PART 1 – UNIT 1: Introduction: Sport, Science and Sports Science

SPORT
Sport occupies a prominent place in modern society and successful athletes enjoy a high level of
financial and social reward, so there are considerable incentives to succeed. There are also many
obstacles to success: the sportsman or woman who succeeds at the highest level faces bigger
challenges than ever before. Although the falling rate of participation in sport and physical
activity has been a major factor inthe epidemic of obesity and related lifestyle diseases that has
afflicted many countries in the last couple of decades, more people than ever before are
participating in organized sport. This has brought a greater part of the human gene pool into play
than was the case a century ago when the luxury of participating in sport was open to only a
privileged few from a small number of countries. In many sports,the participation of women on a
competitive basis is a recent phenomenon and female standards continue to rise rapidly as
women catch up with their male counterparts. There are many different factors that may
contribute to success in sport, and the components ofsuccess will vary depending on the
particular sport. Scientists, coaches, and athletes may argue about theterminology used, but some
of the key characteristics that contribute to success in all sports are:

1. Talent;
2. Training;
3. Trainability;
4. Physical dimensions and body composition;
5. Motivation, tactical awareness, and other psychological characteristics;
6. Resistance to injury;
7. Nutritional status; and
8. Skill, technique, and related motor control and biomechanical considerations.

Of these, talent – which is determined entirely by genetic endowment – is undoubtedly the key,
but many talented athletes fail to succeed at the highest level. Genetically gifted athletes who
lack the motivtion to train consistently and intensively will not realize their genetic potential.
Some of the components listed above are only conditional requirements; for example, a good
selection of foods alone will not improve fitness in the absence of training. Likewise, the talented
athlete who trains hard but who makes poor food choices is unlikely to be as successful as they
could be.
Why should scientists study sport?
For some, especially perhaps those engaged in the study of the social sciences, the study of sport
is an end in itself, an attempt to understand the mutual interactions between sport and society.
For those interested in the biological sciences, the study of elite athletes offers an opportunity to
study individuals at the extremes of the human gene pool who have subjected themselves to
extremes of training over prolonged periods of time. By studying these extremes, new insights
can be gained into normal human function. Needless to say, many scientists study the science of
athletic endeavor because of a strong personal commitment to sport and exercise.
Even those who consider themselves to be very fit cannot run at these speeds for more than a few
minutes. In part these performances reflect the genetic endowment of the elite athlete and
considerable effort is being devoted to identifying the possible genetic mutations that are
associated with outstanding performance. However, many people who do have the genetic
makeup either do not have the opportunity to be involved in sport because of socio-cultural
limitations or because they simply choose not to participate. An understanding of the motivations
of athletes and the factors that predispose participation in sport may help our understanding of
why so many in the general population shun exercise at every opportunity, even though they are
well aware of the health risks that accompany a sedentary life. There are good animal models to
show that there is a strong genetic component to the predisposition to participation, and some
inbred strains of rats show compulsive running behaviors, similar to those of some athletes
(Makatsori et al.2003). An understanding of the neurochemical processes involved may help to
determine why some people choose to be active in their spare time while others avoid all
unnecessary exercise.

Sport, exercise and health

It is easy to forget that the common perception, not so long ago, was that participation in sport
was likely to shorten, rather than prolong, life (Polednak, 1979). Even very recently, the focus of
a UK government intervention aimed at reducing the prevalence of coronary disease was on
smoking cessation and diet, with no mention of physical activity (DHSS, 1987). Today, as a
large part of the world confronts the consequences of the obesity epidemic, this seems hardly
credible. The role of exercise as a crucial element in any lifestyle intervention targeted at
non-communicable diseases has gained widespread, though still not universal, acceptance.
Translating this into practice, however, remains a formidable challenge. Today, many who take
regular exercise at health clubs have no desire to participate in organized sports, but their
commitment to exercise is no less for that. The sports sciences today embrace the study of
physical activity and health as an important area. Even those whose primary concern is with the
performance of athletes recognize that they also need to stay healthy, both while they are
competing and in the years after retirement from serious competition. Many exercise scientists
have emerged, however, with little interest in sport but with a strong desire to understand the
consequences of active or sedentary lifestyles. Sports science is therefore different things to
different people. No-one should doubt, though, that new developments in this dynamic area of
science affect all our lives.
Sports science
Interested in sport and learning more about how the body works? Sports science is an exciting
subject, which could pave the way to a variety of careers...

What is sports science?

Sports science is the application of scientific principles to exercise and sport. It’s a rapidly
expanding area and should open the door to a range of jobs in the pharmaceutical, healthcare,
fitness and leisure industries. Sports Science (and Exercise Science) is an academic subject that
includes the scientific study of Physiology, Psychology, Motor Control/Learning, and
Biomechanics.

What do sports science courses cover?

Most sports sciences courses teach a combination of these subjects:

 Biomechanics: exploring the causes and effects of human movement and the way in
which the body interacts with exercise equipment.
 Physiology: the branch of the biological sciences that is concerned with the way that the
body responds to exercise and training.
 Psychology: the branch of sport and exercise science that seeks to provide answers to
questions about human behaviour in sport and exercise settings.
Sports science: multidisciplinary study of key sciences...
Four main sciences are key to the study of sport science. These are physiology, psychology,
motor control/learning, and biomechanics and they are applied across the spectrum of sport
involvement in most good degree courses. By understanding how humans perform, sport and
exercise scientists can design, monitor and evaluate training programmes to help athletes and
coaches to reach their maximum potential.
Alternatively, they may study the physiological responses to exercise from a health perspective;
the psychological benefits and barriers of exercise in sedentary people; the psychological skills
used by Olympic champions; the movement patterns of a child learning to walk or the movement
dynamics of a full-in double-back somersault in gymnastics.
Furthermore, many sport and exercise scientists specialise in learning how physical activity can
help the prevention and treatment of major chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis,
cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and osteoporosis.
What is a good Sports Science course like?
Good sports science courses, and good sports scientists, consider all the constituent sciences as
an integrated discipline. For example, you would not only consider the biomechanical dynamics
of a movement but the physiological and psychological requirements as well. None of the
disciplines can provide the best solution to a problem in isolation and most advanced sports
teams have the full spectrum of sports scientists working together to support the team.
Research focus
An essential underlying component of a good sports science degree is its research skills content.
For example, it will include research philosophy, research design and methods, and
computational statistics. This directly affects the quality of the research projects that students
have the opportunity to complete in their final years; their ability to interpret critically published
work; as well as the quality of preparation that it provides for post-graduate studies. So, if you're
choosing a degree programme in sport and exercise science, make sure that you will be taught by
a strong research team.
Sports science support
As the rewards in sport have increased, an industry has grown up to provide support for
participants. The elite athlete is only one member of a team that will include a coach, fitness
specialists, advisers on tactics and technique, a medical doctor, and a physiotherapist, and
perhaps also a physiologist, psychologist, nutritionist/dietitian, biomechanist, and a performance
analyst, as well as several others. Each of these professionals plays – or at least should play – a
vital role in ensuring that the athlete can undertake the rigorous training that is a prerequisite of
success. They will also ensure that the athlete is prepared for competition by addressing all of the
problems that may prevent optimum performance.
One challenge facing those who seek to apply science to sports performance is the fact that
essentially all of the published research is based on non-elite athletes. Indeed, most published
studies in areas such as exercise physiology and biochemistry have used subjects that were not
athletes at all. This is usually because athletes are not prepared to disrupt training or preparation
for competition by participating in experiments. They are also understandably reluctant to take
part in invasive studies that involve repeated blood sampling, muscle biopsies, or other invasive
procedures, although the introduction of non-invasive techniques for the analysis of muscle
function, such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy, has made it possible to study the effects of
interventions on national level athletes (e.g., Derave et al. 2007).

Sports Science - continuing your studies...

Students can continue their studies beyond undergraduate level on an MSci programme, a
taught Sports MSc programme, a Masters by research (MRes/MPhil) or a PhD at an increasing
number of institutions. Some of the taught Masters courses include supervisory experience….

PART 2 - UNIT 2: The Biological Basis of Life

Cell structure
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions
of cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients
into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the body’s hereditary material
and can make copies of themselves.
Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these parts, called organelles, are
specialized structures that perform certain tasks within the cell. Human cells contain the
following major parts, listed in alphabetical order:
Cytoplasm: Within cells, the cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like fluid (called the cytosol) and
other structures that surround the nucleus.
Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a network of long fibers that make up the cell’s structural
framework. The cytoskeleton has several critical functions, including determining cell shape,
participating in cell division, and allowing cells to move. It also provides a track-like system that
directs the movement of organelles and other substances within cells.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): This organelle helps process molecules created by the cell.
The endoplasmic reticulum also transports these molecules to their specific destinations either
inside or outside the cell.
Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus packages molecules processed by the endoplasmic
reticulum to be transported out of the cell.
Lysosomes and peroxisomes: These organelles are the recycling center of the cell. They digest
foreign bacteria that invade the cell, rid the cell of toxic substances, and recycle worn-out cell
components.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form
that the cell can use. They have their own genetic material, separate from the DNA in the
nucleus, and can make copies of themselves.
Nucleus: The nucleus serves as the cell’s command center, sending directions to the cell to
grow, mature, divide, or die. It also houses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the cell’s hereditary
material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope, which protects
the DNA and separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell.
Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell. It separates the cell
from its environment and allows materials to enter and leave the cell.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are organelles that process the cell’s genetic instructions to create
proteins. These organelles can float freely in the cytoplasm or be connected to the endoplasmic
reticulum
Human Chromosome
Chromosome is derived from two words, 'chroma' which means “colour” and “soms” which
means body. So chromosome simply means coloured thread-like or filamentous body which are
present in the nucleoplasm of living cells that are in the nucleus of living cells. Basically they are
carriers of genes and genes are units of heredity that means they help in inheritance or
transmission of characters from one generation to the next. Chromosomes were first observed in
plant cells by Karl Wilhelm Von Nageli in 1842 and their behaviour was described first by
Walther Flemming in 1882.
Chromosome :
Chromosome is made up of proteins and nucleic acid (DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid).
Structurally, chromosome is made up of two chromatids, that means two arms, double
stranded DNA and protein, and these two double strands are bound together at the primary
constriction which is called a Centromere.
Therefore a Centromere usually divides the chromosome into two arms. One of the arms is
comparatively short, another arm maybe comparatively long or maybe equal. But if one arm is
short and the other arm is long, the shorter arm is called P arm and the longer arm is called Q
arm. In a chromosome the P arms are always arranged in a top orientation or position, whereas
the Q arms face downwards.
It is a well-known and established fact that human beings have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.

