Compressible Fluid Mechanics (Masetr: Gas Engineering) /amar Thelidji University (Laghouat) / By: Abdelmouiz - Ahmed

Compressible Fluid Mechanics( Masetr : Gas engineering) /Amar
Thelidji University (Laghouat) / By : Abdelmouiz.Ahmed
Compressible Fluid Mechanics
Introduction
Substances may be classified by their response when at rest to the imposition

of a shear force. Consider the two very large plates, one moving , the other
stationary, separated by a small distance y as shown in Figure below. The space
between these plates is filled with a substance whose surfaces adhere in such a
manner that the upper surface of the substance moves at the same velocity as
the upper plate and the bottom surface is stationary. As a result of the
imposition of the shear force Fs , the upper surface of the substance attains a
velocity U .As y approaches dy, U approaches dU and the rate of deformation
of the substance becomes dU/dy. The unit shear stress г = FsAs, where A, is
the shear area.
If the substance is unable to resist even the slightest amount of shear force
without flowing, then it is called a fluid. An ideal fluid has no internal friction,
and hence its deformation rate coincides with the abscissa (horizontal axis). All
real fluids have internal friction, so that their rate of deformation is a function
of the applied shear stress. If the rate of deformation is proportional to the
applied shear stress, then it is called a Newtonian fluid, and if not, it is a non-
Newtonian fluid.
For the purposes of the application of fluid mechanics to design it is convenient
to consider two kinds of fluids: compressible and incompressible
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I.1) What is Compressible Flow?

