MATERIAL NAME - used to select the material for a
construction.
THICKNESS -Some materials, such as three-coat stucco,
are defined with a specific thickness (not editable by the
compliance user). The thickness of other materials, such
as softwood used for framing, is selected by the
compliance user based on the construction of the
building.
CONDUCTIVITY -is the steady state heat flow per square
foot, per foot of thickness, or per degree Fahrenheit
temperature difference.
-used in simulating the heat flow in the
construction.
COEFFICIENT FOR TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENT OF
CONDUCTIVITY -The conductivity of insulation materials
varies with their temperature according to the
coefficient listed. Other materials have a coefficient of
zero (0) and their conductivity does not vary with
temperature.
SPECIFIC HEAT -is the amount of heat in British thermal
units (Btu) it takes to raise the temperature of one
pound of the material one degree Fahrenheit.
DENSITY- weight in pounds per cubic foot of a material
R-VALUE PER INCH- the R-value is the resistance to heat
flow for a 1-inch thick layer.
CONSTRUCTIONS are defined by the compliance user
for use in defining the building.
For framed constructions there is a FRAMING LAYER
that has parallel paths for the framing and the cavity
between the framing members.
COMPLIANCE MANAGER calculates a winter design U-
factor that is compared to a construction that meets the
prescriptive standard.
U-FACTOR is displayed as an aid to the user. The
CALCULATIONS USED IN THE ENERGY SIMULATION are
based on each individual layer and framing rather than
the Ufactor.
CONSTRUCTION LAYERS:
“+ PROPOSED DESIGN
- The USER defines a construction for each
surface type included in the proposed design.
Any variation in insulation R-value, framing size
or spacing, interior or exterior sheathing or
interior or exterior finish requires the user to
define a different construction. Insulation R-
values are based on manufacturer-rated
properties rounded to the nearest whole R-
value. Layers such as sheetrock, wood
sheathing, stucco and carpet whose properties
are not compliance variables are included as
generic layers with standard thickness and
properties.
- Walls separating the house from an attached
unconditioned attic or garage are modeled as
interior walls with unconditioned space as the
adjacent zone, which the compliance manager
recognizes as a demising wall. Floors over a
garage are modeled as floor over exterior. The
exterior walls, floor, ceiling/roof of the
garageare modeled as part of the
unconditioned garage zone.
“+ STANDARD DESIGN - The compliance software
assembles a construction that meets the prescriptive
standards for each user-defined construction or
assembly.
“+ VERIFICATION AND REPORTING
All proposed constructions, including insulation, frame
type, frame size, and exterior finish or exterior
condition are listed on the CF1R. Non-standard framing
(e.g., 24” on center wall framing, advanced wall
framing) is reported as a special feature.
SELECTING THE RIGHT EXTERIOR MATERIAL FOR YOUR
CUSTOM HOME
1. Architectural Style -narrow down your options for
exterior materials based on what is authentic and
appropriate to that particular style.
2. Energy Efficiency -If you are interested in saving on
your energy bill, choose materials with the
appropriate insulation properties.
3. Deed Restrictions, Covenants, and HOA Guidelines
-In some locations, your selection of exterior design
and materials is dictated by a deed restriction,
covenant, or HOA guidelines.
 Deed restrictions are agreements that restrict the
use of a piece of real estate that are contained,
unsurprisingly, in the property deed.
 Covenants are legal contracts that spell out what
you may and may not do to the exterior of your
home. Covenants are typically found in the HOA
terms rather than the property deed.
 HOA guidelines are put into place to preserve a
certain level of uniformity within development or
community.
4. Local Building Code - restrict materials based on
their history of fire-resistance or durabilityagainst
prevailing weather or seismic conditions.
5. Weather and Environment -The exterior materials of
a home are its first defense against extreme weather
events suchas ice and snow, driving rain, or high
winds.
6. Impact on Insurance -Insurance companies may have
restrictions on the type of material used on the roof
andexterior to mitigate expensive replacement and
repair after damage or to limit the spread of fire.
 TYPES OF EXTERIOR MATERIALS
1. Stucco
- used for centuries and provides a distinct
appearance to your home.
- homes with stucco exteriors are designed for
Modern or Mediterranean architectural styles.
- Traditional stucco is cement-based plaster
containing sand and limestone and is applied to a
mesh screen, wood, or masonry walls in multiple
layers. The outermost coat is the desired final
color. Stucco can be painted but adds to the
required maintenance of the home.
2. Wood Siding
-is a beautiful, time-honored exterior material
available in a variety of woods including pine, fir,
spruce, redwood, cedar, and cypress. You can also
select an engineered wood, which incorporates real
wood but is more durable, pre-treated against
termites and rot, as well as easy and less costly to
install.
- creates a timeless, natural appearance.