Coming to the human Somatic (body) cells, it has two complete sets of chromosomes, one set
given by each parent. These two sets together constitute the diploid condition represented by 2n
that means one n given by mother and the other n by the father constituting 2n in diploid
condition. Therefore 2n chromosomes in humans are 46 in number.
Cell Division: Mitotic and Meiosis
Most human cells are frequently reproduced and replaced during the life of an individual.
However, the process varies with the kind of cell. Somatic, or body cells, such as those that
make up skin, hair, and muscle, are duplicated by mitosis. One grows from a single embryonic
cell to a fully fledged person through mitosis. Even after one has grown, mitosis replaces cells
lost through everyday wear and tear. The constant replenishment of your skin cells, for example,
occurs through mitosis. Mitosis takes place in cells in all parts of our body, keeping your tissues
and organs in good working order.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is quite different. It shuffles the genetic deck, generating daughter
cells that are distinct from one another and from the original parent cell.
Although virtually all of our cells can undergo mitosis, only a few special cells are capable of
meiosis: those that will become eggs in females and sperm in males. So, basically, mitosis is for
growth and maintenance, while meiosis is for sexual reproduction.
Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, DNA, to two daughters cells.
What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed along, without dilution or
error, from one generation to the next.
Cell Cycle
All cells are produced by divisions of pre-existing cell. Continuity of life depends on cell
division. A cell born after a division, proceeds to grow by macromolecular synthesis, reaches a
species determined division size and divides. This cycle acts as a unit of biological time and
defines life history of a cell. Cell cycle can be defined as entire sequence of events happening
from the end of one nuclear division to the beginning of the next. The cell cycle involves the
following three cycles.
1. Chromosome cycle
In it DNA synthesis alternates with mitosis (or karyokinesis or nuclear division). During DNA
synthesis, each double-helical DNA molecule is replicated into two identical daughter DNA
molecules and during mitosis the duplicated copies of the genome are ultimately separated.
2. Cytoplasmic cycle
In it cell growth alternates with cytokinesis (or cytoplasmic division). During cell growth many
other components of the cell (RNA, proteins and membranes) become double in quantity and
during cytokinesis, cell as a whole divides into two. Usually the karyokinesis is followed by the
cytokinesis but sometimes the cytokinesis does not follow the karyokinesis and results into the
multinucleate cell, e.g., cleavage of egg in Drosophila.
3. Centrosome Cycle
Both of the above cycles require that the centrosome can be inherited reliably and duplicated
precisely in order to form two poles of the mitotic spindle; thus, centrosome cycle forms the third
component of cell cycle.
Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell. The term mitosis was introduced by Walther
Fleming (1882).
Chromosomes replicated during the Synthetic phase are divided in such a way as to ensure that
each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively dividing animal cells, the
whole process takes about one hour. The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic
apparatus' that aligns them and then separates the sister chromatids to produce an even
partitioning of the genetic material. This separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear
division (known as karyokinesis) is followed by a separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular
division (known as cytokinesis) to produce two daughter cells.
Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. (Greek: pro means before; meta means
middle; ana means back; telo means end).
Meiosis
The term meiosis (Greek: “meioum” means to reduce or to diminish) was coined by J.B. Farmer
in 1905. It is a specialised form of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced
to half. Meiosis produces a total of four haploid cells from each original diploid cell. These
haploid cells either become or give rise to gametes, which through union (fertilisation) supports
sexual reproduction and a new generation of diploid organism.
Tissues, organs and systems
Tissues
Human cells form tissues, like muscle tissue. A living tissue is made from a group of cells with a
similar structure and function, which all work together to do a particular job. Here are some
examples of tissues: muscle, the lining of the intestine, the lining of the lungs, etc.
Organs
An organ is made from a group of different tissues, which all work together to do a particular
job. Here are some examples of organs: heart, lung, stomach, brain, etc.
Organ systems
An organ system is made from a group of different organs, which all work together to do a
particular job. Here are some examples of organ systems: circulatory system, respiratory system,
digestive system, nervous system, reproductive system, etc.

GENERAL RULES PERTINENT TO PHYSICAL AND MOTOR GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
Physical development and growth are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. For
example, malnutrition can delay a child’s physical development significantly. On the other hand,
according to the University of Minnesota, the role of some environmental factors, such as the
amount of exercise the child is getting, has a much smaller effect on physical development than
was previously thought.

Genetics
When a child is born, he has a unique set of genetic instructions that influence his physical
growth. According to the University of Minnesota, genetics have a strong effect on rate of
growth, the size of body parts and the onset of growth events. In one study, Dr. Stefan A.
Czerwinski and colleagues followed their subjects for thirty years. By using such parental
measurements as height and weight, these scientists were able to predict quite accurately the
approximate height and weight of their subjects at the age of thirty. Other factors found to be
closely linked to their parental values were blood pressure and body fat percentage, as well as
muscle and total body mass. The study was published in the “American Journal of Human
Biology” in September 2007.
Environment
Genetics alone, however, cannot determine the physical development of the child. The
Minnesota Twin Studies have shown, for example, even identical twins who share the same
genes can grow up to be of different height if they are raised in different environments. Such
environmental factors as nutrition can affect physical growth significantly. According to the
United Nations University, malnutrition can delay physical growth and development. It can also
affect the quality and texture of bones and teeth, the size of body parts and delay the adolescent
growth spurt. If the child gets better nutrition later on, she may be able to catch up, depending on
how severe the malnutrition was. Besides diet, other environmental factors such as climate and
toxins can also affect physical development.
Chronic Illnesses
Serious, chronic illness and surgeries have been shown to have a negative effect on a child’s
physical development. Dr. M. L. Cepeda and colleagues, for example, studied 30 subjects with
homozygous sickle cell disease from age eight through 19. In their study, published in the
“Journal of the National Medical Association” in January 2000, the authors reported that their
subjects were significantly shorter and of lower weight than their healthy controls. The sexual
development was also delayed in adolescents with sickle cell disease.

Physical Factors that Influence Child Development

Every child develops at a different rate. Some children can do certain physical tasks before their
peers can, but this can be normal. However, there are physical factors that can influence how a
child develops.
Gross Motor Development
Gross motor development is the child’s ability to move about and use the various parts of the
body to achieve physical tasks. Crawling is normally accomplished by 8 to 12 months and
walking and running by 18 months. A child who is physically unable to play, run and jump will
lose tone in his/her muscles, which will cause him/her to become weak. As a result, such child
will be less able to do things that other children of similar age have no difficulty doing.

Fine Motor Development

Fine motor development is a term used to describe more finite movements a child does with the
hands. However, fine motor skills are hard to ascertain in children under 2 years of age. Holding
a pair of scissors and cutting paper is an example of a fine motor skill that a 3-year old should be
able to do. Without fine motor skills, a child is unable to use the hands and perform tasks, and
this can influence how he/she develops. A child with fine motor difficulty may fall behind other
children of similar age and may be unable to keep up in school. He/She may need special
assistance to complete tasks that other children can do with ease, such as using a spoon and fork
properly, copying a circle or drawing a person with a head, which most 3-year-olds can do.

Vision Problems and Eye-Hand Coordination

A child who suffers from vision problems may have difficulty developing properly. He/She may
have difficulty running and playing with friends, may have difficulty eating, putting clothes on or
tying shoe laces. If a child cannot see properly, he/she is not going to have good eye-hand
coordination. A lack of eye-hand coordination will make a child unable to physically coordinate
the task that his/her eyes see. This can make him/her fall behind classmates, and mental
development may be affected.

GENETIC DETERMINANTS OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE

The determinants of human athletic performance have long been a challenging field of study in
sport sciences. Sports performance is an enormously complex phenomenon, and is determined by
numerous intrinsic (e.g., genetics, motor behavior, physiological and psychological profile) and
extrinsic factors (e.g., training, nutrition, development opportunities and overall health
conditions) as well as by the interaction between them. Although it is impossible to set a unique
formula to make anyone becoming a successful athlete, it is widely accepted that any individual
who is highly committed and dedicated to training is able to improve athletic performance.
Likewise, to be a top-level athlete, several years of dedication to an organized and rigid training
system is indeed a prerequisite, although not a guarantee of success. However, a few athletes
seem to be exceptionally gifted and demonstrate extraordinarily high performance levels even
before taking part in training programs; some athletes demonstrate better responses to training
than others, or may be able to consistently sustain high levels of performance over their
competitive career.
Despite the awareness of the genetic influences on competitive success, genetics of sports
performance is a quite recent area of investigation. As a consequence, the currently available
knowledge is largely incipient and some authors consider we are at infant stages of the area.
Hence, every effort aiming at improving our understanding on this phenomenon is of great
importance.
High-level sports performance is an extremely complex phenotype and genetic background is
only one of its multiple contributory factors. It is likely that the contribution of heritability to a
particular phenotype will largely depend on the specific sport discipline, among other factors.
Even if only the genetic factors are considered, sports success remains an extremely complex
phenomenon because it is a multi-genic trait.
Phenotypic traits are observable characteristics controlled by genes. Thus, a given genotype
affects a given phenotype to some extent. Some traits are controlled by one single gene, and they
are referred to as monogenic traits.

Genetic influences on quantitative traits and sports performance

Sports performance is an extremely complex phenotypic trait, which is in turn influenced,
although not determined, by many other traits, such as muscle fibre type distribution, aerobic
power and capacity, anaerobic power and capacity, and trainability of physical capacities.
Most traits that are relevant to sports performance are quantitative, meaning that they are
possible to be measured and quantified. Some examples of quantitative traits that are relevant to
physical performance are: body composition, aerobic power and muscle strength. In some cases,
the final outcome of sport performance can also be a quantitative trait. For examples, swimming
distance times, running races, jumps, throws and all other sports in which final performance is
quantifiable can be considered quantitative traits. In other cases, however, sports performance
"per se" is not a quantitative trait. This is the case of unpredictable sports, such as team sports,
individual sports that depend on natures' conditions (e.g., surfing and sailing) and individual
sports that depend on opponents' actions (e.g., combat sports). Theoretically, some performance-
relevant quantitative traits are strongly influence by genetic factors, which is also the case of
some "predictable sports”. On the other hand, other traits as well as "unpredictable sports" are
less influenced by genetic factors and, therefore, genotype-phenotype relationships are less likely
to be established.
BODY TYPES & BODY COMPOSITION AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE DETERMINED BY YOUR BODY TYPE
(SOMATOTYPE)

We all understand the stereotypes - the rugby player built like the Incredible Hulk, the sprinter
with legs like a gazelle and the tennis player with arms all over the place. But how much does
our body type really affect our athletic performance? Can we change our bodies in order to excel
at a particular sport? Or should we stick to the activities we naturally find easy?

SOMATOTYPES
There are said to be three body types or somatotypes. Scientists have developed terminology to
differentiate these.

THE ENDOMORPH
The endomorph has short limbs, a large central body mass, and is pear shaped with wide hips
and shoulders. Their large mass means they generally struggle with any sport which requires
agility or speed, such as gymnastics or running. However, their bulk means they excel at strength
exercises and make excellent weight lifters. Their sheer size and brute force also ideally suits
them for rugby, where being a man mountain pays off. Endomorphs are also said to be good at
sports like rowing, which require a combination of strength, endurance and lung capacity.
However, endomorphs have to work hard at their training, because although they gain muscle
and bulk up faster than other body types, they also lose condition very quickly. We have all seen
the bodybuilders who have lost interest in training and "gone to fat".