The main difference between compressible flow and almost incompressible flow
is not the fact that compressibility has to be considered. Rather, the difference
is in two phenomena that do not exist in incompressible flow. The first
phenomenon is the very sharp discontinuity (jump) in the flow in properties. The
second phenomenon is the choking of the flow. Choking is when downstream
variations don’t effect the flow.
Compressible flow appears in many natural and many technological processes.
Compressible flow deals with more than air, including steam, natural gas,
nitrogen and helium, etc.
The fluid is mainly divided into two categories: liquids and gases. The main
difference between the liquids and gases state is that gas will occupy the whole
volume while liquids has an almost fix volume. This difference can be, for most
practical purposes considered sharper.
I-2)Compressibility: The compressibility of a fluid is, basically a measure of the
change in density that will be produced in the fluid by a specific change of
pressure. Gases are , in general, highly compressible whereas most liquids have a
very low compressibility .Now in flow , there are usually changes in pressure
associated .These pressure changes will, in general , induce density changes
which will have an influence on the flow.
Fundamental assumptions:
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1-The gas is continuous, i.e., the motion of individual molecules does not have to
be considered, the gas being treated as a continuous medium.This assumption
applies in flow in which the mean free path of the gas molecules is very small
compared to all the important dimensions of the solid body through or over
which the gas is flowing.
2- No chemical changes occur in the flow field . Chemical changes influence the
flow because they result in a change in composition with resultant energy
changes.
3-The gas is perfect . this implies that:
a) The gas obeys the perfect gas law ,i.e.
PV=nRT ( ρ=m/M) ,(r=R/M),(n=m/M)
P/ρ=rT
Where R is the universal gas constant , which has a value of 8314.5 J/Kgmole°K
,Or 1545.3 ft-lbf/lbmole°R , and mis the molar mass.
b) The specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume ,Cp and Cv are
both constants,i.e. the gas is calorifically perfect.
=Cp/Cv (R= Cp - Cv)
4-Gravitational effects on the flow field are negligible.
5-Magnetic and electrical effects are negligible.
6-The effects of viscosity are negligible.
When the above assumption are adopted , the flow field is completely described
by knowing the values of the following variables at all points in the flow field:
&-Velocity vector, V &- Pressure P
&-Density , ρ &-Temperature T
Therefore, in order to describe the flow field , four equations involving these
four variables must be obtained . These equations are derived by applying the
following principles:
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&-Conservation of mass (Continuity equation)
&-Conservation of momentum(Newton’s law)
&-Conservation of energy (First law of Thermodynamics
&- Equation of state
I-3)Units:
Although the SI system of units has virtually become the standard throughout
the world , “The English” or “Imperial” system is still quite extensively used in
industry and the engineer still needs to be familiar with both systems. i.e.,
Force=mass x acceleration
SI System Units English system Units
Unit of mass= Kg Pound mass (lbm)
Unit of length = m Foot (ft)
Unit of time = s Second (S)
Unit of temperature = °K or °C Rankine or Fahrenheit(°R or °F)
Unit of force= N (1N=1Kg.m/s2) Pound force lbf(1lbf=32.2 lbm ft/s2)
I-4)Conservations laws: The analysis of compressible flows is based on the
application of the principles of conservations of mass, momentum and energy to
the flow. These conservation laws will here be applied to the flow through a
control volume which is defined as imaginary boundary drawn in the flow as
shown in figure below. For such a control volume , conservation of mass requires
that:
Rate of increase of mass of fluid in control volume = (Rate mass enters
control volume – Rate mass leaves control volume) .
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Next , consider conservation of momentum. Because momentum is a vector
quantity , conservation of momentum must apply in any chosen direction. Hence ,
conservation of momentum requires that in any direction :
Net force on gas in control volume in direction considered=(Rate of increase
of momentum in direction considered of fluid in control volume + Rate
momentum leaves control volume in direction considered – Rate momentum
enters control volume in direction considered).
Conservation of energy applied to the control volume requires that :
(Rate of increase in internal energy and kinetics of gas in control volume + Rate
enthalpy and kinetic energy leave control volume – Rate enthalpy and kinetic
energy enter control volume)= (Rate heat is transferred into control volume –
Rate enthalpy and kinetic energy enter control volume).
For steady flow , the above conservations give:
&-Conservation of mass:
(Rate mass enters control volume = Rate mass leaves control volume).
&-Conservation of momentum:
Net force on gas in control volume in considered direction = (Rate momentum
leaves control volume in direction considered –Rate momentum enters control
volume in direction considered).
&-Conservation of energy: (Rate enthalpy and kinetic energy leave control
volume – Rate enthalpy and kinetic energy enter control volume ) = (Rate heat is
transferred into control volume – Rate work is done by gas in control volume).
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Conservations laws
Through a system that has multiple inlets and outlets:
Conservation of mass :
It requires that, since steady flow is being considered :
Rate mass leaves control volume = Rate mass enters control volume
Since the mass flow rate in a duct is given by :
Where V is the mean velocity in the duct and A is its cross-sectional area ,
Conservation of mass requires for the system :
Because momentum is a vector quantity, conservation of momentum in a
particular direction will be considered. For steady Flow:
Rate force on gas in the control volume in direction considered = (Rate
momentum leaves control volume in direction considered – Rate momentum
enters control volume in direction considered) e
It will be assumed that the pressure around the surface of the control volume is
the same everywhere except where the ducts carrying the gas into and out of
the control volume cross this surface. Since the momentum flux in any direction
is equal to the product of the mass flow rate and the velocity component in the
direction considered.
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Conservation of momentum gives in the x-direction:
Conservation of momentum gives in the y-direction:
In these equations Fx and Fy are x and y components of the force exerted by the
system on the gas.
Conservation of energy:
(Rate enthalpy and kinetic energy leave control volume – Rate enthalpy and
kinetic energy enter control volume) =(Rate heat is transferred into contrl
volume – Rate work is done by gas in control volume ).
This gives , since gravitational effects are being neglicted
Where h is the enthalpy of the gas per unit mass , Q is the rate of heat
transfer to the system , and W is the rate at which the system is doing work.
For adequate degree of accuracy h = CpT , a particular situation W=0, the