3. Concrete Fiber
- is made of concrete mixed with wood fiber and
designed to mimic real wood. Fiber cement can also
be designed to look like stucco or masonry.
- Hardicrete, HardiPlank, and HardiBoard are
brand names for concrete fiber siding. The
material provides sustainability by limiting
deforestation and is exceptionally
weatherproof.
- it is not as recyclable as wood is.
4. Brick
-Solid brick imparts a very traditional look to a home.
Most solid brick homes have only a single layer of
brick over a wood frame.
5. Stone and Cast Stone
- Incorporating stone into the exterior of your
home adds significant dimension and texture.
- For a more organic natural look, consider using
chop stone. For a cleaner, more
modernaesthetic, go with cut stone.
- Cast stone is a faux stone product developed to
look like stone at a lower cost. It is easier to
control the shape and color of cast stone, which
sometimes makes it an attractive complement
to stone exteriors. Cast stone can last 30 to 50
years.
6. Metal
- Metal siding is a versatile material that can be
manufactured to appear like any other siding
material. Typically created from steel or
aluminum, metal siding comes in a variety of
colors, textures, and shapes.
SELECTING THE RIGHT INTERIOR MATERIAL
TYPES OF INTERIOR DESIGN
1. Coco Tiles -are made of coconut shells. The tiles
come in intricate basket weave or scalloped designs.
The backer panel is made of sustainably harvested
wood and finished with low VOC-resin. The tiles are
easily cut and installed using adhesive and nails.
2. Tilesmade from Leather Scraps
Epitomizing luxury and elegance, leather has
been used for a long time as a building material
for niche interiors owing to the richness and
glamorous feel it gives. These are cheaper and
easy to install.
3. Fabric Wall Panels
Fabric panels constitute of a panel of wood that
is padded with batting and foam, covered over
with a fabric. Fabric Wall Panels have an
additional advantage over and above the
aesthetics that they provide, as they are
capable of controlling reflection and
reverberation of sound, thereby providing an
acoustic solution. Fabric wall panels make a
room look warm and cozy.
4. Laser Cut Sheet Metal Panels
can be installed in an outdoor setting as a
shading device, making them not only
functionally viable, but also aesthetical as they
can enhance the spatial quality of the space by
casting artistic shadows as the natural light
moves through the laser cut patterns. Other
applications include handrail screens, window
screens, partitions etc.
5. Bronze Art Tiles Bronze
has been used for over hundreds of years to
create timeless pieces of art and architecture.
They are impervious to heat and can withstand
any kind of weather.
6. Laminated Resin
Laminated Resin is a transparent resin that is
formulated to remain water clear even when it
is catalyzed. Laminated Resin is not prone to
yellowing at all and is extremely easy to use,
allowing easy flow and fast air bubble release. It
is an ideal solution for applications that require
a glass exterior.
7. Eco Resin
Eco Resin is an environment-friendly resin that
is formulated to complement carbon, fiberglass
and other laminating materials. Made out of
natural plants and vegetable extracts, it is
clearly a sustainable substitute for polyester
resin. It is almost odorless and can be used
safely in almost any working environment.
8. Strand Woven Bamboo Flooring
Hardwoods are vulnerable to weathering and
wear and tear.Strand woven bamboo flooring is
much more durable than vertical or horizontal
bamboo flooring because the crosshatched
strands act in correspondence to keep the
individual components of the material intact.
9. Cork Flooring
It is a green resource that is renewable and can
be used without contributing to deforestation.
Benefits include aesthetic appeal, good
insulation properties,soft texture, tends to repel
pests and dust, and installation is very easy.
10. Resin Wicker
is the man-made version of natural wicker that
is made out of a synthetic material, mostly
polyethylene. It is lightweight and easy to move;
affordable; comfortable as it does not have any
sharp edges, weather resistant, resistant to pool
water and chlorine, and available in a wide
range of styles and colors.
FINISHES
 used in the final part of the construction or
manufacturing process
 Can protect the element they finish from
impact, water, corrosion, frost, abrasion and so
on
 They can be decorative
 They play an important role in regulating indoor
temperature and humidity.
 Finishing operations are carried out in the right
sequence.
 Care is taken to prevent damage.
 Depending on the type of building project, the
methods of finishes varies to consider the
applicable interior and exterior design.
 Before selecting a finish, thought must be given
to many factors such as:
- Appearance - Fire criteria
- Durability
- Relationship to mechanical and electrical
services
- Maintenance - Changeability
- Acoustic criteria - Cost
- Toxic emissions from interior materials
2 types of Finish for Buildings
1. Applied Finish —a finish which is applied on site
2. Self-Finish/Inherent Finish — a finish which is
inherent in the material and does not have to
be specially applied on site.
4 Main Building Components Finishes
1. Floor Finishes
2. Wall Finishes
3. Ceilings Finishes
