Religion in a Global Context − Beliefs in Society

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

The issue of religious fundamentalism has emerged as a major area of media and political concern,
especially international Islamist terrorism.

THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNDAMENTALISM

They appeal to tradition and often look back to a supposed ‘golden age’ in the past.

Religious fundamentalism arises only where traditional beliefs and values are threatened or
challenged by modern society. (When religious beliefs are watered down)

Threats can come from outside, e.g. penetration of Western culture. Or it can come from within, e.g.
when sections of society adopt new secular ideas, such as liberal attitudes to sexuality.

There are a number of key features:

 Authoritative sacred text: their religious text is seen as perfect and they take every word as
literally true, it contains the answers to all life’s important questions from politics to family
life;
 An ‘us and them’ mentality: they separate themselves from the rest of the world and refuse
to compromise with it;
 Aggressive reaction: their movements aim to draw attention to the threat to their beliefs
and values, and their reactions are therefore aggressive and intended to shock, intimidate or
cause harm;
 Use of modern technology: although they oppose modern culture which they see as
corrupted, they use modern tech to achieve their aims e.g. computers, the internet and
military weaponry;
 Patriarchy: they favour a world in which control over women’s sexuality, reproductive
powers, and their social and economic roles, is fixed for all time by divine decree.

FUNDAMENTALISM AND MODERNITY

Davie says it occurs when individuals hold traditional orthodox values and they feel threatened by
modernity.

Giddens (1999) says that fundamentalism is a product of and reaction to globalisation, which
undermines traditional social norms concerning the nuclear family, gender and sexuality.

In today’s late mod soc, individuals are constantly faced with choice, uncertainty and risk. The
attraction of fundamentalism and its dogmatic beliefs is the certainty that it promises in an uncertain
world.

It is a retreat into faith-based answers and away from the risks and uncertainties of a globalising
world.
COSMOPOLITANISM

This contrasts with fundamentalism. It is a way of thinking that embraces modernity and keeps up
with today’s globalising world. It emphasises self−improvement and uses rational argument and
empirical evidence rather than by appealing to sacred texts.

RESPONSES TO POSTMODERNITY

Bauman (1992) sees funda as a response to postmod in which this society brings freedom of choice,
uncertainty and a heightened awareness of risk.

Castells (2010) distinguishes between 2 responses to postmod:

 Resistance identity: a defensive reaction of those who feel threatened and retreat into
fundamentalist communities;
 Project identity: response of those who are forward−looking and engage with social
movements such as feminism.

AO3:

 Distinguishes too sharply between cosmo and funda, ignoring hybrid movements;
 Ignores other important developments e.g. how globalisation is also affecting non−funda
religions like Catholicism.

MONOTHEISM AND FUNDAMENTALISM

Bruce (2008) sees the main cause of funda as the perception of religious traditionalists that today’s
globalising world threatens their beliefs.

He regards funda as being confined to monotheistic religions, e.g. Islam and Judaism. This is because
these religions are based on a notion of God’s will as reveals through sacred texts which is believed
to contain the actual word of God and it lays specific rules for believers to follow.

By contrast, polytheistic religions lack a single all-powerful deity, so there is much more scope for
different interpretations.

TWO FUNDAMENTALISMS

Bruce found that funda groups share all the same characteristics; however, different movements
have different origins.

1: In the West

Funda is most often a reaction to change taking place within a society. E.g. the New Christian Right in
America has developed an opposition to family diversity etc, its aim is to reassert ‘true’ religion.

2: In the 3rd World

Funda is usually a reaction to changes brought up in the outside world e.g. Islamic Revolution −
triggered by modernisation and globalisation, ‘Western’ values are imposed by foreign capitalism or
by local elites supported by the West.
Here, funda involves resistance to the state’s attempts to sideline it and confine it to the private
sphere.

SECULAR FUNDAMENTALISM

Davie (2013) argues that recent decades have seen the emergence of secular forms of
fundamentalism.

She distinguishes between 2 phases of modernity:

1: 1st phase gave rise to religious funda

It stretched from the time of the Enlightenment in the late 18 th century, to about the 1960s.
Enlightenment philosophy held an optimistic secular belief in the certainty of progress based on the
power of science and human reason to improve the world.

The Enlightenment project dominated European thought and helped to secularise all areas of social
life, undermining religious certainties − religious funda is a reaction to this process.

2: 2nd phase is giving rise to secular funda

Since the 1970s, enlight project has itself come under attack which was the result of uncertainty.
This mood is the product of the insecurity caused by changes e.g. globalisation, which led to a loss of
faith in the major secular enlight ideologies e.g. liberalism and Marxism whose claims to truth have
been undermined.

As a result, these secular ideologies are themselves struggling for survival, just like trad religion,
hence they are attracted to funda.

In Western Europe, perceived religious challenges to liberal secular values have provoked a secular
funda reaction, e.g. in 2004 France banned pupils from wearing religious symbols in school and in
2010 they banned the burka.