THE MESOMORPH
The second body type is the mesomorph. The mesomorph looks a bit like Superman. He has a
square head and a muscular, triangular shaped body with narrow hips that look like they should
be sporting a pair of superhero underpants. He has broad shoulders and thighs, and is
characterised by lots of muscle mass and not much fat. He is made to excel at pretty much any
sport he cares to try. His high muscle mass means he is strong enough to power lift, yet his
medium height means he is agile and speedy, so he is just as happy buzzing about the football
pitch or launching himself off a diving board. Mesomorphs find it relatively easy to gain or lose
weight, and are light enough to find cardio activity achievable.

THE ECTOMORPH
The third type is the ectomorph. Lean - skinny, even - without much in the way of muscle, the
ectomorph is the epitome of the weedy guy. However, don't underestimate him, because he and
his female counterparts can do things that the other types can't. Their light frame means they can
excel at gymnastics, ice skating and dance. Their small body surface area and better ability to
thermally regulate suits them perfectly for endurance sports like long distance running. However,
although they exude this type of stamina, they can sustain injuries if they attempt to lift too many
weights, and their tendency to become extremely thin can be damaging, especially for young
women. Ballet dancers are usually ectomorphs, and stories abound about the long term effects
some dancers have suffered from being underweight and malnourished.

THE SCIENCE BEHIND SOMATOTYPE AND SPORTS

Of course, none of us fit neatly into the mould of any one particular body type. Instead, we are a
combination of them all. Scoring systems have been developed by researchers such as W.H.
Sheldon, who have suggested that everyone can be given a score out of 7 for each somatotype.
Different sports will ideally require different combinations of scores from their "perfect" players.
A power lifter, for example, might be “7-5-1”. 7 for high endomorphy, 5 for average
mesomorphy and 1 for low ectomorphy.

This is a good system, whereby researchers can determine which body types predispose
individuals to excel at certain sports. Gymnasts, for example, are usually something like “1-5-7”
to reflect their low body fat, average muscle mass and slight build.
HOW DIFFERENT SOMATOTYPES SHOULD TRAIN
Although it is impossible to change the body type you were born with completely, you can make
the most of what you have got. No matter what body type athletes possess, they are always at the
peak of their physical fitness.

Ectomorph individuals usually find it hard to build strength and muscle. Bodybuilders and power
lifters are often natural ectomorphs, drawn to weight lifting out of a desire to appear less puny.
Through sheer will-power and determination, however, they manage to transform their natural
skin and bone into a mass of muscle. They do this by training extremely heavily, with more rest
breaks than usual and greater emphasis upon compound lifts. They are also advised to stick to
around 5-10 reps for each exercise. Ectomorphs will do well to avoid cardio, as it will just cause
them to lose weight and therefore fail to pack on muscle.

Endomorphs are at the opposite end of the scale. If you are on this part of the body type
spectrum, the cross trainer is your best friend. Personal trainers recommend that endomorphs do
cardio exercise as much as possible, in order to keep their weight down.

The natural mesomorph is, of course, physically gifted, naturally possessing the kind of body
that others aspire to. Mesomorphs can use their naturally athletic bodies to their advantage,
exercising in whichever ways they enjoy. However, although most mesomorphs don't gain
weight easily, they cannot be lackadaisical and they do need to exercise several times a week in
order to maintain their best physique.

Whether an athlete is a tennis player, rower, rugby player or gymnast, their body type will
largely influence their sphere of excellence. However, what all athletes have in common is that
they make their bodies work for them by following the training regimes most suited to their body
types and the specific needs of their chosen sport or position.

CAN YOU CHANGE YOUR SOMATOTYPE?

The simple answer to this is no.

It’s impossible to change your height (though in extreme cases people have embarked on surgery
to achieve this).

There are however a number of factors which can influence your athletic performance, over and
above your somatotype:

Diet: This is obviously important as if the world’s strongest man decided to stop exercising and
take up burger eating as a hobby then the effect would be quite dramatic. Even when exercising
your diet plays a fundamental role in your athletic performance as there is a direct correlation
between the energy you have and the food you eat.
Genetics: Your genes define who you are extensive research has been undertaken throughout the
years to understand what characteristics are passed on and why.
Alcohol: Like your diet, the amount of alcohol you consume will have an impact on your athletic
performance. The main negatives are an effect on protein synthesis, a lowering of testosterone
levels and reduces your energy levels (as well as making you dehydrated).
Weight Loss: Simply put, if you lose weight then you are carry less weight when you’re running
which makes it easier. A leaner physique can not only offer additional health benefits but help to
keep you fitter on the move.
Exercise: Whilst there are those people are naturally have the perfect body, it doesn’t come
naturally to everyone and you have to work hard for it. Even modern day professional athletes
had to start somewhere and will have embarked on years of continuous training to get to where
they are now.

BODY COMPOSITION AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE

Sport performance is highly dependent on the health and skill-related components of fitness
(power, speed, agility, reaction time, balance, Body Composition, coordination, etc.), in addition
to the athlete’s technique and level of competency in sport-specific motor skills. All fitness
components depend on body composition to some extent. An increase in lean body mass
contributes to strength and power development. Strength and power are related to muscle size.
Thus, an increase in lean body mass enables the athlete to generate more force in a specific
period of time. A sufficient level of lean body mass also contributes to speed, quickness, and
agility performance (in the development of force applied to the ground for maximal acceleration
and deceleration). Reduced non-essential body fat contributes to muscular and cardiorespiratory
endurance, speed, and agility development. Additional weight (in the form of nonessential fat)
provides greater resistance to athletic motion thereby forcing the athlete to increase the muscle
force of contraction per given workload. The additional body fat can limit endurance, balance,
co-ordination, and movement capacity. Joint range of motion can be negatively affected by
excessive body mass and fat as well, and mass can form a physical barrier to joint movement in a
complete range of motion. Thus, athletes competing in sports that require high levels of
flexibility benefit from having low levels of body fat.

The demands of the sport require that athletes maintain standard levels of body composition.
Some sports require athletes to be large in stature, mass, or both, whereas some athletes prosper
when they are small in stature. For example, linesmen in American football and heavyweight
wrestlers need high levels of body mass. Although lean body mass is ideal, these athletes can
benefit from mass increases in either form (fat included). Greater mass provides these athletes
with more inertia, enabling them to play their positions with greater stability provided speed and
agility are not compromised.

Strength and power athletes such as American football players, wrestlers, and other combat
athletes; powerlifters; bodybuilders; weightlifters; and track and field throwers benefit greatly
from high levels of lean body mass.

Endurance athletes such as distance runners, cyclists, and triathletes benefit greatly from having
low percent body fat.

Athletes such as gymnasts, wrestlers, high jumpers, pole-vaulters, boxers, mixed martial artists,
and weightlifters benefit greatly from having a high strength-to-mass (and power-to-mass) ratio.
Training to maximize strength and power while minimizing changes in body mass (and keeping
body fat low) is of great value to these sports.

Gymnasts, pole-vaulters, and high jumpers have to overcome their body weights to obtain
athletic success. Thus, minimizing changes in mass enables greater flight height, time, and aerial
athleticism.

Wrestlers, boxers, mixed martial artists, powerlifters, and weight-lifters compete in weight
classes. This is because higher weight classes may denote more difficult competition, these
athletes benefit from improving strength and power while maintaining their normal weight class.

Athletes such as baseball and softball players benefit from increased lean body mass and reduced
body fat. The additional lean mass can assist in power, speed, and agility, and keeping body fat
low assists with endurance, quickness, speed, and agility as well (for performing skills such as
throwing, hitting, fielding, and base running).

Basketball and soccer are two of several combination anaerobic and aerobic sports in which
athletes need power, speed, quickness, agility, and strength yet also moderate to high levels of
aerobic fitness. Athletes from both of these sports benefit from having low body fat while
maintaining or increasing lean body mass. Although some athletes can tolerate higher levels of
body mass and perhaps percent body fat, it is generally recommended that data obtained from
frequent body composition measurements be used to develop training plans aimed at reducing
body fat while maintaining or increasing lean body mass.

UNIT 3: EXERCISE AND HEALTH

The Medical Dictionary defines Exercise as a physical activity that is planned, structured and
repetitive for the purpose of conditioning any part of the body.
The Encyclopedia of Children’s Health also defines Exercise as physical activity that is planned,
structured, and repetitive for the purpose of conditioning the body. Exercise consists of
cardiovascular conditioning, strength and resistance training, and flexibility.
Health, on the other hand is defined by The Medical Dictionary as a relative state in which one is
able to function well physically, mentally, socially and spiritually in order to express the full
range of one’s unique potentialities within the environment in which one is living. In the words
of René Dubos, “health is primarily a measure of each person’s ability to do and become what he
wants to become.
Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence
of disease or infirmity. (WHO, 2016)
A sedentary lifestyle and excess caloric consumption are the primary causes of this increase in
overweight and obesity; regular exercise is considered an important factor in controlling weight.
Overweight and obese children and adolescents as well as adults alike are at higher risk of
developing several medical conditions, including the following: asthma, diabetes, hypertension,
orthopedic complications such as hip and knee pain and limited range of motion, cardiovascular
disease, high cholesterol, sleep apnea, psychosocial disorders, such as depression, negative body
image, and eating disorders.
Exercise is used to improve health, maintain fitness and is important as a means of physical
rehabilitation. It is useful in preventing or treating coronary heart disease, osteoporosis,
weakness, diabetes, obesity and depression. Range of motion is one aspect of exercise important
for increasing or maintaining joint function. Strengthening exercises provide appropriate
resistance to the muscles to increase endurance and strength. Cardiac rehabilitation exercises are
developed and individualized to improve the cardio-vascular system for prevention and
rehabilitation of cardiac disorder and diseases.
Exercise is essential for improving overall health, maintaining fitness, and helping to prevent the
development of obesity , hypertension , and cardiovascular disease. A well-balanced exercise
program can improve general health, build endurance and slow many of the effects of aging. The
benefits of exercise not only improve physical health but also enhance emotional well-being.