4. Roof Finishes
Finishing Material
- Used to improve the service and decorative
qualities of buildings and structures
- Protects structural members from atmospheric
and other effects
- Usually designed for interior and/or exterior finishing
Finishing Materials Proper VS Structural Finishing
Materials
1. Finishing Materials Proper — used mainly to form
decorative and protective coatings
2. Structural Finishing Materials — also perform the
functions of enclosing members and components of
such members
The most important finishing materials are:
1. Natural stone
- Traditional finishing material
- Durable and has an attractive appearance
- Are used for exterior and interior facings on
walls and for floor covering (theaters, hotels,
and subway station)
- Used in the form of decorative chips to finish
the surfaces of concrete and reinforced-
concrete parts and units
- Products are produced from granite, syenite,
gabbro, limestone, marble and quartzite.
 Ceramics — most widely used artificial stone
finishing materials. Common inresidential and
public buildings for exterior and interior
finishes.
2. Glass
– Is a wide field, no limits to the imagination
– Can be finished in many different ways
 *Glass milling — a craftsman technique for
glass finishing
 The type of glass finishing depends on the
intended use. Disadvantage: Glass finishing
damage the surface of the glass.
Types of Glass Finishes
1. Frosted Glass >
- has a cloudy, foggy appearance
- can be used for conference room walls, exterior
windows of an office, decorative signs on the
exterior of building and glass partitions in a
restaurant
2. Satin Glass
- almost the same as frosted glass; different
appearance.
- looks smooth and silky
- less shiny and more matte in appearance
- can be use for partition walls at banks, glass
paneled doors, fitting rooms, and partitions at
car dealerships
3. Reflective Glass
- plain, clear or tinted glass that has a metallic
coating on one side
- can act like a one-way mirror
- works on both the interior and exterior
buildings
- can be use in stores, tall buildings and small
office spaces
 4. Tinted Glass
- comes in a rainbow of hues as well as dark hues
2. Brushed —a matte finish
- can increase privacy, filters out sunlight and
- looks as if it has been smoothed with a
minimizes heat gain
paintbrush
- can be use as part of mural, an accent wall, in
- leaves faint brushstrokes mark
an office that gets too much sun and in a store
3. Hammered — has many small indents adding
that gets a lot of sunlight
surface texture
------------------------------------------------------------ 4. Polished — creates a reflective, mirror-like
surface
3. Decorative concrete and mortars
- acommon stainless-steel finish
- Used extensively in the factory finishing of
5. Satin — similar to brushed metals but does not
structural members for fully prefabricated
have brushstrokes marks
buildings
- the sheen is between matte and polished
- The use for exterior and interior finishes during
5. Wood
construction is unlikely unlimited
- Involves the application of a protective layer to
4. Metals
bare wood
- Used in modern construction mainly for
- Sanding, planning, and scarping can help
finishing unique buildings and structures
eliminate surface imperfections by softening
- Used mainly in the form of small items for
and smoothening the wood
finishing the entrances and interiors of buildings
- Decorative plywood, veneer, parquet,
chipboard, fiberboard, and such articles as
5 Most Common Metals
railings, plinths, and finish casings
- Notable for their excellent appearance and
1. Aluminum
service qualities
- has a dull silver finish
- Service life: Increases by treating with wood
- lighter in weight and more affordable
preservatives and by applying paint and varnish
- does not rust but it oxidizes which creates a
coatings
chalky white residue
6. Wallpapers
- most often used in outdoor furniture
- A thick decorative paper applied to walls with
2. Stainless Steel
glue
- found in furniture and fixtures throughout the
- Widely used for interior finishes
home
- Low cost and labor requirement
- does not rust, oxidize or corrode and is low-
7. Plastic
maintenance
- Characterized by broad range of colors, a
- much stronger than aluminum
variety of product shapes, excellentsanitary and
3. Wrought Iron
hygienic qualities, and good corrosion
- refers to the metal that has been hammered or
resistance
bent into shape
- Used infrequently for exterior facings (mainly
- corrosion-resistant and durable
for small structures)
- commonly used to make fireplace accessories,
- Service life: Shorter service life than ceramics or
outdoor furniture, pot
glass finishing materials
- racks, rustic beds, and more
8. Paint and Varnish
4. Brass
- Intended mainly for painting operations
- amix of copper and zinc alloys
- Have become widespread in modern
- can be made in various colors such as red,
construction
yellow, gold, bronze and
- Makes a possible substantial reduction in the
- brown
labor-intensiveness of finishingoperations and
- typically, corrosion-resistant and antimicrobial
an improvement in the protective and
5. Copper decorative properties ofstructure
- reddish orange in color FLOOR FINISHES
- found on all types of décor and fixtures
- Is the ultimate top layer of all the flooring layers
- corrosion-resistant and antimicrobial