Davie argues that both religious and secular movements can become funda as a result of the greater
uncertainties of life in the late modern or postmodern world  competing fundamentalisms have
become a normal feature of today’s society.

CULTURAL DEFENCE

This is where religion serves to unite a community against an external threat. Defending the
community against a threat often gives religion a prominent role in politics.

POLAND

From 1945 to 1989 they were under the Communist rule imposed from outside by the Soviet Union.

During this time, the Catholic Church was suppressed, but for many Poles it continued to embody
Polish national identity.

The Church was a popular rallying point for opposition to the Soviet Union and the Polish communist
party.
It lent its active support to the Solidarity free trade union movement in the 80s that did much to
bring about the fall of communism. The Church regained a public role and still has a political
influence in Poland.

IRAN

Western capitalist powers and oil companies had influence in Iran e.g. the overthrow of a
democratic government in the 50s.

Modernisation was widening the gap between the rich and poor, while protest was ruthlessly
suppressed.

Change was imposed rapidly causing greater suffering. Islam became the focus for resistance to the
Shah’s regime. The revolution of 1979 brought the creation of the Islamic Republic, in which the
Shariah Law was imposed.

RELIGION AND DEVELOPMENT

Religion may contribute to development, as Weber argued in the case of the Protestant ethic.

GOD AND GLOBALISATION IN INDIA

Globalisation has brought rapid economic growth and has seen India become a more important
player on the world political stage.

HINDUISM AND CONSUMERISM

 Globalisation has created a scientifically educated, urban M/C in India, e.g. working in IT,
pharmaceuticals and biotechnology sectors;

 The secularisation theory predicts that these M/C people will be the first to abandon
religion in favour of a secular worldview;

 BUT, Meera Nanda (2008) says a vast majority of the M/C continue to believe in the
supernatural;

 E.g. The Centre for the Study of Developing societies found that 30% of Indians are becoming
more religious.

 The country’s M/C will grow from about 5% to 40% - the world’s 5th largest consumer
market;

 Increased interest in religion has been reflected in a dramatic growth of religious tourism,
e.g. visits to shrines and temples;

 Nanda says it is becoming fashionable to be religious;

 The religious M/C are attracted to (what were once low status) village Gods and Goddesses
who the poor worshipped à these deities are seen as being more responsive to people’s
needs than the traditional Hindu ‘great gods’.
  The Indian M/C are optimistic about the opportunities that globalisation brings them;

 Nanda argues, their increasing religiosity is the result of their ambivalence about their
newfound wealth;

 This stems from tension between the traditional Hindu belief of renunciation (abandoning)
of materialism and the new prosperity of the M/C;

 This is resolved by TV gurus whom preach the message that desire is not bad, but a
manifestation of divinity that motivates people to do things;

 They dispense business-friendly versions of Hinduism by teaching M/C consumerism to be

‘spiritually balanced’ by paying for the performance of appropriate rituals;

 Modern versions of Hinduism legitimate the position of the M/C and allow them to adjust to
globalised consumer capitalism.

HINDU ULTRA−NATIONALISM

93% of Indians agreed with the statement that ‘our people are not perfect, but our culture is
superior to others’.

Nanda notes that India’s success in the global market is increasingly attributed to the superiority of
‘Hindu values’ − that Hinduism is the essence of the Indian culture.

The worship of Hindu gods has become the same as worshipping the nation of India, and Hinduism
has become a civil religion. But this is creating a widening gulf between Hindus and non-Hindu
minorities.

Hinduism has also penetrated public life, so that the supposedly secular state is increasingly
influenced by religion. E.g. ‘Hindu sciences’ like astrology are being taught as a subject in
universities.

CAPITALISM IN EAST ASIA

East Asian Tiger Economies: South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan, have industrialised and become
significant players in the global economy. China is also a major global industrial power.

The success of capitalism in East Asia has led people to argue that religion has played a role similar
to the one Calvinism played in the development of capitalism in 16th and 17th century Europe.

E.g. Redding (1990) sees the spirit of capitalism among Chinese entrepreneurs. He says the
‘post−Confucian’ values encourage hard work and commitment to education. (Confucian is a trad
Chinese belief system). The effect of this value sys is similar to that of Protestant ethic in that it leads
to economic productivity.

PENTACOSTALISM IN LATIN AMERICA

Equivalent to Weber’s Protestant Ethic in which encourages the development of capitalism.

They embrace a work ethic similar to Calvinists.

Pentacostalism has helped promote economic development, e.g. in Chile there is a growing M/C.

They are against the secularisation debate as they will continue to grow in the future as it has been
successful in developing countries.

PENTACOSTALISM: GLOBAL AND LOCAL

Christianity has globalised itself by expanding over the world. Lehmann says Pentacostalism is a
global religion in part to its ability to incorporate local beliefs.

It is successful in developing countries because it appeals to the poor who makes most the
population and uses global media to spread its message.