BIOLOGICAL FITNESS
Definition of Biological Fitness
In nature, fitness does not refer to how many miles someone can run or how much he or she can
lift, but rather how many babies he or she can produce in a lifetime. Biological fitness, also
called Darwinian fitness, means the ability to survive to reproductive age, find a mate, and
produce offspring.
Basically, the more offspring an organism produces during its lifetime, the greater its biological
fitness. Given that differences in survival and number of offspring produced depend mainly on
an individual's DNA, biological fitness is usually discussed in terms of most and least successful
genes, or characteristics.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FITNESS AND HEALTH
The Five Basic Principles of Fitness
There are 5 Basic Principles of Physical Fitness. They include:

1. The Overload Principle

2. The FITT Principle
3. The Specificity Principle
4. The Rest and Recovery Principle
5. The Use or Lose Principle

The Overload Principle

The Overload Principle is probably the most important principle of exercise and training. Simply
stated, the Overload Principle means that the body will adapt to the workload placed upon it. The
more you do, the more you will be capable of doing. This is how all the fitness improvements
occur when exercising and training. The human body is an amazing machine. When you stress
the body through lifting a weight that the body is unaccustomed to lifting, the body will react by
causing physiological changes in order to be able to handle that stress the next time it occurs.
This concept is similar in cardiovascular training. If you ask the heart, lungs and endurance
muscles to do work not previously done, it will make changes to the body to be able to handle
that task better the next time. This is how people get stronger, bigger, faster and increase their
physical fitness level.
When you are working out, you want to strive to somehow increase the workload you are doing
above what you did on your previous workout so you have overloaded your body to create a
training adaptation. This increase in workout stress can be a very small increase, as many small
increases over time will eventually be a large increase or adaptation. To determine how to
increase the workload of a given workout you need to understanding the F.I.T.T Principle.
The F.I.T.T. Principle
An easy way to get started on developing a personal fitness program is utilizing the F.I.T.T.
principle. This acronym stands for Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type. These are the areas
in which someone could increase or overload in order to improve physical fitness.
Frequency: This refers to how often you will exercise. After any form of exercise is performed
your body completes a process of rebuilding and repairing. So, determining the frequency of
exercise is important in order to find a balance that provides just enough stress for the body to
adapt and also allows enough rest time for healing.
Intensity: Defined as the amount of effort or work that must be completed in a specific exercise.
This too requires a good balance to ensure that the intensity is hard enough to overload the body
but not so difficult that it results in over training, injury or burnout.
Time: Time is simply how long each individual session should last. This will vary based on the
intensity and type.
Type: What type of exercise will you be doing? Will an exercise session be primarily
cardiovascular, resistance training or a combination of both? And, what specific exercises will
you perform.
Combining The Overload Principle and The F.I.T.T. Principle
Resistance Training Cardiovascular Training
Frequency Increase the number of workout days Increase the number of workout days
Intensity Increase the resistance / weight Increase pace or % of Max. Heart Rate
Time Increase time involved in exercise or
Increase time involved in exercise
Increased repetitions.
Type Changing the exercise but still working Changing the workout to a different
the same area of the body cardio exercise. Ex. jogging to jump rope

The Specificity Principle

This principle is just how it sounds...how you exercise should be specific to your goals. If you're
trying to improve your racing times, you should focus on speed workouts. If your main goal is
simply health, fitness and weight management, you should focus on total body strength, cardio
and a healthy diet. Make sure your training matches your goals.

The Rest and Recovery Principle

While we often focus on getting in as much exercise as possible, rest and recovery is also
essential for reaching your weight loss and fitness goals. While you can often do cardio every
day (though you may want to rest after very intense workouts) you should have at least a day of
rest between strength training workouts. Make sure you don't work the same muscles two days
in a row to give your body the time it needs to rest and recover.

The Use or Lose Principle

The Principle of Use or Lose implies that when it comes to fitness, you "use it or lose it." This
simply means that your muscles build strength (hypertrophy) with use and lose strength
(atrophy) with lack of use. This also explains why we or lose fitness when we stop exercising.

FIVE PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH

Being ill is not nice. Being healthy is better. The main principles of health are healthy diet, no
drugs (alcohol, smoking, drugs, eating too much), regular exercise, adequate rest and positive
thinking. We can easily integrate them into our everyday lives when we want it. These five
principles of health give us a long, healthy and happy life. If we live by these principles, we can
avoid most diseases. If we are sick, we become significantly faster healthy.

1. Eat healthy. A healthy diet consists of fruits, vegetables, cereals, milk, potatoes, pulses, etc. It
is advised to eat little or no meat and much raw food (raw fruits and vegetables). Raw food gives
the body lots of vitamins and b minerals that protect him from disease.

2. Avoid drugs, smoking and alcohol. That causes many diseases and usually shorten your life
significantly. Too many sweets (sugar, fat), lots of salt and lots of meat are also unfavorable.
Don ́t eat too much calories. You live longer, if you eat less (but not too less). Hear to your body.
He knows what is good for you. Live wisely and stay healthy.

3. Do sports. Go walking, jogging, cycling, swimming once or twice a day (one half to one
hour), to keep the body strong and healthy. It is also sufficient to train on an exercise bike
(bicycle, treadmill) or to do dynamic yoga (creative hatha yoga) for half an hour a day. Or to go
for a walk on the weekend for an hour. It is important, that the body is well warmed through
(practice until a slight sweating). It kills disease germs.

4. Relax sufficiently. Stress should always be put away by adequate recovery periods, yoga or
meditation. For the inner happiness, it is important to live in the right proportion of personal
activity (work) and rest (relaxation).

5. Think positive. Avoid negative thoughts. Keep your mind through conscious control
predominantly positive. Positive thoughts lead to positive feelings and positive emotions have a
positive effect on your body. Motivate yourself with positive phrases and ideas. Read positive
books and have a positive task (hobby).

THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF EXERCISE

Regular exercise and physical activity may:

 Help you control your weight. Along with diet, exercise plays an important role
in controlling your weight and preventing obesity. To maintain your weight, the calories
you eat and drink must equal the energy you burn. To lose weight, you must use more
calories than you eat and drink.

 Reduce your risk of heart diseases. Exercise strengthens your heart and improves your
circulation. The increased blood flow raises the oxygen levels in your body. This helps
lower your risk of heart diseases such as high cholesterol, coronary artery disease,
and heart attack. Regular exercise can also lower your blood pressure and triglyceride
levels.
  Help your body manage blood sugar and insulin levels. Exercise can lower your blood
sugar-level and help your insulin work better. This can cut down your risk for metabolic
syndrome and type 2 diabetes. And if you already have one of those diseases, exercise
can help you to manage it.
 Help you quit smoking. Exercise may make it easier to quit smoking by reducing your
cravings and withdrawal symptoms. It can also help limit the weight you might gain
when you stop smoking.
 Improve your mental health and mood. During exercise, your body releases chemicals
that can improve your mood and make you feel more relaxed. This can help you deal
with stress and reduce your risk of depression.
 Help keep your thinking, learning, and judgment skills sharp as you age. Exercise
stimulates your body to release proteins and other chemicals that improve the structure
and function of your brain.
 Strengthen your bones and muscles. Regular exercise can help kids and teens build strong
bones. Later in life, it can also slow the loss of bone density that comes with age. Doing
muscle-strengthening activities can help you increase or maintain your muscle mass and
strength.
 Reduce your risk of some cancers, including colon, breast , uterine, and lung cancer.
 Reduce your risk of falls. For older adults, research shows that doing balance and muscle-
strengthening activities in addition to moderate-intensity aerobic activity can help reduce
your risk of falling.
 Improve your sleep. Exercise can help you to fall asleep faster and stay asleep longer.
 Improve your sexual health. Regular exercise may lower the risk of erectile
dysfunction (ED) in men. For those who already have ED, exercise may help improve
their sexual function. In women, exercise may increase sexual arousal.
 Increase your chances of living longer. Studies show that physical activity can reduce
your risk of dying early from the leading causes of death, like heart disease and some
cancers.
How can I make exercise a part of my regular routine?
 Make everyday activities more active. Even small changes can help. You can take the
stairs instead of the elevator. Walk down the hall to a coworker's office instead of sending
an email. Wash the car yourself. Park further away from your destination.
 Be active with friends and family. Having a workout partner may make you more likely
to enjoy exercise. You can also plan social activities that involve exercise. You might
also consider joining an exercise group or class, such as a dance class, hiking club, or
volleyball team.
 Keep track of your progress. Keeping a log of your activity or using a fitness tracker may
help you set goals and stay motivated.
 Make exercise more fun. Try listening to music or watching TV while you exercise. Also,
mix things up a little bit - if you stick with just one type of exercise, you might get bored.
Try doing a combination of activities.
 Find activities that you can do even when the weather is bad. You can walk in a mall,
climb stairs, or work out in a gym even if the weather stops you from exercising outside.
HEALTH BENEFITS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
Our ability to carry out daily tasks and routine physical activities without undue fatigue is
called physical fitness. While too much reliance on technology could make us less fit, we see
that we can improve physical fitness through the performance of different exercises.
The health benefits of the physical fitness is endless. Explore some of the health benefits of
fitness leading to healthy lifestyle and learn how you will benefit from them:

1. Reduces risk of disease: People who participate in regular exercise have a decreased risk of
developing: heart disease, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, colon cancer, lung cancer, breast
cancer, etc.
2. Development of physical fitness components: Development of physical fitness components
such as muscle strength and endurance, cardiovascular endurance, flexibility, agility, speed, bone
density, etc and improvement of muscle tone.
3. Provide better health: Regular physical exercise increases both the size and strength of the
heart. It can pump more blood with less effort and becomes more efficient. This will lower pulse
and lower the blood pressure which can increase lifespan. The circulatory system is also
improved because of increased blood volume providing more oxygen to the muscles. These
effects will translate into a reduced risk for heart disease, heart attack, and stroke. Significant
cardiovascular health benefits can be attained with long-term participation in cardiovascular
exercise.
4. Lower your Cholesterol levels: The benefits of physical fitness extend to their ability to help
you control your cholesterol. They raise your levels of 'good' cholesterol and drop your levels of
'bad' cholesterol.
5. Builds stronger Bones, Joints and Ligaments: Physical activity results in the strengthening of
our bones and muscles. It can substantially reduce the risk or arthritis and other bone diseases.
Weight bearing exercise is shown to increase bone density and also prevent bone loss as we get
older. This can reduce the onset and severity of osteoporosis. Resistance training does a great
job. The strain that it puts on your body helps build bigger, stronger bones. Different kinds of
strength training put strain on your joints. This actually helps your body strengthen connective
tissue in those joints. These tissues become stronger, more flexible and less prone to injury.
Increased blood supply means better nutrition for the tissues and better removal of waste
products which helps improve the health and durability.
6. Maintenance of Optimal Body Weight: Physical activity increases the muscle mass, reduces
fat and thus controls weight. It is proven that physical fitness can control your body weight and
prevent obesity and other weight-related problems. By combining the right physical workouts
with a proper and balanced diet, you can expect weight loss, reduced body fat and a more firm
and fit body. Aerobic exercise burns calories during the duration of the exercise and strength
training burns calories in the 24 hour period following the training.
7. Improves your sleeping habits: One of the benefits of physical fitness is that it provides you
sound sleep and improves your sleeping habits. Studies show that people who exercise regularly
and are physically fit - fall asleep more easily and sleep longer than those who do not exercise
and are physically unfit. Because of cooling off after exercise, your body temperature drops
leading to deeper sleep.
8. Boost in energy level: Exercise improves the blood flow in the body and promotes better
sleep, both of which boost energy. A regular exercise program, especially in the mornings, will
give you energy and drive for the rest of the day. This effect is related to the increased
metabolism associated with a fitter body.
9. Improved Appearance: Physical activity build muscle mass and burns excess fat. It tones body
muscles helping you to look fit and healthy. Healthy active people almost always have great skin
tone and look fresh, less fatigued.
10. Relaxation and Stress relief: There are so many stress factors in our day to day life. Because
of lifestyle changes, change in the environment, people live under extreme stress in this
competitive world. Regular physical activity, fitness workouts releases the hormones which have
“feel good factor.” It helps in reducing your stress levels and gives you more strength to fight
life’s challenges.
11. Fights Depression: Effects of physical activity and exercise on mood are immediate. Blood
flow to the brain is increased, endorphins are released and your mood lifts. These endorphins
make you feel better and fight stress and depression.
12. Causes Delayed Aging: Among the several benefits of physical fitness, delayed aging leading
to positive thinking and improved self perception is the most sought after. Regular physical
activity reverses the natural decline in the metabolism of the body. Daily exercise is found to
keep a person productive and energetic for a longer period of the day. Regular physical activity
postpones the process of aging and increases the longevity of life.
13. Improve your overall health: Physical fitness provides you the optimum physical health,
general well being and mental stability. In other words it improves your overall health and you
can live your life to the fullest.
14. Healthier, longer Life: All together, the benefits of physical fitness give you healthy and
more efficient body. Thus it increases your chance of leading a healthier, longer and more
fulfilling life.