5 Common Types of Metal Finishes

1. Antiqued — creates a surface roughness that

appears to stand the test of time
 Factors to consider when choosing floor finishes  Painting
 Dry Linings
- Type of base
 Molding
- Room usage
 Architraves
- Degree of comfort required
- Maintenance  Natural stone
- Cost  Ledgestone
- Appearance  Aluminum cladding
- Safety CEILING FINISHES — Provides a decorative skin to
- Individual preference conceal building components
A good finishing will have the following Factors to consider when choosing ceiling finishes
characteristics:
 Type of floor structure
- Look attractive/beautiful  Appearance
- Comfortable and safe
 Durability
- Long lasting and able to prevent high
 Safety to occupants
temperature, fungi and chemical corrosion
 The location of mechanical services/equipment
Here are the types of floor finishes and the materials  Fire resistance
used:  Life span
 Economy
- Bricks/Pavers
 Function of the building
- Stone
 Need for acoustic elements
- Rendering
- Tiling (ceramic, porcelain, granite, marble) Here are the types of ceilings finishes and the materials
- Wood floor covering (laminated flooring, wood used:
parquet, engineered wood)
- Terrazzo  Plaster Board
- Asphalt  Plaster Board cove molding
- Rubber  Steel Lathing
- Linoleum sheet  Plastering
- Glass floor covering  Ceiling linings
- Concrete floor covering  Ceiling tiles
- Mosaic floor covering  Spray plaster
- Cork floor covering  Ceiling papers
- Magnesite floor covering  Timber Cladding
- Vinyl asbestos tiles  Expanded Polystyrene Tiles
- Carpets  PVC Cladding
 Ceiling Painting
WALL FINISHES ROOF FINISHES
- A finish given to walls to enhance the interior Here are the types of roof finishes and the
and exterior look of the structure materials used:
- Provide a decorative skin to conceal building
components  Corrugated steel
 Profiled light aluminum
Factors to consider when choosing wall finishes  Wood shingles
- Room usage  Concrete tiles
- Degree of comfort required  Clay tiles
- Maintenance  Glazed
- Cost  Lightweight metallic
- Suitability of decoration  Synthetic slates/tiles
- Fire protection  Natural slates
 Artificial mineral fiber
Here are the types of wall finishes and the materials
 Cement slates
used:
 Titanium-cladding pane
 Plastering
 Tiling
 Skirting
 Wallpaper
Products - parts of the superstructure are much lengthier
than the parts of the substructure.
Building products

 pre-fabricated structures used in construction.

 are processed, finished items that are offered
for sale.
 they are manufactured combinations of
materials and perhaps other products,
processed to create items such as doors,
windows, light fittings, cabinets and so on.
 are also assembled in warehouses so the
project team only needs to fit them in the
building.
 are generally distinguished from ‘materials’
which are raw, unprocessed substances such as
sand, salt, and so on, and from ‘services’ which
are _ activities such as consultation,
maintenance, installation, or sometimes the
provision of accommodation.
 Advantage: Makes the job of the project team
faster and easier while minimizing waste on the
construction site.

