and Tribal
languages. Officially, India recognizes 22 scheduled languages and has adopted a three-language
formula in education. The struggle over Hindi's status as a national language has historical roots,
leading to debates and protests. While Hindi is the official language, India's linguistic diversity and
regional identities have shaped language policies and administration. Understanding the distinction
between national and official languages is crucial in navigating India's complex linguistic dynamics,
highlighting the delicate balance between unity and diversity in language use and recognition.

Linguistic federalism also faces many challenges like dominance of one language over others,
educational issues.77

77
Forum Of Federations, https://forumfed.org/document/language-and-federalism-the-multi-ethnic-challenge/,
(March.31,2024)