These are some of the more prominent benefits of physical fitness. Everyone can and should
participate in a fitness program to improve their quality of life. Living an active and healthy life
will make your overall lifestyle much better.

EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON THE BODY SYSTEM

Exercise affects the circulatory system, respiratory system and the muscles. Short term effects
occur immediately as we begin to exercise. Long term effects are more concerned with adaptive
changes over time with regular exercise.
Short Term Effects of Exercise
When we begin to exercise the body has to respond to the change in activity level in order to
maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis). Here are the changes which must take
place within the muscles, respiratory and circulatory system:
Circulatory System
 The release of adrenaline (often before exercise even begins) causes the heart rate to rise
 This increases Cardiac Output
  Venous return increases due to the higher Cardiac Output and the skeletal muscle
pump and respiratory pump
 Increases in Lactic Acid (produced during the early anaerobic phase of exercise), Carbon
Dioxide (due to increased rates of energy production) and temperature all act as stimuli to
the cardiac control centre which responds by further increasing the heart rate
 Oxygen levels within the blood decrease which causes increased diffusion at the lungs
 Blood pressure increases, thus increasing flow rate and the speed of delivery of O2 and
nutrients to the working muscles
 Vasodilation and vasoconstriction ensure blood is directed to areas that need it (muscles,
lungs, heart) and away from inactive organs
Respiratory System
 Changes in the concentration of CO2 and O2 in the blood are detected by the respiratory
centre which increases the rate of breathing
 The intercostal muscles, diaphragm and other muscle which aid the expansion of the
thoracic cavity work harder to further increase the expansion during inhalation, to draw in
more air.
Muscles
 The higher rate of muscle contraction depletes energy stores and so stimulates a higher
rate of energy metabolism.
 The body's energy stores are slowly depleted
 Myoglobin releases its stored Oxygen to use in aerobic respiration. O2 can now be
diffused into the muscle from the capillaries more quickly due to the decreased O2
concentration in the muscle.

Long Term Effects of Exercise

Regular exercise results in adaptations to the circulatory, respiratory and muscular systems in
order to help them perform better under additional stress. Here are the changes which must take
place within the muscles, respiratory system and circulatory system:
Circulatory System
 The cardiac muscle surrounding the heart hypertrophies, resulting in thicker, stronger
walls and therefore increases in heart volumes. The more blood pumped around the body
per minute, the faster Oxygen is delivered to the working muscles.
 The number of red blood cells increases, improving the bodies ability to transport
Oxygen to the muscles for aerobic energy production.
 The density of the capillary beds in the muscles and surrounding the heart and lungs
increases as more branches develop. This allows more efficient gaseous exchange of
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.
 The resting heart rate decreases in trained individuals due to the more efficient
circulatory system.
  The accumulation of lactic acid is much lower during high-levels activity, due to the
circulatory system providing more Oxygen and removing waste products faster.
 Arterial walls become more elastic which allows greater tolerance of changes in blood
pressure.
Respiratory System and Exercise
 The respiratory muscles (Diaphragm/intercostals) increase in strength.
 This results in larger respiratory volumes, which allows more Oxygen to be diffused into
the blood flow (VO2 max)
 An increase in the number and diameter of capillaries surrounding the alveoli leads to an
increase in the efficiency of gaseous exchange.
Muscle
 Increased numbers of mitochondria (the cells powerhouse) means an increase in the rate
of energy production.
 The muscles, bones and ligaments become stronger to cope with the additional stresses
and impact put through them.
 The amount of myoglobin within skeletal muscle increases, which allows more Oxygen
to be stored within the muscle, and transported to the mitochondria.
 Muscles are capable of storing a larger amount of glycogen for energy.
 Enzymes involved in energy production become more concentrated and efficient to aid
the speed of metabolism.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRAINED AND UNTRAINED INDIVIDUALS

FITNESS SUCCESS FORMULA

DETERRENTS TO FITNESS/PERFORMANCE
What are the deterrents to fitness?

 Endurance
 Likes
 Interests
 Intention
 Discipline
 Determination
  Health
 Self-worth
 Personality
 Addictions
 Stresses
 Finances
 Fatigue
The above deterrents pertain to all of us in different ways. They do not discriminate. A health
practitioner may love to run but he is a heavy smoker so his lung capacity is poor, causing poor
endurance. A talented body builder who develops diabetes, hypertension and hyperlipidemia
finds himself unable to perform like he used to due to his health issues. A TV addict sees no need
to be active because the TV provides enough action to keep her occupied. A woman who gained
a lot of weight during and after pregnancy is now embarrassed to go dancing because she lost her
sense of self-worth. A man who works in a high-paced brokerage firm says when he gets home
all he wants to do is sit and drink his scotch because he is too stressed out. Ad infinitum!

We all have encountered people along the way who fit these deterrents, as well as our own self.
It is not an easy task because it requires mental work upon the self.

CARDIO-RESPIRATION LIMITATIONS
UNIT 4: DRUGS/ERGOGENIC AIDS AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
The term ergogenic means having the ability to increase work. In the realm of
athletics, ergogenic aids are pills, powders, drinks, bars, gels, etc., that, when consumed, can
enhance an athlete's strength, endurance, recovery, body composition, or energy levels, leading
to improved performance and an advantage over the athlete's competition. Since athletes often
supplement their dietary intake with ergogenic aids, they are also referred to as sports
supplements and in some cases as simply dietary supplements.
Performance enhancing drugs consist of a variety of substances, including medications,
procedures, and even devices that are intended to improve athletic sports performance. Some of
these substances are naturally occurring, easily available and completely legal while others are
manufactured, illegal, or banned by many sporting organizations. Many athletes, coaches,
politicians, and fans feel the use of certain substances is unethical in sports.
Determining which substances are regulated, however, is an area of constant debate. Many
performance enhancing substances classified as supplements are widely marketed as "health
aids" yet have limited research on their safety or effectiveness. Being classified as a supplement
means the contents of the product and the claims on the label have not been evaluated by the
Food and Drug Administration and may not have any scientific basis.
In general, performance enhancing drugs and substances (ergogenic aids) can be categorized
into the following areas.
Sports Supplements, Vitamins, and Minerals
Athletes often look for alternative nutrition to perform at their best, and sport supplements are
one way. The following can be found at your local health food stores. Most are not banned but
check with your sports governing body to be sure.
 Protein is a necessary nutrient that everyone needs to function properly. Both athletes and
sedentary individuals need to get adequate protein.
 Glucosamine has been used to treat osteoarthritis and helps stimulates cartilage, though
the results of this are not constant.
 Ribose is a sugar. There is clear evidence that shows an athletic performance benefit from
ribose supplements.
 Creatine started off as a sports supplement but has been found to work in elderly
populations to help maintain muscle mass. For some athletes, creatine supplementation
improves repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise, such as sprinting, weight lifting or
power sports.
 Glutamine (L- Glutamine) is an amino acid and classified as a nutritional supplement.
Most athletes take it to help them recover from exercise.
 B-Vitamins are essential for the body to function properly, but there may be a link
between the B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin B-6, B-12, and folate) and
performance in high-level athletes.
Banned or Regulated Performance Enhancing Drugs
 Amphetamines are central nervous system stimulant drugs that increase alertness and
self-confidence, improve concentration, decrease appetite, and create a feeling of
increased energy. Amphetamines such as Benzedrine, Adderall, and Dexedrine have a
high potential for addiction and are on the banned substance list of most, if not all, sports
organizations.
  Anabolic Steroids (anabolic-androgenic steroids), are synthetic versions of the male
hormone testosterone. Non-medical use of anabolic steroids is illegal and banned by most
major sports organizations. Still, some athletes continue to use them illegally in an
attempt to improve sports performance, despite evidence that using them can cause
serious health problems, such as hypertension and heart attack. The manufactured version
of DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone) as well as the designer steroids, Androstenedione
(Andro) and Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) are all precursors to hormones, such as
testosterone, and work in a similar manner to anabolic-androgenic steroids. These are all
banned substances by nearly all sports organizations.
 Caffeine is a naturally occurring substance that has been used by endurance athletes for
years as a way to stay alert and improve endurance. While generally not harmful, it does
have side effects and is banned (in high doses) by many sports organizations.
 Ephedrine is a substance found in many cold and flu medications. It is also used to treat
low blood pressure that may occur because of other medications and can improve
breathing. Currently, it is illegal to possess large quantities of it in the US. It once was an
ingredient used in diet drugs until it was found to cause headaches, dizziness, heart
irregularities, seizures, and possibly death.
 Erythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally-occurring hormone, produced by the kidneys, that
stimulates the production of red blood cells. This hormone can also be manufactured and
injected. Most recently EPO has been linked to the professional cycling world. Although
EPO is on the banned substance list, some claim cyclists continue to use it to boost
performance.
 HemAssist is a class of drug called a Hemoglobin-based Oxygen Carrier (HBOC).
HBOCs are experimental drugs that carry oxygen in the blood for a short period of time.
They are designed to act as blood substitutes for trauma patients. HemAssist was in the
final stages of clinical trials in 1998 when research was stopped due to safety concerns.

TOBACCO, ALCOHOL AND FITNESS

Tobacco is an agricultural crop, most commonly used to make cigarettes. It is grown all over the
world and supports a billion-dollar industry. The psychoactive ingredient is nicotine, a stimulant,
but more than 4,000 other chemicals (2,000 of which are known to be poisonous) are present in
cigarettes.
Tobacco is a nervous system stimulant that triggers complex biochemical and neurotransmitter
disruptions. It elevates heart rate and blood pressure, constricts blood vessels, irritates lung
tissue, and diminishes your ability to taste and smell.

Tobacco can be processed, dried, rolled, and smoked as: Cigarettes, Cigars, Bidis (thin, hand-
rolled cigarettes imported from Southeast Asia), Clove cigarettes, Kreteks (cigarettes imported
from Indonesia that contain cloves and other additives), Loose-leaf tobacco can be smoked in
pipes and hookahs (an Asian smoking pipe with a long tube that passes through an urn of
water). The two most common forms of smokeless tobacco are chewing tobacco and snuff
(finely ground tobacco placed between the gum and lip).