BUILDING COMPONENTS

Plinth- The portion of the wall between the ground

level and the ground floor level

- usually of stone masonry

Two major components of buildings
 SUBSTRUCTURE- is the part of the building that
is underneath the ground
- transfer the loads of the superstructure to the
soil that is underneath.
- made from plain cement concrete or reinforced
cement concrete.
- Once that is in place, stones, bricks, or
additional concrete is added until it all reaches
the plinth level. It is necessary for a damp-proof
course to be laid on top, so that moisture
doesn’t penetrate any part of the substructure
 SUPERSTRUCTURE- everything that is above
ground.
- superstructure of a building is where people will
spend most of their time.
- area includes the first and second floors inside a
home and any number of floors in larger
buildings.
- includes beams, columns, finishes, windows,
doors, the roof, floors, and anything else.
- At the top of plinth, a damp proof course is
provided. It is usually 75 mm thick plain
concrete course.
- function of the plinth is to keep the ground floor
above ground level, free of dampness.
- It is required that plinth level is at least 150 mm
above the road level, so that connections to
underground drainage system can be made.
- resists entry of rainwater and insects inside the
building.
- General plinth height is 45, 60, 75, 90, 120 cm.
WALLS- are building blocks of bricks or stones.
- divide the building space into various support
space slabs into various beams and rooms.
- provide privacy and protection against heat,
cold, rain, noise, dust winds.
- can be Brick masonry walls and Stone masonry
walls.
- Furthermore, walls perform the ff. functions
(a) It encloses building area into different
compartments and provides privacy.
(b) it provides safety from burglary and insects.
(c) It keeps the building warm in winter and cool
in summer
Columns - vertical members along which beams and
slab /roof is supported.
- Shape can be square, rectangular, and circular.
The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load
of the structure vertically downwards to transfer it to
foundation.
Sills- 50 mm to 75 mm thick plain concrete course
provided over the masonry where window frame is
placed
Lintels -- are the R.C.C. or stone beams provided over
the door and window openings to transfer the load
transversely so as to see that door or window frame is
not stressed unduly.
- width of lintels is equal to the width of wall
while thickness to be provided depends upon
the opening size.
Chajja -- is the projection given outside the wall to
protect doors and windows from the rain.
- usually made with R.C.C.
- projection varies from 600 mm to 800 mm.
Door - give access to different rooms in the building and
to deny the access whenever necessary.
- give access to different rooms in the building
and to deny the access whenever necessary.
- size of the door should be of such dimension as
will facilitate the movement of the largest
object likely to use the door.
- provide a connecting link between rooms,
allowing free movement from to room-to-room.
Windows - provided to get light and ventilation in
the building.
- located at a height of 0.75 m to 0.9 m from the
floor level.
- hot and humid regions, the window area should
be 15 to 20 per cent of the floor area.
- for every 30 m3 of inside volume there should
be 1 m2 window opening.
- opening provides in walls.
Doors and windows provide lighting, smooth sound
of outsides places and ventilation.
Considering Material Used
- Wooden Door
- Metal Door
- UPVC Door
Considering the Mechanism & Usage
- Sliding Door
- Composite Door
- Swinging Door
- Revolving Door
- Folding Door
There are also different types of windows such as:
- Fixed - Metal
- Pivoted - Bay
- Double Hung - Corner window
- sliding - Dormer window
- Casement - Gable window
- Sash - Lantern
- Louvered - Skylight
Floors - important component of a building
- give working/useful area for the occupants.
- The ground floor is prepared by filling brick
bats, waste stones, gravel and well compacted
with not less than 100 mm sand layer on its top.
A lean concrete of 1 : 4: 8, 100 mm thick is laid.
On this a damp proof course may be provided.
Then floor finishing is done as per the
requirement of the owner.
- Cheapest floor finish for a moderate house is
with 20 to 25 mm rich mortar course finished
with red oxide. The costliest floor finish is
mosaic or marble finishing. Other floors are
usually of R.C.C. finished as per the
requirements of the owner
Roof - top most portion of the building which provide
top cover to the building.
- should be leak proof. Sloping roof like tiled and
A.C. sheet give leak proof cover easily. But they
do not give provision for the construction of
additional floor.
Tiled roof give good thermal protection.
Flat roofs give provision for additional floors.
Terrace adds to the comfort of occupants.
Water tanks can be easily placed over the flat
roofs.
Step, stairs and Lifts
STEPS give convenient access from ground level to
ground floor level. They are required at doors in the
outer wall. 250 to 300 mm wide and 150 mm rise is
ideal size for steps.
- Number of steps required depends upon the
difference in the levels of the ground and the
floor.
- give access from floor to floor. They should
consist of steps of uniform sizes. In all public
buildings lifts are to be provided for the
conveniences of old and disabled persons.
In hostels G + 3 floors can be built without lifts, but in
residential flats maximum floors permitted without lifts
is only G + 2. Lift is to be located near the entrance. Size
of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak
hours. Lifts are available with capacity 4 to 20 persons.
FOUNDATION Types of Shallow Foundation are:
- Spread or Isolated Footing;
- the most important part of the building.
- Strip Foundation;
Building activity starts with digging the ground
- Mat or Raft Foundation;
for foundation and then building it.
- Combined Foundation.
- It is the lower most part of the building.
1. Isolated Spread Footing
- transfers the load of the building to the ground.
- most widely recognized and most straightforward
- defined as that part of the structure that
shallow foundation type, as this is the most
transfers the load from the structure
economical type.
constructed on it as well as its weight over a
- typically utilized for shallow establishments to
large area of soil in such a way that the amount
convey and spread concentrated burdens caused,
does not exceed the ultimate bearing capacity
for instance, by pillars or columns. They are
of the soil and the settlement of the whole
generally used for ordinary buildings (Typically up
structure remains within a tolerable limit.
to five stories).
Foundation is the part of a structure on which
Isolated footing comprises a foundation directly
the building stands. The solid ground on which
at the base of the segment. Generally, every
it rests is known as foundation bed.
section has its footing. They straightforwardly
- Its main functions and requirements are:
transfer the loads from the column to the soil. It
(a) Distribute the load from the structure to soil
might be rectangular, square, or roundabout. It
evenly andsafely.
can comprise both reinforced or non-reinforced
(b) To anchor the building to the ground so that
material. For the non-reinforced footing,
under lateral loads building will not move.
however, the stature of the footing has to be
(c) It prevents the building from overturning
more prominent to give the vital spreading of
due to lateral forces.
the load. They should possibly be utilized when
(d) It gives level surface for the construction of
it is sure beyond a shadow of a doubt that no
super structure.
differing settlements will happen under the
whole structure.
TWO CATEGORIES OF FOUNDATION
Spread footings are inadmissible for the
The terms Shallow and Deep Foundation refer
orientation of large loads. It is given to lessen
to the depth of the soil at which it is placed.
the twisting minutes and shearing powers in
SHALLOW FOUNDATION- used for small and light their primary areas.
buildings for e.g. a small or medium size houses, small The size of the footing can be roughly calculated
shopping centers, etc. by dividing the total load at the column base
by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil
- can be made in depth of as little as 3ft (1m)
- if the width of the foundation is greater than The followings are the types of spread footing
the depth
- Single pad footing.
- Often called footings, are situated beneath the
- Stepped footing for a column.
lowest part of the structure. A footing is the
- Sloped footing for a column.
first constructed element of a structure which is
- Wall footing without step
built after excavating the ground.
- Stepped footing for walls
- are commonly used as they are the most
- Grillage foundation.
economical foundation system and are
relatively easy to construct.
Design Requirements
Shallow foundations must meet certain
design requirements:
- Safety against bearing capacity, i.e., shear
strength exceedance of the underlying soil;
- Control of the excessive settlements that can be
damaging to the overlying structure, or affect
functionality.
- As the shallow foundation depth is low and it is
economical, it is the most popular type of
foundation for lightweight structures. Several
To decide when to use shallow foundations, it is
types of shallow foundations are discussed
necessary to know when it is economical.
below
 It is economical when: - When the column is close to the property line
and the isolated footing would cross the
- The load of the structure is relatively low
property line or become eccentric.
- Columns are not closely placed.
- Dimensions of one side of the footing are
- The bearing capacity of the soil is high at a
restricted to some lower value.
shallow depth