above equation becomes:
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Conclusion: Compressible flows are flow in which the density changes induces by
the pressure changes through the flow field have a significant influence on the
flow. Compressibility effects are usually associated with the high speed flow of
gases. Compressibility gas flows are analyzed by applying the principles of
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy together with the equation of
state to deduce the variations of velocity, pressure, density, and temperature
through the flow field.
II)The equations of steady one-dimensional compressible fluid flow:
A Steady flow implies that none of the properties of the flow are varying with
time. In most real flows that are steady on average, the instantaneous values of
the flow properties, in fact, fluctuate about the mean value. However, an
analysis of such flows based on the assumption of steady flow usually gives a
good description of the mean values of the flow variables. One-dimensional flow
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is, strictly, flow in which the reference axes can be so chosen that the velocity
vector has only one component over the portion of the flow field considered.
In one dimensional flow the velocity of the duct will here be given the symbol V,
as shown in figure below. The equations of one-dimensional flow are only
applicable to flow in a straight pipe or stream tube of constant area. Flow , in
many practical situations, the equations of one-dimensional flow can be applied
with acceptable accuracy to flows with variable area provided that the rate of
change of area and the curvature are small enough for one component of the
velocity vector to remain dominant over the other two components.
For example, although the flow through a nozzle of the type shown in figure
above, is not strictly one-dimensional because V remains very much less than U,
the flow can be calculated with sufficient accuracy for most purposes by
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ignoring V and assuming that the flow is one–dimensional by only considering the
variation of U with x axis.
II-1) Continuity equation: The continuity equation is obtained by applying
the principal of conservation of mass to flow through a control volume.
This equation relates the fractional changes in density , velocity , and area
over a short length of the control volume. If the density can be assumed
constant, this equation indicates that the fractional changes in velocity and
area have opposite signs.
II-2) Momentum equation ( Euler’s equation): Euler’s equation is obtained by
applying conservation of momentum to a control volume which again consists
of a short length dx, of a streamtube.
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Since no momentum enters though the curved walls of the control volume.
Hence, since conservation of momentum requires that the net force on the
control volume be equal to the rate at which momentum leaves the control
volume minus the rate at which it enters the control volume, the above
equations give :
This is the Euler’s equation for steady flow through a duct, since V is, by
the choice of the x direction , always positive .The increase in velocity is
always associated with a decrease in pressure and vice versa.
II-3) Steady flow energy equation:
If the fluid enters at section 1 with velocity V1 and with enthalpy h1 per
unit mass, and leaves through section 2 with velocity V2 and enthalpy h2
then:
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Applying this equation to the flow through the differentially short control
volume show in figure below:
If higher orders are again neglected
If the flow is adiabatic ( No heat transfer to or from flow):
II-4) Equation of state:
When applied between any two points in the flow ( between the inlet and exit of
a differentially short control volume), the equation becomes:
The higher orders are neglected :
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III) Fundamentals aspects of compressible flow
Compressibility effects become important in a gas flow when the velocity in the
flow is high. The ratio of the gas velocity to the speed of sound in the gas that
determines when compressibility is important. This ratio is termed the Mach
number , M:
M<1 ( Subsonic flow) , M˃ 1 (Supersonic flow), if M near 1 and there are regions
of both subsonic and supersonic flow ( transonic flow), M very much greater
than 1 ( Hypersonic flow: M ˃ 5)
The speed of sound for a perfect gas :
The speed of sound for a gas depends only on the absolute temperature of the
gas .
III-1) Isentropic flow in a streamtube :
The equation of Euler studied previously by applying the conservation of
momentum principle and ignoring the effects of friction :
Multiplying and dividing by PV :
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The above equation shows that the magnitude of the fractional pressure
changes , dP/P, induced by a given fractional velocity change , dV/V, depends on
the square of the Mach number.
Next consider the energy equation . Since adiabatic flow is being considered
Multiplying and dividing by TV , the above equation becomes:
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This equation shows that the magnitude of the fractional temperature changes ,
dT/T, induced by a given fractional velocity change , dV/V, also depends on the
square of the Mach number.
Lastly , consider the equation of state , As shown previously:
From this equation it will be seen that for a given fractional change in velocity ,
for a given dV/V, the corresponding induced fractional change in density will also
depends on the square of the Mach number.
III-2) Speed of sound: The speed of sound is the speed at which very weak
pressure waves are transmitted through the gas. Consider a plane infinitesimally
weak pressure wave propagating through a gas.
Let the pressure change across the wave be dp and let the corresponding
density ant temperature changes be dρ and dT respectively. The gas into which
the wave is propagating is assumed to be at rest. The wave will then induce a
2020/2021 Page 15
gas velocity , dV, behind it as it moves through the gas . The changes across the
wave are, therefore, as shown in figure below:
The continuity and momentum equations are applied to a control volume of unit
area (A=1m2) across the wave as indicated in figure below.
III-3) Continuity equation : gives for this control volume: (a= Velocity)
III-4) Conservation of momentum: The only forces acting on the control
volume are the pressure forces.
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Because a very weak wave is being considered , the temperature and velocity
changes through the wave are very small and the gradients of temperature and
velocity within the wave remain small. For this reason , heat transfer and viscous
effects for flow through the wave are assumed to be negligible.
III-5) Mach waves:
Consider a small solid body moving relative to a gas .In order to pass smoothly
over the body, disturbances tend to be propagated ahead of the body to “warn”
the gas of the approach of the body .i.e., because the pressure at the surface of
the body is greater than that in the surrounding gas, pressure waves spread out
from the body. Since these pressure waves are very weak except in the
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immediate vicinity of the body , they effectively move outwards at the speed of
sound.
The Mach number M is the parameter that determines the importance of
compressibility effects on a flow. The speed of sound was shown to vary directly
with the square root of the absolute temperature and inversely with the square
root of the molar mass of the gas involved .
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Series of exercises
Exercise 01: Air flows down a variable area duct. Measurements indicate that
the pressure is 80 Kpa, the temperature is 5°C, and the velocity is 150 m/s at a
certain section of the duct. Estimate, assuming incompressible flow, the velocity
and pressure at a second section of the duct area is half that of the section
where the measurements were made. Comment on the validity of the
incompressible flow assumption in this situation.
Solution:
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Exercise 02:
The pressure and temperature of a gas in a large chamber are found to be
500Kpa and 60°C respectively. Find the density if the gas is (a) air and (b)
Hydrogen.
Solution:
Exercise 03:
A U tube manometer containing water is used to measure the pressure
difference between two points in a duct through which air is flowing . Under
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certain conditions, it’s found that the difference in the heights of the water
columns in the two legs of the manometer is 11 inch. Find the pressure
difference between the two points in the flow in Psf, Psi, and Pa. (ρman=62.4
lb.m/ft3 , g=32.4 ft/sec2)
Solution:
Exercise 4: Air flows from a large chamber through a valve into an initially
evacuated tank. The pressure and temperature in the large chamber are kept
constant at 1000 Kpa and 30°C respectively and the internal volume of the tank
is 0.2 m3. Find the time taken for the pressure in the initially evacuated tank to
reach 160 Kpa. Because of the pressures existing in the two vessels, the mass
flow rate through the valve can be assumed to remain constant and equal to
2020/2021 Page 21
0.9x10-4 Kg/s. Heat transfer from the tank can be neglected and the kinetic
energy for the gas in the chamber and in the tank can also be neglected.
Solution:
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Exercise 5: Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen are both fed to the combustion
chamber of a liquid fuelled rocket engine at a rate of 5 Kg/s. The products of
combustion from this chamber are exhausted through convergent –divergent
nozzle. The exit plane of this exhaust nozzle has a diameter of 0.3 m and the
gases flowing through the nozzle are estimated to have a density of 0.1 Kg/m3
on the exit plane. Estimate the gas velocity on the nozzle exit plane assuming
one-dimensional flow on the exit palne.
Solution:
Exercise 06: Air flows down a variable area duct. Measurements indicate that
the temperature is 5°C and the velocity is 150 m/s at a certain section of the
duct. Measurements at a second section indicate that the temperature has
decreased to -20°C. Assuming that the flow is adiabatic and one –dimensional ,
find the velocity at the second section.(CP= 1006 J/Kg.°C)
Solution:
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Exercise 08: Consider adiabatic air flow through a duct . At a certain section of
the duct , the flow area is 0.2 m2 , the pressure is 80Kpa , the temperature is
5°C and the velocity is 200 m/s . if , at this section , the duct area is changing at
a rate of 0.3 m2/m ( dA/dx=0.3 m2/m), find dp/dx, dV/dx , and dρ/dx . Assuming
incompressible flow and (b) taking compressibility into account.
Solution:
The conservation of energy:
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Exercise 09:
An air craft is capable of flying at a maximum Mach number of 0.91 at a sea-
level . Find the maximum velocity at which this air craft can fly at a sea-level if
the air temperature is (a) 5°C , (b) 45°C .
Solution: Mmax= (Vmax/a)
Exercise 10: Typical cruising speed and altitudes for three commercial
aircrafts are:
&- Dash 8: Cruising speed: 500 Km/h at an altitude of 4,570 m.
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&- Boeing 747: Cruising speed :978 Km/h at an altitude of 9,150 m.
&- Concorde : Cruising speed : 2340 Km/h at an altitude of 16,600m.
Find the Mach number of these three aircraft when flying at these cruise
conditions. Use the properties of the standard atmosphere .
Solution:
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Exercise 11:
A weak pressure wave (a sound wave ) across which the pressure rise is 0.05 KPa
is traveling down a pipe into air at a temperature of 30°C and a pressure 105 KPa
. Estimate the velocity of the air behind the wave.
Solution: Conservation of mass gives for the flow through the control volume
shown in figure below which has unit frontal area :
Exercise 12: A gas has a molar mass of 44 and a specific heat ratio of 1.3. Find
the speed of sound in this gas if the gas temperature is -30°C . If the gas
flowing at a velocity of 450 m/s , Find the Mach number and the Mach angle.
Solution:
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2020/2021 Page 28