TOBACCO AND FITNESS

What is the connection between smoking and sports performance? It’s a fact that smoking is an
expensive and unhealthy habit. Furthermore, it greatly hinders one’s physical performance.
Smoking in general causes:
 Narrowed blood vessels
 Lack of blood oxygen
 Increased resting heart rate
 Airway resistance
As we all know, great athletes always try their best, be it a simple routine training or the final run
at the Olympics. All in all, tobacco smoke impedes various physiological processes, which in
turn keep athletes from performing their best. More precisely, the toxic fumes found in tobacco
smoke hinder sufficient amount of oxygen to enter one’s bloodstream, lungs, and heart, which
results in shortness of breath, dizziness, and even loss of consciousness. In fact, when any
amount of tobacco fumes are found in one’s system, the overall performance of the athlete is
greatly impacted for the worse. As a result, one might think there is a negative connection
between smoking and sports performance.
Overall, the general conclusion is that the majority of athletes try to focus on maintaining a
healthy lifestyle. Many scientists will state that there is a strong relation between smoking and
sports performance. This means avoiding tobacco as much as possible. Whether some are truly
addicted to the substance or simply enjoy inhaling the infamous fumes is up for debate.
Tobacco happens to be one of the most unhealthy habits for an athlete. When harmful fumes,
such as carbon monoxide, nicotine, tar, and many others enter one’s system, the body becomes
unable to produce sufficient amount of energy needed for high athletic performance.
Subsequently, many athletes reported having experienced the following side effects due to their
tobacco addiction:
 Less or no benefit from physical training
 Decreased muscular strength and flexibility
 Disturbed sleep patterns
 Shortness of breath followed by coughing (3 times more than non-smokers)
 Low-back pain
 Inability to heal fast after injuries
Alcohol Effects on Your Body
Alcohol is a drug that is absorbed into the bloodstream from the stomach and small intestine. It is
broken down by the liver and then eliminated from the body. There are limits to how fast the
liver can break down alcohol and this process cannot be sped up. Until the liver has time to break
down all of the alcohol, the alcohol continues to circulate in the bloodstream, affecting all of the
body's organs, including the brain. In general, the liver can break down the equivalent of about
one drink per hour and nothing can speed this up – including black coffee. As alcohol reaches the
brain, you'll start to "feel" drunk. This feeling varies from one person to the next, and one
situation to the next.
In all situations, alcohol depresses the brain and slows down its ability to control the body and
the mind. This is one reason why alcohol is so dangerous. Alcohol acts like a sedative and slows
down muscle coordination, reflexes, movement, and speech. If you drink too much alcohol, your
breathing or heart rate can reach dangerously low levels or even stop.

The Effects of Alcohol on Fitness

To unwind after a hard workout, many people turn to alcohol in the form of beer, wine or mixed
drinks. But before reaching for a cold one, consider this: excessive drinking has a negative
impact on various aspects of fitness. By learning about the relationship between alcohol and
fitness, you can protect your hard-earned physique while enjoying the benefits of moderate
alcohol consumption.

Athletic Performance
Like other tasks requiring coordination and cognitive precision, the ability to exercise or play
sports may be negatively affected by alcohol. According to Sports Doctor, alcohol impairs
reaction time, balance and hand-eye coordination, all of which you require for optimal athletic
performance.

In addition, alcohol acts as a diuretic by speeding the loss of fluids and electrolytes that your
body needs for proper hydration. By increasing the production of lactic acid, alcohol can worsen
fatigue when exercising. Other effects include dilation of blood vessels, increased sweating and
dehydration.

Weight Gain
Like soda, alcohol contains calories that can contribute to weight gain. Drinking more than two
alcoholic beverages per day may lead to increased belly fat. While the condition is often referred
to as a beer belly, any alcoholic beverage can cause weight gain if you consume them in excess.
To avoid gaining belly fat, the University of Michigan Integrative Medicine suggests limiting
your intake of alcohol to two or fewer drinks per day and monitoring your overall caloric intake.

Reduced Muscle Growth

Protein synthesis is vital for muscle development and maintenance. Because alcohol impairs this
process, drinking can interfere with your ability to grow and maintain muscle. Binge drinking
also causes a drop in testosterone levels while increasing cortisol, a hormone that destroys
muscle. To prevent muscle loss, avoid drinking alcohol shortly before or after hitting the gym.
Choose hydrating drinks like water or sports drinks instead of alcoholic beverages, and monitor
your overall alcohol intake.

Heart Health
In some cases, moderate alcohol consumption can be beneficial for overall health. An article by
Dr. Sanjay Gupta in "Time" magazine explains that moderate drinking affects the body in a
manner similar to that of exercise, increasing your levels of healthy cholesterol and thereby
reducing the risk of vascular disease. When added to a healthy lifestyle, alcohol compounds the
positive effects of exercise on cardiovascular health. Gupta explains that these positive benefits
likely apply only to people 45 and older. Excessive alcohol consumption is still harmful to
overall fitness, and moderation is the key to a healthy lifestyle.

UNIT 5: LIFESTYLE HABITS AND CONTROL

If you treat yourself poorly all the time except when you’re exercising, you also won’t fully
benefit from the journey. You must take care of your body in all ways. You need to treat your
other daily functions as vitally as your exercise routine. If you take care of your body (and
mind!), they’ll take care of you. The following are some lifestyle habits that we must inculcate
into our daily routines amongst others:
1) Eat The Right Foods
The first habit you need to develop for a long life full of health and fitness is the habit of eating a
proper diet. You have to develop the habit of eating the right foods, in the right proportions, at
the right times. Everyone knows that they should eat a more balanced diet, containing more
fruits, vegetables, and whole grain products.
In addition to eating the right foods, you should develop the habit of eliminating the “three white
poisons” from your diet, which are salt, sugar, and flour.
2) Get Enough Exercise
The next habit you need to develop is the habit of effective exercise. Many people stop
exercising in their late teens and early twenties, even people who were active in sports when they
were growing up. The human body is meant to be exercised regularly throughout your life.
Develop the habit of articulating and moving every joint in your body, every single day. This
keeps your muscles and joints agile and flexible. Regular exercise assures that you have greater
balance and mobility. It helps to diminish the likelihood of muscle or joint pain or problems.
Develop the habit of exercising 200 minutes each week. If all you did were to go for a walk, 30
minutes per day, seven days per week, you would be one of the fittest people in our society.If
you disciplined yourself to ride an exercise bicycle, work out on a treadmill, swim, jog or engage
in any aerobic exercises that get your lungs and heart pumping, you will dramatically improve
your levels of health and energy in a short period of time.
3) Get Enough Sleep
The third habit that you need for superb all around health is the habit of proper rest. You need
seven to eight hours of sleep each night for optimal performance. If you get less than six to seven
hours of sleep per night, and you continue to work as hard as you normally do at your job, you
will eventually develop a “sleep deficiency.”
You can change the way you feel about yourself, and your performance in your work and
personal life, by developing the habit of going to bed early, by 10:00 pm each night and getting a
good night’s sleep every night of the week.
4) Standing Up Straight
Whether you’re meditating or standing in line at the bank, if you stand up tall, you not only feel
more confident, but you can also “unkink” your energy channels and let your chi flow more
freely. Standing tall doesn’t mean maintaining a strained military posture, just keeping a relaxed
and spine-straight position. Standing straight makes you think more clearly, focus more easily,
and meditate better.
5) Sticking To A Sane Work Schedule
This busy world sometimes seems to encourage and bless those people who work insane hours,
forgoing family, fun, and freedom. Just say no. Doing so doesn’t mean becoming a slouch, it just
means that you know when enough is enough and when to go home or to take a day off.
Work isn’t a substitute for other entertainment — you need to go have some non-work-related
fun whether you’re the CEO or the gofer. Work is only one part of your life. Balance keeps
people sane.
6) Staying Healthy and Fit
Be sure to foster a well-rounded program of wellness. More stretching, strength-training, or even
aerobic exercise, such as brisk walks, can help you achieve more balanced health. Balance is
everything.

WEIGHT CONTROL
Weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle strategies that promote healthy
eating and daily physical activity. Effective weight management strategies consider not only
weight loss toward but also the maintenance of a healthy body weight over time. Moreover,
weight management involves an understanding of meaningful ways to track weight over time
and set ideal body weights for different individuals.
Keeping a healthy weight is crucial. If you are underweight or overweight, or have obesity, you
may have a higher risk of certain health problems.
Achieving a healthy weight can help you control your cholesterol, blood pressure and blood
sugar. It might also help you prevent weight-related diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes,
arthritis and some cancers. Eating too much or not being physically active enough will make you
overweight.
To maintain your weight, the calories you eat must equal the energy you burn. To lose weight,
you must use more calories than you eat. A weight-control strategy might include;
 Choosing low-fat, low-calorie foods
 Eating smaller portions
 Drinking water instead of sugary drinks
 Being physically active
Eating extra calories within a well-balanced diet can help to add weight.
STRESS/FATIGUE
Imagine holding your arm straight out, grasping a rope. In the beginning, it is easy but the longer
you keep your arm held high and your hand gripping the rope, the harder it becomes. Your arm
will begin to get tired, your fingers will want to let go. As you continue to hold on, you become
more and more uncomfortable. Sooner or later the physical act of holding the rope will be too
much to bear. It will take a toll on your muscles and you will need to let go.
So it goes with stress. Situations that cause temporary stress can be painful but bearable. But as
you live with chronic stress, it begins to take its toll on your body. You can't sleep or maybe you
sleep too much, your digestive system doesn't work the way it used to, you deal with headaches
on a daily basis, you sometimes want to just give up or cry for no reason. All of this is easily
noticeable but chronic stress also impacts you in ways you can't see; when you are stressed your
heart works harder and your immune system may not work as well.
Another manifestation of stress is the continual feeling of fatigue. You are simply tired. The
impact on your body causes fatigue; for example, if you aren't sleeping right because of the stress
in your life you are probably going to feel tired throughout the day. But living with chronic stress
can leave you feeling depressed, worried, irritable and just totally exhausted.

Physical Exhaustion vs. Stress Exhaustion

When we are physically exhausted, it is the result of something we did. You may work a
physically demanding job or have completed a rigorous exercise regimen. Physical exhaustion is
usually a choice we have made. With rest, the proper food and time to relax we can easily
recover from physical exhaustion. In some cases it may take a few days, such as when you have
exercised to the point of having sore muscles, but with a day or two of taking care of yourself,
the physical aspects of your exhaustion are gone and you once again feel refreshed.
When your exhaustion comes from stress, it is different. It is a mental exhaustion, caused by
worrying or the difficulty in coping with a situation in your life. It is a result of thoughts and
feelings rather than physical exertion. You may have lived with stress for so long that you no
longer see the negative consequences. You believe that this is "normal." You may not know
what is wrong with you and have accepted the constant feeling of being tired as part of your life.
What is Stress Related Fatigue?
Fatigue is different than being tired or feeling drowsy. We normally feel tired or drowsy at the
end of the day, when our body needs sleep to rejuvenate. Although you may feel tired or drowsy
as a result of fatigue, it is a chronic feeling of lack of motivation or energy. Understanding the
difference between physical and stress related fatigue helps you know whether you should talk
with your doctor. As we discussed in the previous section, physical exhaustion is the result of
something we did and is gone after you take the time to sleep or rest. If you are feeling tired and
sleep or rest does not take this feeling away, you may be suffering from stress related fatigue.
Symptoms of Stress Related Exhaustion
While the main symptoms of fatigue are a general feeling of weariness or being tired or drowsy,
stress related fatigue is usually accompanied by other symptoms:
 Sore or aching muscles or feeling of muscle weakness
 Headache
 Moodiness, irritability or easily agitated
 Dizziness and blurred vision
 Loss of appetite
 Difficulties with short term memory
 Inability to concentrate or focus on tasks
  Slowed reflexes or difficulty making decisions
 Feeling as if your actions are useless or that you can't change your situation
 Lack of motivation
Frequently, once your stress has brought you to the level of exhaustion, you feel alone and
isolated. You may want to hide or have the overwhelming feeling of wanting to climb into bed
and not get out. Living with chronic stress often impacts your relationships and your job, leaving
you feeling lonely and inadequate.
What to Do
There are a number of ways you can help to relieve the fatigue you feel from stress.
 First, it is important to identify the sources of your stress and take steps to resolve these
issues. For example, if your job is causing stress, it may be time to look for a new job or
take some time off work to take a vacation and relax. If your relationship is causing
stress, you may want to consider steps, such as marriage counseling, to help you work on
your marriage. If you are not sure why you feel stressed all the time or if you are unable
to resolve these issues on your own, it may be beneficial to speak with a therapist or
counselor.
 Use relaxation techniques each day. Yoga or meditation has been found to be helpful in
reducing overall feelings of stress. Taking 15 minutes each day to relax and take care of
you can help you feel better throughout the day.
 Add exercise to your daily routine. Daily exercise has been found to increase feelings of
well-being and to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression.
 Sleep and eat right. When stressed it is hard to sleep, you may not be able to fall asleep or
you may wake up throughout the night. Even so, it is important to go to bed at the same
time each night and to get up at the same time each morning. Make sure to eat a well-
balanced diet each day. The proper nutrients are important to helping you feel better.
 If feelings of chronic stress and fatigue don't go away, contact your doctor. He may want
to run some tests to make sure your symptoms aren't being caused by a physical illness.

RELAXATION AND RECREATION

RELAXATION
The ability to relax is important in effectively managing stress and anxiety. When we feel
stressed, our bodies react with what is called the "fight or flight" response. Our muscles become
tense, our heart and respiration rates increase, and other physiological systems become taxed.
Without the ability to relax, chronic stress or anxiety can lead to burnout, anger, irritability,
depression, medical problems, and more.
Allowing yourself to deeply relax is the exact opposite of the "fight or flight" response. In 1975,
Herbert Benson described what he referred to as the "relaxation response." This is the body's
ability to experience a decrease in heart rate, respiration rate, blood pressure, muscle tension, and
oxygen consumption.
TYPES OF RELAXATION EXERCISES
Relaxation techniques can help reduce emotional and physical sensations of stress, as well as the
worry or stressful thoughts that may accompany them. If you can learn to relax your breathing
and reduce your muscle tension, your mind will follow. Conversely, if you can learn to ease
stressful thoughts and worry, your body will relax as well.
It is highly recommended that you approach learning these exercises as skills that need to be
practiced and developed over time, rather than as something you can do once in a while. Without
practice, these exercises may not be as effective for you at the time you need them most!
While there are numerous types of relaxation exercises, but we will explore a few of them here:
Deep Breathing: When we feel stressed, it is common for our rate of breathing to increase. We
also tend to breath in a shallow manner, more highly in our chest. A deep breathing exercise
allows us to take fuller, slower breaths that reflect a true relaxed state.
Visualization/Imagery: Visualization is a nice way of giving our minds and bodies a "mini
vacation." It involves using imagery to fully immerse ourselves in a pleasant scene, noticing the
sights, sounds, smells, and tactile sensations.
Meditation: Meditation can be described as "mental exercise" such as concentration on one’s
breathing or repetition of a mantra. Various types of meditation that are recognized include
transcendental meditation, prayer, Zen meditation, Taoist meditation, mindfulness meditation,
Buddhist meditation and others. The end goal of all types of meditation lead to a mind that is
quieted and free from stress by the use of quiet contemplation and reflection.
Progressive Muscle Relaxation: This practice involves sequentially tensing and relaxing the large
skeletal muscle groups. Muscle relaxation is achieved by noting the contrast between the state of
tension and relaxation and by increasing discernment of muscle groups that are prone to carrying
tension.

RECREATION
Recreation involves leisure-time activities in which people choose to participate. It can be active
(e.g. walking the dog, playing soccer) or passive (e.g. reading a book, enjoying a concert).
Recreation can include physical activity, sport, arts, cultural activities and community events.
Recreation contributes to vibrant and engaged individuals and communities, fostering personal,
social, economic and environmental well-being. It touches on many aspects of our lives
nourishing people and building strong families and communities.
Recreation is more than sport. Instead recreation is defined by the Canadian Parks and
Recreation Association as, “the experience that results from freely chosen participation in
physical, social, intellectual, creative, and spiritual pursuits that enhance individual and
community wellbeing.” (ISRC & CPRA, 2015).
Recreation is an activity of leisure, which is an essential element of human biology and
psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, pleasure or health
benefits and are considered to be fun. Recreation refers to the time spent in an activity one loves
to engage in, with an intent to feel refreshed. It is a break from monotony and a diversion from
the daily routine. It is a positive change from the stereotypical lifestyle. Recreational activities
give enjoyment because while recreating one engages in something he likes. They are a source of
joy and provide relaxation for one’s mind and body. Recreational activities can be grouped into
two groups: indoor and outdoor activities.
Firstly, indoor activities are also a part of the recreation programme. Indoor recreation activities
are undertaken on the comfort of ones home or more specifically indoor and they are to recreate
the mind and soul. For such indoor recreation activities there are well-established clubs or
recreation centers offer a varied programme of activities throughout the year. Activities on offer
include basketball, swimming, volleyball, chess, table tennis, bowling, singing, reading, listening
to music, watching movies and more of the same. For example, basketball is the most popular
indoor sport and second most popular team sport after soccer. Basketball has many health
benefits as it demands lot of physical work. There is a quote saying “Basketball does not build
character. It reveals it.”
Secondly, outdoor sports like the ones mentioned, also provide us with the means to exercise and
hence happen to be one of the best forms of recreation. Outdoor recreation sport examples
include nature walks, river rafting, cycling, camping, fishing, hiking, adventure park, surfing and
sports. Outdoor recreational activities can range from nature walks to river rafting. Organized
recreational activities are often planned by private clubs or government organizations. Sports,
cultural activities and social gatherings are some of the organized ones. Clubs and recreation
centers offer a variety of recreational programs for people of different ages and varied interests.

Benefits of Recreation
Physical Benefits of Recreation
Taking part in recreational activities, especially outdoors, can greatly improve physical health.
People who take part in park activities such as walking, hiking, or skiing, schedule fewer office
visits, maintain lower body fat percentages, and have lower blood pressure and cholesterol
levels.
Mental Health Improvements
Mental wellness is critical to overall physical health. Participating in recreational activities helps
manage stress. Taking time to nurture oneself provides a sense of balance and self-esteem, which
can directly reduce anxiety and depression.
Improving the Quality of your Life
It’s all about balance. Americans are busier than ever. Finding a way to balance the pressures of
work and family with physical and mental wellbeing is important. People who make recreation a
priority are more likely to feel satisfied with their lives overall, according to an American
Recreation Coalition Study, 2000. In fact, 90 percent of respondents who said they participate in
regular, outdoor recreation reported satisfaction with their overall lives. Contrast that to 60
percent life satisfaction for respondents who do not regularly recreate outdoors. It’s clear that
simply going outdoors and moving your body is a direct way to a happier, healthier you.
UNIT 6: NUTRITION AND SUPPLEMENT
Definition of Nutrition.
WHO defines Nutrition as the intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs.
Good nutrition – an adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity – is a
cornerstone of good health. Poor nutrition can lead to reduced immunity, increased susceptibility
to disease, impaired physical and mental development, and reduced productivity.
As defined on Wikipedia, Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and
other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of
an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism,
and excretion. The diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the
availability and palatability of foods. For humans, a healthy diet includes preparation of food and
storage methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and that reduce risk
of food-borne illnesses.
In humans, an unhealthy diet can cause deficiency-related diseases such
as blindness, anemia, scurvy, preterm birth, still-birth and cretinism, or nutrient excess health-
threatening conditions such as obesity and metabolic syndrome; and such common chronic
systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Under-nutrition can lead
to wasting in acute cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition.
Nutrients are molecules in food that all organisms need to make energy, grow, develop, and
reproduce. Nutrients are digested and then broken down into basic parts to be used by the
organism. There are two main types of nutrients, macronutrients and micronutrients. The three
main categories of macronutrients include carbohydrate, protein, and fat. The two types of
micronutrients are vitamins and minerals, and these are extra molecules that cells need to make
energy. Let's take a look at the three groups of macronutrients mentioned.
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient used for quick energy in cells. The basic unit of
carbohydrates is a monosaccharide. An example of a monosaccharide is glucose or sugar.
Glucose can be by itself, or assembled into long chains to make things like starch, which can be
found in potatoes.
Have you heard of the athletic term, carbo-loading? Athletes load up on carbohydrates before a
big race to give themselves a store of quick energy. Carbohydrates have gotten a bad rap lately,
but everyone needs carbs! It is important to eat a balanced diet with all the major nutrient
categories. Foods that contain carbohydrates include grains, cereal, bread, pasta, potatoes, fruits
and sweets such as soda and candy.
Protein
Proteins are a macronutrient that the cells in your body use for structure. Protein is very
important for building tissues, such as muscle. Muscle is mainly made up of proteins. Think how
bodybuilders are always eating plain chicken and protein bars - they're trying to build their
muscles by getting lots of protein in their diet!
Proteins are made from smaller monomers called amino acids. There are twenty amino acids that
make up all the kinds of protein your body needs. Imagine that amino acids are like Legos. To
build a fancy Lego building, you need all shapes and colors of Legos. But there aren't infinite
shapes of Legos; you only have so many to work with. The same thing with protein. Your body
can make some of the amino acids you need, but there are nine that you must consume in your
diet. These are called essential amino acids. Meat, fish, beans, and eggs are examples of foods
rich in protein.
Fat
Fats are called lipids and are a macronutrient in your body that stores energy. Fats have long
chains of carbon and hydrogen, which store lots of energy in the chemical bonds. Fats are
important in our body to cushion organs, protect our cells, and send signals in the form of
hormones around our body. Foods that are rich in fats are butter and oil.
Micronutrients
Now let's take a look at the two groups of micronutrients; Vitamins and minerals.
Called “micronutrients” because they are needed only in minuscule amounts, these substances
are the “magic wands” that enable the body to produce enzymes, hormones and other substances
essential for proper growth and development. As tiny as the amounts are, however, the
consequences of their absence are severe. Iodine, vitamin A and iron are most important in
global public health terms; their lack represents a major threat to the health and development of
populations the world over, particularly children and pregnant women in low-income countries.
Supplement
Sports supplements represent a multi-million dollar industry. Active adults and athletes are often
enticed by effective supplement marketing. The promises of enhanced performance among other
claims are motivating factors to purchase alternative nutrition to achieve results. Lack of
supplement regulation and quality control may mean unreliable and ineffective products are
being used.
It’s estimated between 39 and 89 percent of the international supplement market are athletes with
the highest frequency among older and elite athletes.
What Is a Supplement?
Supplements are considered an addition to an already healthy diet. Active adults or athletes may
include supplements to help meet nutritional needs, improve nutrient deficiencies, enhance
athletic performance or achieve personal fitness goals. Without a well-designed nutrition plan in
place, supplementation is said to be rarely effective.
Supplement Regulation and Standards
Dietary supplements have been placed in a special food category and not considered drugs.
Supplements aren’t required to be submitted to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for
regulation. Although the FDA has the ability to review ingredients and health claims of
supplements, very few are investigated.
Sport supplement manufacturers are allowed to make health claims with FDA approval as long
as the product statements are true and based on scientific evidence.
Unfortunately, very few supplements claiming ergogenic benefits are supported by clinical
research. This leaves the active adult or athlete without a guarantee of safety, effectiveness,
potency or purity of supplements for dietary or ergogenic purposes.
  Dietary supplements include vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbs, botanicals, and
extracts or concentrates from plants or foods. They are typically sold as capsules, tablets,
liquids, powders or bars and required to be clearly labeled as a dietary supplement.
 Ergogenic aids include substances, drugs or techniques used to enhance athletic
performance. They can range from acceptable practices of carbohydrate loading
to “illegal and unsafe approaches such as anabolic-androgenic steroid use.”
Supplement use remains controversial and is a personal choice. Common questions asked by
active adults, athletes, and sports nutritionists relate to manufacturing and supplement quality.
Locating evidence-based research information is highly advised before considering sports foods
and supplements. The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) recommends evaluating
the validity and scientific merit behind supplement claims for enhanced athletic performance.

NUTRITION NEEDS OF ATHLETES

What are the athlete’s specific needs?
Carbohydrates are the best fuel source to provide power for your working muscles. Eating
enough carbohydrate before, during and after exercise helps to maintain energy levels, delay
fatigue during exercise and support a more rapid recovery. With carbohydrate or "carbs" as the
main fuel source, you can maintain your activity for a longer period. Carbohydrate foods should
make up more than half your total energy intake. If you are involved in heavy daily exercise,
your carbohydrate needs will be even higher and you should make sure you eat enough
carbohydrate to meet your increased daily requirements.
Proteins are the building blocks of your body’s muscles and tissues. Most athletes need only
slightly more protein than non-athletes. You will usually meet your increased requirements
through increased food intake. It is unlikely that you’ll need protein supplements. If you are
involved in aesthetic (e.g. gymnastics), weight restriction (e.g. light weight rowing) or endurance
sports (e.g. marathon running), you may have higher protein requirements. Foods like meats,
legumes and dairy products are good sources of protein.
Fat is important in the athlete’s diet as it provides energy, fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty
acids. However, fat should be eaten in moderation. A low-fat diet is a good approach for
everyone – athlete and non-athlete alike. Choose "good" fats such as polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fats which are found in fish, nuts, seeds, canola and olive oils and avocados.
Vitamins and Minerals are the "spark plugs" of physical activity. Some help your body use the
energy from carbohydrate, protein and fat. Others help your muscles relax and contract. If you
follow a balanced diet, you will generally take in enough essential vitamins and minerals.
However, if you are trying to lose weight, you may have low levels of some vitamins and
minerals in your diet. Despite the best intentions, some busy people don’t follow a balanced diet,
so watch your intake of iron, calcium and zinc, which are especially important for physically
active people.
Iron is part of haemoglobin, the part of red blood cells that carries oxygen to your body cells.
Oxygen is essential for creating energy in your muscle cells. An iron shortfall, even if it’s small,
can affect your physical performance. Female athletes are more prone to low iron levels, as iron
is lost through menstruation. Iron from foods occurs in two forms – "haem" iron found in animal
foods and "non-haem" iron found in plant foods. Haem iron is readily absorbed by our bodies. In
contrast, non-haem iron is poorly absorbed. If you are a vegetarian or eat mainly plant-based
foods, you can increase the absorption of iron by adding a vitamin-C rich food (e.g. citrus fruits
and juices, kiwi fruit, red capsicum etc.) to your meals. For a further boost in iron levels, eat
iron-fortified foods (e.g. breakfast cereal). The recommended dietary intake for iron is 7mg/day
for adult men and 12-16mg/day for adult women.
Calcium combined with weight-bearing activity helps to increase bone density plus build and
maintain strong bones. Adults need a daily intake of 800mg calcium, and the simplest way to
meet your requirements is to eat plenty of dairy products. If you are watching your weight,
choose low fat dairy products which will still give you a calcium boost. Dairy foods are a good
source of carbohydrates as well.
Magnesium is found in dried fruit, nuts and chocolate. It plays a role in energy reactions, protein
production and muscle contraction.
If you would like more information on nutrition for sports performance, the AIS nutrition
booklet "A Winning Diet" is highly recommended.

DIETARY GOALS AND EATING STRATEGIES

Hundreds of fad diets, weight-loss programs and outright scams promise quick and easy weight
loss. However, the foundation of successful weight loss remains a healthy, calorie-controlled diet
combined with increased physical activity. For successful, long-term weight loss, you must make
permanent changes in your lifestyle and health habits. Same applies to maintaining a healthy
weight.
How do you make those permanent changes? Consider following these six strategies for weight-
loss success and maintaining a healthy weight.
1. Make a commitment
Long-term weight loss takes time and effort — and a long-term commitment. Make sure that
you're ready to make permanent changes and that you do so for the right reasons.
To stay committed to your weight loss, you need to be focused. It takes a lot of mental and
physical energy to change your habits.
So as you're planning new weight-loss-related lifestyle changes, make a plan to address other
stresses in your life first, such as financial problems or relationship conflicts. While these
stresses may never go away completely, managing them better should improve your ability to
focus on achieving a healthier lifestyle. Once you're ready to launch your weight-loss or weight
maintenance plan, set a start date and then — start.
2. Find your inner motivation
No one else can make you lose weight or stay fit. You must undertake diet and exercise changes
to please yourself. What's going to give you the burning drive to stick to your weight-loss and
fitness plan?
Make a list of what's important to you to help stay motivated and focused, whether it's an
upcoming beach vacation or better overall health. Then find a way to make sure that you can call
on your motivational factors during moments of temptation. Perhaps you want to post an
encouraging note to yourself on the pantry door, for instance.
While you have to take responsibility for your own behavior for successful weight loss, it helps
to have support — of the right kind. Pick people to support you who will encourage you in
positive ways, without shame, embarrassment or sabotage.
Ideally, find people who will listen to your concerns and feelings, spend time exercising with
you or creating healthy menus, and who will share the priority you've placed on developing a
healthier lifestyle. Your support group can also offer accountability, which can be a strong
motivation to stick to your weight-loss goals.
If you prefer to keep your weight-loss plans private, be accountable to yourself by having regular
weigh-ins, recording your diet and exercise progress in a journal, or tracking your progress using
digital tools.
3. Set realistic goals
It may seem obvious to set realistic weight-loss and fitness goals. But do you really know what's
realistic? Over the long term, it's best to aim for losing 1 to 2 pounds (0.5 to 1 kilogram) a week.
Generally to lose 1 to 2 pounds a week, you need to burn 500 to 1,000 calories more than you
consume each day, through a lower calorie diet and regular physical activity.
Depending on your weight, 5 percent of your current weight may be a realistic goal. Even this
level of weight loss can help lower your risk for chronic health problems, such as heart disease
and type 2 diabetes. If you're 180 pounds (82 kilograms), that's 9 pounds (4 kilograms).
When you're setting goals, think about both process and outcome goals. "Walk every day for 30
minutes" is an example of a process goal. "Lose 10 pounds" is an example of an outcome goal. It
isn't essential that you have an outcome goal, but you should set process goals because changing
your habits is a key to weight loss and staying fit and healthy.
4. Enjoy healthier foods
Adopting a new eating style that promotes weight loss must include lowering your total calorie
intake. But decreasing calories need not mean giving up taste, satisfaction or even ease of meal
preparation.
One way you can lower your calorie intake is by eating more plant-based foods — fruits,
vegetables and whole grains. Strive for variety to help you achieve your goals without giving up
taste or nutrition.
Get your weight loss started with these tips:
Eat at least four servings of vegetables and three servings of fruits daily.
Replace refined grains with whole grains.
Use modest amounts of healthy fats, such as olive oil, vegetable oils, avocados, nuts, and nut
butters and oils.
Cut back on sugar.
Choose low-fat dairy products and lean meat and poultry in limited amounts.
5. Get active, stay active
While you can lose weight without exercise, regular physical activity plus calorie restriction can
help give you the weight-loss edge. Exercise can help burn off the excess calories you can't cut
through diet alone.
Exercise also offers numerous health benefits, including boosting your mood, strengthening your
cardiovascular system and reducing your blood pressure. Exercise can also help in maintaining
weight loss. Studies show that people who maintain their weight loss over the long term get
regular physical activity.
How many calories you burn depends on the frequency, duration and intensity of your activities.
One of the best ways to lose body fat is through steady aerobic exercise — such as brisk walking
— for at least 30 minutes most days of the week. Some people may require more physical
activity than this to lose weight and maintain that weight loss.
Any extra movement helps burn calories. Think about ways you can increase your physical
activity throughout the day if you can't fit in formal exercise on a given day. For example, make
several trips up and down stairs instead of using the elevator, or park at the far end of the lot
when shopping.
6. Change your perspective
It's not enough to eat healthy foods and exercise for only a few weeks or even months if you
want long-term, successful weight loss or fitness. These habits must become a way of life.
Lifestyle changes start with taking an honest look at your eating patterns and daily routine.
After assessing your personal challenges to weight loss and general fitness, try working out a
strategy to gradually change habits and attitudes that have sabotaged your past efforts. You have
to move beyond simply recognizing your challenges — you have to plan for how you'll deal with
them if you're going to succeed in losing weight once and for all .
You likely will have an occasional setback. But instead of giving up entirely after a setback,
simply start fresh the next day. Remember that you're planning to change your life. It won't
happen all at once. Stick to your healthy lifestyle and the results will be worth it.