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

- also known as continuous footing.
- used to distribute loads of structural or non-
structural load-bearing walls to the ground in
such a way that the load-bearing limit of the soil
isn't outperformed. It runs along the direction
of the wall. The width of the wall foundation is
usually 2-3 times the width of the wall.
- The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along
the length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced
concrete, etc. are used for the construction of
wall foundations.
- On account of block walls, the footing
comprises a few courses of bricks, the least 4. Raft or Mat Foundation
course being generally double the - are used where other shallow or pile
expansiveness of the wall above. foundations are not suitable.
- On account of stone masonry walls, the - also recommended in situations where the
counterbalances could be 15 cm, with the bearing capacity of the soil is inadequate, the
statues of the course as 30 cm. Along these load of the structure is to be distributed over a
lines, the size of footings is marginally more large area or structure is subjected continuously
than that of the block divider footings. to shocks or jerks
- If the heap on the wall is substantial or the soil - consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam
is of low bearing limit, this reinforced concrete slab placed over the entire area of the
foundation type can be given structure. In this type, the whole basement
floor slab acts as the foundation. The total load
Wall footing is economical when:
of the structure is spread evenly over the entire
- Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude area of the structure.
- It is placed on dense sand and gravel. - is called raft because, in this case, the building
3. Combined Footing seems like a vessel that floats on a sea of soil
- very similar to the isolated footing.
Raft foundations are economic when:
- Provided When the columns of the structure are
carefully placed, or the bearing capacity of the - The soil is weak and the load has to be spread
soil is low and their footing overlap each other over a large area.
- It is fundamentally a blend of different footings, - The structure includes a basement.
which uses the properties of various balances in - Columns are closely placed.
a single footing dependent on the necessity of - Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
the structure. - Differential settlement is to be prevented.
- Are foundations which are made common to
more than one column
- There are different types of combined footing,
including slab type, slab and beam type,
rectangular, raft, and strap beam type. They
may be square, tee-shaped, or trapezoidal. The
main objective is the uniform distribution of
loads under the entire area of footing, for this is
necessary to coincide with the center of gravity
of the footing area with the center of gravity of
the total loads

Combined foundations are economic when:

- The columns are placed close to each other

DEEP FOUNDATION- used for heavy and large buildings
for e.g. tall buildings, huge shopping malls, large
hospitals, and universities, etc.
- made at depth of 60-200ft (20-65m).
- smaller than the depth of the foundation
- type of foundation which is placed at a greater
depth below the ground surface and transfers
structure loads to the earth at depth. The depth
to width ratio of such a foundation is usually
greater than 4 to 5.
Types of Deep Foundation.
The followings are the types of deep
foundation.
1. Pile Foundation - common type of deep foundation.
They are used to reduce cost, and when as per soil
condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit
loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of
shallow foundations.
The followings are the types of pile foundations.
Based on Function or Use
- Sheet Piles
- Load Bearing Piles
- End Bearing Piles
- Friction Piles
- Soil Compactor Piles
Based on Materials and Construction Method
- Timber Piles mage
- Concrete Piles
- Steel Piles
- Composite Pile
Pile- is a slender member with a small cross-sectional
area compared to its length.
- used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper
soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of
soil near the surface is relatively low.
- transmits load either by skin friction or bearing.
Piles are also used to resist structures against
uplift and provide structures stability against
lateral and overturning forces.
Pile foundations are economic when
- Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater
depth.
- When there are chances of construction of
irrigation canals in the nearby area.
- When it is very expensive to provide raft or
grillage.
- When the foundation is subjected to a heavily
concentrated load.
- In marshy places.
- When the topsoil layer is compressible in
nature.
- In the case of bridges, when the scouring is
more in the river bed.
- It can again be classified based on its material
and its mechanism of load transfer or function.
Several types of pile foundations are shown in
the following chart.
2. Pier Foundation
Pier is an underground structure that transmits
a more massive load, which cannot be carried
by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than
piles. The pier foundation is generally utilized in multi-
story structures. Since the base region is determined by
the plan strategy for the regular establishment, the
single pier load test is wiped out. Along these lines, it is
increasingly well known under tight conditions.
Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member
that transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil
by end bearing. Unlike piles, it can only transfer load by
bearing and by not skin friction.
Pier Foundation is economic when:
- Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock
layer at the top.
- The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the
bearing pile.
- When a heavy load is to be transferred to the
soil.
Pier foundation has many advantages:
- It has a broad scope of assortment with regards
to structure. There are different materials we
can here to build a stylish view, and it stays in
our spending limit.
- It sets aside cash and time as it doesn't require
broad removal of a ton of cement.
- Bearing limits can increment by under-reaming
the base.
- Along with the advantages, it has a few
disadvantages as well:
- If one post or dock is harmed, it can prompt
critical harm to the general establishment.
- It can be vitality wasteful if not protected
appropriately.
- Floors must be intensely, vigorously protected,
and shielded from critters.
3. Caisson Foundation
- is a watertight retaining structure used as a
bridge pier, construction of the dam, etc. It is
generally used in structures that require
foundation beneath a river or similar water
bodies.
- The reason for choosing the caisson is that it
can be floated to the desired location and then
sunk into place.
- foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder
depressed into the soil up to the desired level
 and then filled with concrete, which ultimately
converts to a foundation.
- mostly used as bridge piers.
- are sensitive to construction procedures and
lack construction expertise.
There are several types of caisson foundations.
- Box Caissons.
- Floating Caissons.
- Pneumatic Caissons.
- Open Caissons.
- Sheeted Caissons
- Excavated Caissons.
Caisson foundations are economic when:
- The pile cap requirement is to be minimized.
- Noise and vibration needed to be reduced.
- It has to be placed beneath water bodies
- Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is
required.
To conclude, the foundation is a structural supporting
member that transfers the total load form slab, beam,
column, wall, etc. The main objective of the foundation
is to provide stability to the total structure and safely
transfer the total load from the structure to the soil at
an optimum cost.
Why There Are Different Types of Footing
As we know that there are different types of soil, and
the bearing capacity of the soil is different for each type
of soil. Depending on the soil profile, size, and load of
the structure, engineers chose different kinds of
foundation.
Environmental impact of construction materials
Annually three billion metric tons of raw
materials are consumed to manufacture building
materials and products. The building industry is the
second largest consumer of raw materials, after the
food industry.
Obtaining and processing materials
Obtaining and processing materials can affect
the environment in three main ways:
1. Extraction
2. Processing
3. Transportation
Extraction - This requires heavy plant which consumes
energy and produces noise, dust and exhaust fumes,
which leads to climate change. This process also causes
a permanent change to the landscape and
stone/aggregate quarrying
Processing- Processing material like iron ore requires
energy consuming plant, noise and dust and the
creation of waste product like slag. Air Pollution leads to
the greenhouse effect and climate change.
Transportation - Once processed, the materials will
need to be transported to the location which they are
to be used, using petrol and creating exhaust fumes,
which in turn causes climate change.
Materials used in construction and their
specific environmental problems
Timber - is a renewable material (especially softwood).
Relatively low energy used in the logging and sawing
process and high transportation costs.
- Deforestation
- Lost of animal habitat Metals
Metals are non renewable. Extraction and processing
uses huge amounts of energy, causes air pollution and
creates waste products, and changes the landscape.
- Climate change
- Physical disturbance

Concrete
Cement is non renewable. Made from
limestone, chalk, clay, aggregate and gypsum. These
raw materials must be mined then processed, which
requires a huge amount of energy. It is estimated that
8% of the total worldwide human generated CO2
originated from cement production.
- Water pollution
- Air pollution
- Climate change
Embodied energy
The energy required to produce and transport materials
is known as the “embodied energy”
REUSE & RECYCLE OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALSIntroduction
- Construction waste recycling is the separation
and recycling of recoverable waste materials
generated during construction and remodeling.
- Construction by nature is not an eco-friendly
activity.
Need for Adoption of Proper Methods of Recycling
- Itreduces the demand on new resources.
- Cuts down the cost and effort of transport and
production.
- Use waste which would otherwise be lost to
landfill sites.
Viable Technology on Construction Waste Recycling
- When considering a recyclable material, three
major areas need to be taken in to account as
1. Economy
2. Compatibility with other materials
3. Material properties
Commonly Recovered Construction Materials
- Asphalt Paving
- Land Clearing Residuals
- Wood
- Gypsum Wallboard
- Demolished Buildings
- Metals
- Concrete
- Roofing (non-asphalt shingles) Bricks
Asphalt Paving
- Asphalt is crushed and recycled back into new
asphalt. Recycled asphalt paving can be used for
paved road.
Land Clearing Residuals
- Trees and brush can be recycled as compost or
mulch; soil can be reused as fill and cover.
Wood
- Reuse timbers, large dimension lumber,
plywood, flooring, molding, lumber longer than
6 feet. Clean untreated wood can be recycled,
re-milled into flooring or chipped/ground to
make engineered board or boiler fuel.
Gypsum Wallboard
- Remove and recycle gypsum drywall. Markets
include new drywall manufacture, cement
manufacture, and agriculture. Unused drywall
can be returned to a supplier, donated, or sold
Demolished Buildings
- Reuse large portions of existing structures
during demolition, renovation or
redevelopment. Extending the life cycle of
existing building stock will conserve resources,
retain cultural resources, reduce waste, and
reduce environmental impacts of new buildings.
Metals
- Common metals include steel, aluminum, and
copper. Metals are melted down and reformed
into metal products.
Concrete
- Itis crushed, the reinforcement bar is removed,
and the material is screened for size. Market
outlets for recycled concrete includes road
base, general fill, pavement aggregate, and
drainage media.
Bricks
- Recycle clean bricks by crushing material.
Market outlets for recycled bricks include
aggregate, drainage media, and general fill
Roofing (non-asphalt shingles)
- Reuse sheathing, terracotta, slate, or untreated
cedar tiles and other metal materials can also
be recycled.
 Benefits of Reusing & Recycling Construction
Materials

- Reduces the production of greenhouse gas

emissions and other pollutants by reducing the
need to extract raw materials and ship new
materials from long distances.
- Conserve landfill space, reduces the need for
new landfills and their associated cost.
- Saves energy and reduces the environmental
impact of producing new materials.
- Creates employment opportunities and
economic activities in recycling industries.
- Saves money and cost of materials.

Barriers in Promoting the Use of Recycled Materials

- Lack of appropriately located recycling facilities.
- Absence of appropriate technology.
- Lack of awareness.
- Poor source separation practices at job sites.

How to get start for it......

- Developing market for recycled products.

- Public education, training and technical
assistance.
- Additional policy recommendations.
- Promoting reuse and recycling of construction
materials