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Compressible Fluid Mechanics( Masetr : Gas engineering) /Amar

Thelidji University (Laghouat) / By : Abdelmouiz.Ahmed

Compressible Fluid Mechanics

Substances may be classified by their response when at rest to the imposition

I.1) What is Compressible Flow?

practical purposes considered sharper.

I-2)Compressibility: The compressibility of a fluid is, basically a measure of the

change in density that will be produced in the fluid by a specific change of

associated .These pressure changes will, in general , induce density changes

which will have an influence on the flow.

be considered, the gas being treated as a continuous medium.This assumption

which the gas is flowing.

flow because they result in a change in composition with resultant energy

3-The gas is perfect . this implies that:

a) The gas obeys the perfect gas law ,i.e.

PV=nRT ( ρ=m/M) ,(r=R/M),(n=m/M)

,Or 1545.3 ft-lbf/lbmole°R , and mis the molar mass.

both constants,i.e. the gas is calorifically perfect.

=Cp/Cv (R= Cp - Cv)

4-Gravitational effects on the flow field are negligible.

5-Magnetic and electrical effects are negligible.

6-The effects of viscosity are negligible.

&-Velocity vector, V &- Pressure P

&-Conservation of mass (Continuity equation)

&-Conservation of momentum(Newton’s law)

&-Conservation of energy (First law of Thermodynamics

&- Equation of state

SI System Units English system Units

Unit of mass= Kg Pound mass (lbm)

Unit of length = m Foot (ft)

Unit of time = s Second (S)

Unit of temperature = °K or °C Rankine or Fahrenheit(°R or °F)

Unit of force= N (1N=1Kg.m/s2) Pound force lbf(1lbf=32.2 lbm ft/s2)

I-4)Conservations laws: The analysis of compressible flows is based on the

application of the principles of conservations of mass, momentum and energy to

control volume which is defined as imaginary boundary drawn in the flow as

Rate of increase of mass of fluid in control volume = (Rate mass enters

control volume – Rate mass leaves control volume) .

Next , consider conservation of momentum. Because momentum is a vector

quantity , conservation of momentum must apply in any chosen direction. Hence ,

conservation of momentum requires that in any direction :

Net force on gas in control volume in direction considered=(Rate of increase

of momentum in direction considered of fluid in control volume + Rate

momentum leaves control volume in direction considered – Rate momentum

enters control volume in direction considered).

Conservation of energy applied to the control volume requires that :

Rate enthalpy and kinetic energy enter control volume).

For steady flow , the above conservations give:

Net force on gas in control volume in considered direction = (Rate momentum

leaves control volume in direction considered –Rate momentum enters control

volume in direction considered).

&-Conservation of energy: (Rate enthalpy and kinetic energy leave control

Through a system that has multiple inlets and outlets:

It requires that, since steady flow is being considered :

Since the mass flow rate in a duct is given by :

Conservation of mass requires for the system :

Because momentum is a vector quantity, conservation of momentum in a

particular direction will be considered. For steady Flow: