Angular distribution of ion beams

energy and flux in a plasma focus

device operated with argon gas Mahsa
Etminan
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 Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352

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Vacuum
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Angular distribution of ion beams energy and flux in a plasma focus device
operated with argon gas
Mahsa Etminan, Farzin M. Aghamir *
Dept. of Physics, University of Tehran, Tehran, 14399-55961, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Energy and flux of ion beams in a Mather type (5 kJ) plasma focus device was investigated. The experiments were
Plasma focus device performed with argon as the chamber gas at the optimum pressure of 0.3 mbar and the charging voltage of 15 kV.
Faraday cup Six identical Faraday cups located at angular positions 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and 75◦ with respect to the anode axis
Ion beam energy
were exploited to collect ion signals. The Faraday cups were mounted on a quadrant holder so that all Faraday
Ion beam flux
cups have the same radial distance of 7 cm from the anode tip. In order to gain knowledge of target ions, when
the plasma focus device is used for thin film deposition, three different targets of copper, graphite and tungsten
were inserted on top of the anode tip. The ion signals registered by Faraday cups showed three main peaks
relating to X-ray, argon gas and target ions, respectively. Plots of ion flux as a function of ions energy were
obtained for argon gas and different targets separately. Energy spectra obtained from the Faraday cups revealed
different anisotropies for argon gas and targets ions.

1. Introduction
Plasma focus (PF) device has the capability of being used effectively
in material processing, ion implantation, semiconductor doping and thin
film deposition. It is one of the prominent choices for energetic ions,
relativistic electrons, fast neutrons and X-ray radiation. Emission of
charged particles occurs as a result of plasma pinch and is affected by
pinch dynamics. Recent studies show that in plasma focus device, after
pinch formation, plasma plume has an asymmetric angular distribution
of ions energy and density [1–3]. This anisotropy has been explained by
the fact that ions are originated from different micro-sources which are
created inside a dense pinched plasma column [3,4]. These
micro-sources are not symmetrical with respect to the anode axis and
they are characterized by different local parameters. Furthermore, the
intensity of PF ion beam depends upon electrode geometry, capacitor
bank energy, working gas type and pressure [5]. For each special con­
dition, ions have different energy range and density at various angle and
position with respect to anode tip. Ions flux angular distribution in
plasma focus devices depends upon the working gas type. Mohanty et al.
[3] showed that in a nitrogen filled PF device, ions flux along anode axis
(0◦ ) is less than that of the off axis and the maximum flux is obtained at
5◦ . Bhuyan et al. [1] using a set of five identical Faraday cups positioned
at different angles 0◦ , 20◦ , 25◦ , 50◦ and 90◦ revealed that maximum
neon ion beam flux is at 25◦ angular position. In yet another study,
Bhuyan et al. [2] reported that among the dominant charge states of H+,
C4+ and C5+ obtained from methane operating gas, C4+ and C5+ ions flux
maximizes at off axis (15◦ ), while the maximum H+ ion flux occurs at 0◦ .
Similar results have been reported concerning the fact that maximum
ion flux for H2, deuterium and proton occurs along the anode axis [6–8].
Both the range and most probable energy of ion beam of nitrogen and
methane gases are known to be irrespective of the angular position [2,
3]. For neon ion beam, the most probable energy at 0◦ angular position
has been larger than that of off axis [1].
Ions energy and density distribution are essential for understanding
the physics behind production and acceleration of the PF device ions.
Furthermore, it is vital to study and evaluate ions spatial energy and
density distribution in order to optimize the use of plasma focus device
in applications such as material processing and thin film deposition. The
angular position has a crucial effect on these processes. In recent reports
by Aghamir et al. [9,10], samples positioned at 60 and 75◦ with respect
to anode axis experienced different depositional processes than those
located near the axis. Their findings indicate that angular positions of 60
and 75◦ are more apt for forming crystal structures, whilst sample lo­
cations at 0 and 30◦ are more proper for ion implantation. Therefore,
using PF as a material processing device involves knowledge of ions
energy spectrum and flux at different angular position.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aghamir@ut.ac.ir (F.M. Aghamir).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2021.110352
Received 6 November 2020; Received in revised form 27 May 2021; Accepted 27 May 2021
Available online 2 June 2021
0042-207X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir
In the present study, thorough investigation of angular distribution
of ions energy and flux is considered using time of flight (TOF) tech­
nique. An array of six Faraday cups positioned at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60 and
75◦ with respect to the anode axis, has been used. Due to the semi-
hemispherical shape of the plasma plume after the pinch, the Faraday
cups were located at different angular positions on a quadrant holder, all
with the same radius distance with respect to the anode tip. The ex­
periments were conducted under the assumption that the ion beam is
azimuthally uniform. Furthermore, the plasma focus device was used as
an apparatus for thin film deposition where targets were located on the
anode tip. After the pinch, working gas ions move upward from the
anode tip and the relativistic electrons bombard the target surface and
create the second wave of ions. In the present study the angular distri­
bution of secondary ions energy and flux has also been evaluated.
The outline of the manuscript is as follows: The description of
experimental apparatus is given in section 2. The obtained data, the
calculation methods, and the resultant curves along with related dis­
cussions are presented in section 3. Conclusions are drawn in section 4.
2. Experimental set-up
2.1. Plasma focus device
The experiments were conducted on a Mather-type plasma focus
device comprising a 11 μF capacitor bank with maximum voltage of 30
kV (5 kJ energy). The plasma producing electrodes consisted of one 13.6
cm long OFHC copper rod as anode located at the center surrounded by
six 12 cm long copper cathodes placed in a squirrel cage arrangement
with an annular distance of 2 cm. The diameter of the anode rod was 2
cm and those of six cathode rods were 0.9 cm. A Pyrex insulator sleeve
with 2 cm length and 0.25 cm thickness surrounded the bottom end of
the anode separating the electrodes. The entire anode-cathode assembly
was placed in a stainless-steel chamber. A rotary mechanical vacuum
pump was employed to evacuate the chamber up to 4 × 10− 2 mbar
before the introduction of the filling gas. The experiments were per­
formed with argon as filling gas, at the optimum operating pressure of
0.3 mbar and the charging voltage of 15 kV in all experiments. At these
conditions, the peak current (current at pinch time) was 120 kA. The
total circuit inductance was 140 nH and the quarter period was 2 μs.
2.2. Faraday cup
The Faraday cup is a charged particle detector, composed of two
deep cylindrical electrically conductive electrodes separated by a
dielectric. The inner collector detects the charged particles and the outer
electrode which is grounded shields it from improper electromagnetic
radiations. The charged particles enter the inner collector through a
small aperture in order to confine the load. When charged particles
impinge on the inner collector, a potential difference is generated be­
tween the two cylinders and passes through RG58, 50 Ω coaxial cable to
the oscilloscope. The related circuit is showed in Fig. 1. The dimensions
of the coaxial cylinders of Faraday cup must also be such that the
impedance Z given by:
( )
138.2 D
Z = √̅̅̅̅ log 10 (1)
K d
is 50 Ω. Here D is the inside diameter of the outer electrode, d the outside
diameter of the inner electrode and K is the dielectric constant. The
Faraday cup signal recorded by oscilloscope is a voltage-time curve.
With the assumption that the ions leave the pinch region at the same
time, the X-ray peak which occurs as the pinch collapses and the ions fly
upward, is considered as the origin of time for ions flight. It is also
considered that the pinch region is negligible compared to the distance
between the Faraday cup and the pinch region on top of the anode.
Therefore, it is assumed that the flight distance is the same for all ions.
2
Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the Faraday cup and related circuit.
Using ions time of flight, the corresponding velocity and non-relativistic
energy is calculated by the simple relation:
1
E = Mv2 (2)
2
Thus, the time axis in Faraday cup signal is related to the energy. The
ions flux corresponding to each energy is calculated by
( )
flux
ions
=
Vosc
(3)
m2 s RqA
where Vosc is the voltage of the Faraday cup signal, R the resistance
across the oscilloscope input signal (50 Ω), q the ions charge and A the
area of the aperture. Therefore, the ion flux curve as a function of ion
energy can be obtained.
The ion energy spectrum was measured by a Faraday cup assembly
and TOF analysis. The schematic diagram of the PF device and the
Faraday cup assembly is shown in Fig. 2. In order to have assessment of
the ions’ spectrum due to the plasma plume umbrella shape after the
pinch, six identical Faraday cups placed on a quadrant holder were used
simultaneously. All Faraday cups have the same radial distance of 7 cm
from the anode tip. They are located at the angular positions 0, 15, 30,
45, 60 and 75◦ with respect to the anode axis. The Faraday cups are
composed of two coaxial cylinders made up of brass and a dielectric
between them. The dielectric was a sheet of PTFE Teflon with a
dielectric constant of 2.1. The height of the Faraday cups was 20 mm
with the inner diameter of the outer cylinder (D) and the outer diameter
of the inner cylinder (d) 15 mm and 5 mm, respectively (Fig. 1). These
dimensions are selected to avoid the impedance mismatch between
Faraday cups and the 50 Ω transmission cable. The outer brass electrode
plays the role of the grounded shield. In order to minimize the secondary
electron emission, a graphite tube, which is used as the ion collector
electrode, is inserted inside the inner brass cylinder. Graphite has shown
to generate significantly a smaller number of secondary electrons
emitted per incident ion [11]. Furthermore, the diameter to length ratio
of the graphite collector (3 mm–15 mm) was in the range that minimizes
the escape factor of the secondary electrons [12]. To reduce the signal to
noise ratio, the Faraday cups outer brass electrode and the copper
shields on the transmission cables were grounded. The Faraday cups
were biased at − 150 V throughout the experiments. In order to atten­
uate the ion signal, a plate with a 500 μm aperture was screwed to the
bottom end of the Faraday cups. The ion signals of the six Faraday cups
were recorded simultaneously by two four channel oscilloscopes.
As mentioned earlier, the aim of present work is to study the energy
and flux of ions in PF device when it is used for thin film deposition or
ion implantation. Besides the energy and flux of argon filling gas ion
beams, energy and flux of target ions were also taken into account. When
PF device is used for thin film deposition, the intended material for
deposition is fixed on the anode tip. A set of three experiments was
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of PF device and Faraday cups assembly and configuration.
conducted with argon as the chamber filling gas along with three
different targets of copper, graphite and tungsten. In each experiment,
disc shaped target was screwed down on top of the anode, making the
anode flat end. The results of the experiments are presented in the
following section.
3. Results and discussion
The ion beams generated in the PF device were monitored by an
assembly of six identical Faraday cups located at different angular po­
sitions at the same radial distance of 7 cm from the anode tip. Typical
signals of Faraday cups located at the angular positions 0, 15, 30, 45, 60
and 75◦ with respect to the anode axis for different targets of copper,
graphite and tungsten along with voltage probe signal are shown in
Fig. 3. In order to have a proper interpretation of the signals registered
by Faraday cups, a brief glance at successive PF device phases is helpful.
In the PF devices, the application of a high voltage pulse between the
electrodes initiates the breakdown phase. The filling gas as a result of
dielectric breakdown forms a plasma layer (current sheath) through
which the discharge current flows. The plasma generation process starts
with the acceleration of free electrons which leads to ionization of the
filling gas. The current sheath forms on the insulator surface or radially
bridges the electrodes at the end of the insulator [13]. This initial phase
ends up when the current sheath starts to move toward the electrodes
open end by the Lorentz force. In this axial run-down phase, the current
sheath accelerating along the electrodes creates a shock wave in front of
it [14]. The gas that is swept up by the moving shock front is ionized and
converts into plasma by the current flow [15]. When the current sheath
reaches the open end of the electrodes, radial compression of the plasma
occurs. The current sheath pushed by the inward Lorentz force, forms a
dense hot plasma column and the plasma pinching process starts. At the
final stage of the radial compression near the z-axis of the PF chamber, a
cumulative plasma stream is produced on top of the anode which ac­
celerates in the direction of z-axis with the energy of the order of keV.
This axial cumulative plasma jet forms a shock wave above the anode.
The hemispherical shock wave propagates along the z-axis through the
medium [16–18]. A short period of time after the mentioned processes, a
plasma diode is formed in the pinched plasma near the anode (proven by
3
Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352
both experimental and theoretical studies [17,19,20]). Within this
diode, at first fast electrons are accelerated towards the anode gener­
ating X-rays and then beams of fast ions with the energy of the order of
0.1–1 MeV move in the opposite direction. The fast ion beam takes little
divergence before it reaches the hemispherical shock wave front [16].
Then it penetrates through the shock wave front into the medium and
propagates with more divergence [17]. As is reported in literature, the
height of the pinching area, namely from the anode top to the shock
wave front, is different in various PF devices [18,21,22]. The Faraday
cups distance from the anode determines which one of the fast ions or
dense plasma stream first reaches the detectors [23]. If the Faraday cups
are placed outside the pinching area (above the shock wave front), fast
ions reach the Faraday cups first, since ions penetrate the shock wave
front due to their MeV energy; afterwards, the dense plume of plasma
streams, in their divergence movement, reach the Faraday cups. As
mentioned earlier, in this study, Faraday cups are located at the same
radial distance of 7 cm from the anode tip and ion signals registered by
the array of Faraday cups are presented in Fig. 3. The common feature in
all of Faraday cup signals for every target is the appearance of three
main peaks. The first peak starting to shape once the pinch event ends,
namely at the end of singularity in voltage probe signal, has been proven
to be due to X-ray emission [24]. The emission of X-ray occurs as the
electrons of the plasma diode collide with the anode surface at the end of
pinching process. The signals of the Faraday cup located at 0◦ , for all
three targets, show higher level of X-ray peak compared to previous
reports [1–3]. This is due to the shape of the inserted anode targets in the
present experiments, which made the anode flat end resulting in stron­
ger collisions between electrons and the anode tip [25]. Furthermore, it
is worth mentioning that as it is expected, a stronger X-ray peak is
registered for tungsten target compared to copper and graphite targets
(Fig. 4). In order to ascertain that the first peak is caused by X-ray
emission, the ion entrance pinhole of the Faraday cups was covered by a
plastic film with the thickness of <50 μm. The plastic film is transparent
to X-rays and other strong electromagnetic radiations while it can
obstruct flying ions to reach the Faraday cup collector. The typical signal
of the entrance-covered Faraday cup along with the discharge current is
shown in Fig. 5. The peak occurring simultaneously with the dip of the
current signal, which is due to the pinch, is recorded and the second and
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352

Fig. 4. 0◦ Faraday cup signals for targets of copper, graphite and tungsten. The
first peak belongs to X-ray and peaks “1” and “2” belong to fast ion beams and
plasma streams, respectively.

Fig. 5. Faraday cup signal when the pinhole entrance is covered by plastic film.

Fig. 3. Voltage probe and Faraday cup signals for copper, graphite and tung­
sten targets.
third peaks are vanished. It could be inferred that the first peak is not
related to ions and it is totally due to the X-ray emission.
The second main peak is the strongest peak in almost all Faraday cup
signals. However, there is slight change between the second main peak
of the Faraday cup positioned at 0◦ with the other five Faraday cups
signals. The dense plume of plasma streams is created prior to the X-ray,
whereas there is no signal registered by the Faraday cups before the X-
ray peak. Therefore, it can be inferred that the array of Faraday cups is
located outside the pinching area. In this regard, it is expected that fast
ion beams reach the Faraday cups first and soon after that plasma
streams are registered. This is visible in the signal of 0◦ angular position
Faraday cup, where the second main peak is actually composed of two

4
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352

tightly adjacent sub-peaks. The primary sub-peak (peak1) is related to

the fast ion beams and the secondary one (peak 2) belongs to plasma
streams. To have an accurate sight, the signals of 0◦ Faraday cups of
three targets are presented in Fig. 4 with slight magnification. Since fast
ion beams diverge in a narrow solid angle, this peak is absent in the
signals registered by the other five Faraday cups located off-axis (Fig. 3).
As fast ion beams are created due to plasma diode and the result of
pinching process, it would be expected that primary sub-peak (peak 1)
does not show up in the signals pertaining to the shots with no pinch. In
Fig. 6, two different signals are compared and it is apparent that the
Faraday cup signal related to the no-pinch experiment has no primary
sub-peak belonging to the fast ion beams. Comparison of the two signals
proves that the primary sub-peak (peak 1) pertains to the fast ion beams.
The third main peak relates to the ions of target placed on the anode Fig. 7. Faraday cup signal when the experiment is performed by hollow anode.
tip. When energetic electrons of the hot plasma collide with the target
surface at the end of the pinching process, the ablated ions from the
target surface splash upward. The magnitude of the third peak in the
Faraday cup traces of the present study is much more substantial than
what has been previously reported in literature [1–3]. This is due to the
fact that targets screwed on top of the anode make it flat end rather than
being hollow, hence more ions are ablated due to electrons collision. In
order to verify that the third peak is indeed linked to the target ion
beams, a typical Faraday cup signal obtained from a hollow anode was
examined (Fig. 7). The inspection indicates that the third peak is nearly
absent in the signals obtained from hollow anode. This confirms that the
third peak belongs to target ions.
Energy spectra of both gas and target ions have been evaluated by
TOF technique. The end of plasma pinch which coincides with the rise of
X-ray pulse, has been taken as reference time for the onset of both gas
and target ions flight. Typical dN/dE spectra of argon fast ion beams
(peak 1) using the signal obtained from the Faraday cup placed at
0◦ angular position are shown in Fig. 8. As mentioned earlier fast ion
Fig. 8. Argon fast ion beams energy spectrum measured by data obtained from
beam signals occurred only at 0◦ Faraday cup. The maximum energy of 0◦ Faraday cup for three different targets. Maximum fast ions energy for all
targets are of the order of 0.1 MeV. Corrections were made for equilibrium
charge state.

fast ions for all three targets are of the order of 0.1 MeV. The equation
governing the behavior of dN/dE spectrum is given by Ref. [12]:
( )( )
dN Lm1/2 Vosc
= (4)
dE (2E)3/2 eR(kσ + Z(E)

where L is the distance between Faraday cup and anode tip, m the mass
of argon ions, σ the secondary electron emission for graphite collector
[26], k the escape factor for the secondary electrons which is determined
according to the Faraday cups dimensions [12]. The parameter Z(E) is
called the equilibrium charge state and is the changed charge of ions. It
is used as a correction factor because beam ions capture and lose elec­
trons to the chamber gas during the passage from focus to the Faraday
cup entrance hole. This parameter is given by following equation [27]:

376x + x6
Z(E) = Zp (5)
1428 − 1206x0.5 + 690x + x6

where Zp is the projectile (argon ions) nuclear charge, and x is:

Fig. 6. Typical signals registered by 0◦ angular position Faraday cup with
copper target. The experiment is carried out in a situation producing (a) strong
pinch, and (b) almost no pinch, in which X-ray is weaker and peak “1” is
nearly absent.
( )1+0.4/Zp
vp − 0.52 0.03− 0.017Zp− 0.52 vp /v0
x= Z Zt (6)
v0 p
Here v0 is Bohr velocity (2.19 × 106 m/s), vp is the projectile velocity
and Zt is the target nuclear charge. In this study the correction has not
been made for energy attenuation and lateral spreading.
The registered ion signals have also been used to calculate the ion
flux by averaging over a few similar shots. The results of ion flux as a
function of ion energy are presented in Figs. 9 and 11. Fig. 9 shows the
energy spectrum of argon plasma streams (argon ions which were
mentioned as peak 2). Argon ions showed almost the same spectrum

5
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir
Fig. 9. Argon ions energy spectrum registered by Faraday cups located at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60- and 75-degrees angular positions with respect to anode.
Fig. 10. The area under the curve of ion signals registered by Faraday cups located at different angular positions. (a) argon plasma ions and (b) target ions.
irrespective of the target material, hence the argon ion streams of copper
target experiment have been considered as a typical case. As was ex­
pected, Faraday cups have registered a wide range of ions energy from a
few keV to energies as low as tens of eV. The maximum energy of argon
ions was recorded by the Faraday cup positioned at 0◦ ; however, the
highest flux was detected by the Faraday cup at 15◦ . This can be
observed in Fig. 10(a) where the area under the curve of ion signals
registered by oscilloscope (Fig. 3) are presented. It is evident from Fig. 9
that the ions flying towards the Faraday cup located at 0◦ expand over a
wider energy range compared to the 15◦ Faraday cup. In this regard the
energy spectrum curve of the 0◦ Faraday cup (Fig. 9) appears more
extended. However, as was mentioned earlier, the overall ion flux
calculated from the ions signal gathered by the oscilloscope shows that
the area under the curve for the Faraday cup located at 15◦ is more
stretched compared to 0◦ Faraday cup. It should be noted that in pre­
vious studies of chamber gas ion flux distribution in other PF devices, the
data registered by polycarbonate track detectors [28,29] and CR-39
nuclear track detectors [30–32] also confirm that the maximum gas
ion flux occurs at some degrees off the anode axis. The most probable
energy recorded by Faraday cups at 0, 15, 30 and 45◦ were 3 keV, 710,
770 and 600eV, respectively. Although the ions moving right upward
have higher energies, their numbers are less compared to those accel­
erating toward 15-degrees direction. The ions flux carrying most prob­
able energy was 1.55 × 1025 ions/m2s at 0◦ , while 2.35 × 1025 and
1.70 × 1025 ions/m2s were recorded for 15 and 30◦ , respectively. The
Faraday cups at 60 and 75◦ recorded the least value for ions energy and
flux. These findings are consistent with those previously reported [30,
33,34] that most ions in a cylindrical gas chamber accelerate towards
6
Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352
mid-off axis directions.
The flux as a function of energy for target ions is presented in Fig. 11.
An obvious anisotropy is also observed in both energy and flux of target
ions for all three targets of copper, graphite and tungsten. The area
under the curve of target ion signals is presented in Fig. 10(b). The
common feature is that the highest flux for target ions occurs at 30◦
angular position irrespective of the target material. However, Fig. 11
shows that the angular position at which the highest value of most
probable energy occurs, depends on the target material. The highest
value of most probable energy maximizes at 0◦ angular position in the
case of argon-tungsten experiment, while for copper and graphite targets
it occurs at 30◦ angular position. Similar to argon ions, target ions move
towards 45, 60- and 75-degrees directions with least energy and flux
irrespective of the target material. It is interesting to note that for thin
film deposition in PF device, angular positions consisting of target ions
with higher energy, resulted in more irregular surfaces. In a previous
report concerning tungsten deposition by PF device, samples located at
0◦ showed more irregular surface compared to those at 30◦ [10]. In yet
another experiment for deposition of graphite, samples located at 30◦
experienced rough surface deposition compared to 0◦ angular substrate
location [9]. Regular surfaces along with crystal structures and inter­
atomic bonds have been observed for substrates located at 60 and 75◦
receiving less energetic target ions [9]. As far as deposition process is
concerned, more energetic gas and target ions moving toward near axis
angular positions result in different properties compared to those flying
far off axis. This is due to the significant difference in energy and flux of
ions at various angular positions. Furthermore, these findings imply that
for ion implantation processes in which high energetic ions are needed,
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir
Fig. 11. Ion energy spectrum relating to three different targets of copper, graphite and tungsten.
on axis positions are more proper if gas ions are intended to be
implanted and 30◦ angular position are more apt if target ions are to be
implanted except for tungsten targets where 0◦ is more suitable for ion
implantation.
4. Conclusion
The temporal and spatial distribution of argon gas and three different
target ions in a plasma focus device was investigated by an assembly of
six identical Faraday cups placed at different angular positions. The
Faraday cups signals depicted three main peaks. The first peak occurring
simultaneously with the pinch event on the voltage probe signal, was
proved to be X-ray signal. The second main peak which was the highest
and the temporally longest one, attributed to argon gas ions. In the
7
Vacuum 191 (2021) 110352
second main peak, the primary sub-peak was related to fast ion beams
which were the product of plasma diode as the final stage of pinching
process and the secondary sub-peak was related to the cumulative
plasma streams which were produced during radial compression. The
complementary experiments confirmed that the third peak is relevant to
the target ions. Plots of ion flux as a function of ions energy for argon
plasma streams indicates that ions traveling towards 0◦ direction, had
the highest most probable energy. However, the largest ion flux was
recorded by the Faraday cup located at 15◦ . Considering target ions, the
common fact observed in three different targets of copper, graphite and
tungsten was that the largest flux took place at 30◦ angular position.
However, the most probable energy had the highest value at 0◦ angular
position for tungsten target and at 30◦ angular position for copper and
graphite targets.
M. Etminan and F.M. Aghamir
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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Another random document with
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 “Iwoggiama wogien woggiamana wogien, immangana jellerrima
wogien.
Imbaka kwuerakwa wogien. Imbelluoluodö wogien.”

Then they pause for a moment, and, continuing immediately,

mimic the croaking by crying:

“Yi kwa e kwa, yi kwa e kwa!”

The singing is assisted by an accompaniment on the bamboo

trumpet which sounds like: “Tip bu, tip bu, tip bu, tip pau-a, tip pau-a,
tip pau-a.” Music sticks are used by all taking part in the
corrobboree, the percussions being equally timed and of uniform
strength.
A little performance, melodramatic in a way, which is very popular
with the Larrekiya and Wogait in the Northern Territory, is designed
to scoff at the wailing of women. It is introduced by the following
refrain:
“Arada kadji mara uda kayan yan; arada kadji mara uda kayan
mölle ulpululu mölle, jangaji karra kanjin mada da nga la ulmin ja
jandadbi karra kun kun mukale la enbulukdi bana mölle mara
kanjinmada da buluk di bölle arada kadji balla.”
Then the wailing begins. With a pathos and sincerity so cleverly
feigned that one might easily be led to believe they are genuine, the
men strike up a lament which is thrilling. Monosyllabic sounds pierce
the air, which terminate with a sob:

“Lö -e, lö, lö -e, lö -ö, lö -ö la.”

Then a burst of laughter ends the solemnity; and the refrain is

continued amidst much hilarity:
“Kanjin mada danö wüdningi juan madji karra kunkul mukana
mölle enbuluk di bana mälle kanjin mada.”
At the conclusion, a general criticism takes place of the skill
displayed by the different performers in the reproduction of the
effeminate sounds. Throughout the proceedings an accompaniment
is played on the bamboo trumpet sounding like: “Tib bu, tib bu, tib
bu-a”; whilst a number of men beat their music sticks in a rhythm
represented by one long and three short taps.
The Bathurst and Melville Islanders are famous for their
impressive ceremonies. At most of them, a group of men stand in a
semi-circle and supply the accompaniment by clapping one or both
hands against thigh or buttock, producing dull, drum-like sounds by
the impact; they further supplement the rhythmic sounds by crying,
“brr, brr, brr” in unison with the beating. Any actors who enter the ring
in front of these men frequently ejaculate a sound like a short “poop,”
and this immediately solicits a concerted “iah” from all taking part.
In their corrobboree of the jungle fowl, an old man rushes into the
ring, bending his arms at the elbow and holding them close against
his body, while he rests his closed fists upon his chest. His attitude
resembles that of a professional runner, although in reality his arms
are supposed to represent the wings of the bird. The man looks
about the ground, from side to side, as though in search of
something. Presently he imitates the familiar call of the bird, with a
shrill penetrating voice, which sounds like “he-r-r-r-l.” In answer to
this, the chorus surrounding him spontaneously gives utterance to a
number of short, non-articulate noises which sound like “brrl, brrl,
brrl,” and are claimed to be the call of the bird’s mate. From now on
the performer intermittently cries “he,” and, every time he does so,
the rest of the men respond with a loud “yeh.” Then he throws sand
and clouds of dust behind him with his feet, with the object of
imitating the way a jungle fowl throws up earth into large mounds in
which its eggs are deposited.
When the kangaroo ceremony is announced, one or two men jump
into the ring, with their legs slightly bent at the knees. Their arms are
held forward, bent vertically at the elbows, their hands being kept
prone and partly closed. The whole posture is to resemble that of the
hopping marsupial of Australia. In jumping round the space, the actor
turns his head from side to side, face downwards, as though in
search of food. When such is supposed to have been found, his
hands may assist to support his body and the hopping ceases. His
legs are then bent strongly in the knees, so that his body sinks and
his buttocks come to rest immediately above the heels, or, indeed,
he may squat entirely upon the ground. He now holds his hands
together and passes them between his thighs to the ground, from
which he scoops a quantity of sand and lifts it to the level of his
mouth. Suddenly dropping the sand, the performer bounds to his feet
and runs round the ring, vigorously stamping his feet and making a
peculiar hissing sound. The act is frequently interrupted by cries of
“poop” from the mouths of the saltant men, which are immediately
responded to by the crowd with a boisterous “iah.” Then the hopping
re-commences, the actor frequently stopping to scratch his leg with
one of his hands held like a claw. Occasionally he lifts an arm to his
mouth to lick it just like the animal itself does. The pace of the time-
beaters at this stage quickens, and the actor begins to scratch all
accessible parts of his body as if possessed. An unexpected “poop,”
followed by a hearty “iah,” terminates this part of the performance
amid loud shrieks and applause.
It is not long before two performers again leap into the ring, each
armed with a light reed in his hand, resembling a spear. The above
demonstration is partly recapitulated, being, however, slightly
modified in that one man, at intervals, takes the part of a hunter
endeavouring to drive his spear into the enraged “kangaroo” on the
opposite side of the ring.
The corrobboree of a fight is presented by an imaginary spear duel
between two angry men. They are “armed” with a light reed each,
and upon entering the arena, composed of the time-beating chorus,
place themselves in defiance of each other and cut all sorts of antics.
They brandish their imaginary weapons, roll their eyes, and throw
their bodies about wildly. Then they start running around the ring,
slapping their thighs together, with their heads thrown back and their
arms upwards.
As an instance of the clever way in which aborigines mimic special
happenings or striking episodes, and also hand on the records to
subsequent generations, the ship-of-war corrobboree is here briefly
outlined. This is a reproduction of events which happened at Fort
Dundas about a century ago, but the present day natives still enjoy
looking at it and include it among their favourite turns. After the usual
preliminaries, a performer rushes into the ring and stands with one
leg in front of the other and slightly flexed in the knee. Throwing his
head back and looking upwards, he starts a vigorous “hauling action”
by alternately throwing one arm out in the direction he is looking,
closing the fist and making an imaginary pull right down to his loins,
while at the same time the other arm is thrown out and returned in a
similar way. This act is in imitation of the hauling in of a sail on a
European man-of-war, and is rhythmically followed by the time-
beaters. Running to the opposite side of the ring, the same act is
repeated. Then the same hauling motion is continued, but this time
pulling from below upwards towards the body, in a manner
suggesting the heaving of an anchor. During this performance,
several sharp and harsh interjections are heard, which suggest a skit
on the orders of the commanding officers; in fact, the whole
ceremony is to be looked upon as a travesty of naval discipline.
During several of the performances described above, the following
chant was heard, in perfect accord with the rhythmic smacks
produced by the hands of the chorus:

“Tupera monan la jerra

Tupera monan la jerra,”

and

“Tupatunan tenakomejona.”

At Fowler’s Bay, the men like no dance so much as one which

caricatures a woman on a collecting excursion. The performer walks
from the darkness of night into the bright glare produced by the
camp-fire, with an exaggerated bend of the knees and a loudly
perceptible stamp of the feet. Over one of his shoulders he carries a
collecting bag, and as he moves forwards and sideways, his eyes
are rivetted to the ground in front of him; he is supposed to be
looking for food-stuffs. Suddenly he stops, stoops, and feigns to be
picking up something, which is assigned to the bag. Then he hurries
on and repeats the same performance. Whilst he is acting thus, the
audience, grouped at one side of the fire, is diligently beating time to
his steps by knocking two boomerangs (“kaili”) together.
In another act he walks quickly into the light, stops suddenly, and
looks hard at the ground in front of him. Presently he lifts his right
foot, only to immediately bring it back to the ground again with a
thud. Emitting a squeal like that of a dying or wounded bandicoot, he
stoops and makes out he is lifting his prey triumphantly into the air.
Yet another performance portrays the slaying of an enemy. A
second actor, who represents the vanquished foe, is requested to lie
in the centre of the arena, whilst the victor dances around him, wildly
flourishing and swinging his club. Every now and then the ground is
bashed with the heavy weapon as near to the prostrate figure as
possible; and after every blow the fallen warrior is seen to writhe his
body between the legs of the victor as if he were really suffering
terrible agony.
An aboriginal often sings to himself for no other purpose than for
his own entertainment, in which occupation he manifests
considerable pleasure, and repeats the tune to his heart’s content, at
times almost to the verge of physical exhaustion. In his endeavour to
become a noted singer amongst his tribespeople, a man at every
opportunity stimulates his ambition. He listens with envy to the
tireless chirping of a cricket and suggests to himself the advantages
of acquiring such powers of vocal endurance (as he imagines them
to be). The Larrekiya youths admire the large Cicadae for similar
reasons; and they do not hesitate, upon occasions, to catch one or
two of the winged music-makers and suck their viscera, hoping
thereby to acquire increased musical talent.
When singing ensemble, the musical productions have widely
varying purposes and meanings. The performance might be purely
convivial and entertaining, when a number of refrains are hummed or
sung, solo and collectively, to the combined accompaniment which is
rendered by most of the others present. Any attempt at harmony is
wanting. Boisterous music can always be counted upon at tribal war-
dances, when the excited and infuriated mobs almost lose control of
their reason, and by singing to their ancestral fathers endeavour to
bring destruction upon the enemy by the wildest imprecatory acts.
At initiation ceremonies, the old men, at the time of spilling the
novice’s blood, are no less excited; and the musical items are
reduced to hoarse, rude utterances of a decidedly disquieting
flavour. Under these conditions the soul of a true savage unmasks
itself. It speaks in coarse, disconnected sounds which are hardly
recognizable as human, but, at the moment, none the less in
sympathy with his inner feelings.
 PLATE LI

1. Ochre-drawings of mythic semi-human creatures, Forrest River,

north-western Australia.

2. Sacred “Utnguringita” or witchedy grub drawings, Emily Gap,

MacDonnell Ranges.
 On the other hand, the music which is produced at religious
ceremonies is quieter and of a more ding-dong style. The natives
present their sacred chants, which they have inherited from their
forefathers, for the purpose of getting into communion with the spirits
surrounding them; and, although such proceedings may be
extremely monotonous, the solemn colloquy is nevertheless musical.
It is a common practice, for that matter, among the tribes of
Australia, for one individual to carry on conversation with another by
singing the words. When, for instance, it is the intention of the
persons engaged in conversation to make the matter as little
noticeable as possible, or when they want to impart information to
each other without attracting the attention of a third party, they clothe
their words in song. And the same is also done when a third party is
to be criticized. Moreover, it is for exactly similar reasons that all
communications which are supposed to be carried on with
superhuman beings are chanted or crooned, in order that the Evil
Spirit’s attention may not be drawn to the fact.
 CHAPTER XXXI
LANGUAGE

Aboriginal dialects euphonious and full—Words largely imitative of natural call-

notes—Derivations from other characteristics—Linguistic generalizations
impossible—Vocabularies replete in certain directions—Gesture and sign
languages—Passionate conversationalist—Reckoning of time—Computation
of numbers—Word expressing action—Terminal syllables—Affirmation and
negation—Exclamations—Specific suffixes—Diminutive expressions—Verb
endings—Word with a variety of meanings—Personal pronouns—Aspirate
sounds rare—Consonantal combination “ng” very frequent—Greetings—
Exclamation and Interrogative—Curious Similarities.

As full as the aboriginal legends are of poetry, so their dialects are

full of music. For euphony, fullness, and vowel quality, few modern
languages equal the primitive tongue; and much of the charm is
derived from a natural source. Even in our own language, the
vernacular name of a bird or animal is often derived from the
particular call made by the creature. In Europe we have christened
the cuckoo, the peewit, and the boo-book owl because of their
distinctive cries; in a like sense, the central Australian natives call the
bell-bird “ban-ban-balele,” the mopoke “kore-gore,” and the spur-
wing plover “kurreke-tar-tar,” all three names being sounded like the
natural cries of the birds themselves.
As further illustrations we might mention the Dieri and Arunndta
word for kangaroo, viz. “arre,” which, one is told, is what the animal
“says” when brought to bay, and the Sunday Islanders’ name for a
grasshopper, “dingi-ding,” which alludes to its chirrup.
In regard to the coining of words, quite apart from the sonorous
qualities the object named might possess, the aboriginal is no less
inventive. The Arunndta call thunder “kwatche-ingoma,” i.e. “roaring
water,” and a sharp shower of rain pattering on the ground “kwatche
unndoma,” i.e. “dancing water.” What is commonly known as the
milk-bush in Australia (Sarcostemma) is called “epi-epi” by the
Aluridja because it exudes a milk-like sap when broken and reminds
them of the female breast (“epi”). Kangaroo grass (Anthistiria) is
referred to by the Arunndta as “arre-arre” because, they maintain,
the red colour of its seed stalks resembles that of the marsupial. The
Arunndta for the familiar beef-wood tree of central Australia is “iltjija,”
meaning long fingers, the word drawing attention to the length of the
leaves.
Whereas in our own language words like “choleric” have originated
because the bile in a human system was supposed to beget wrath,
and whereas one bushman might accuse another of being “livery”
when he is ill-tempered, the Arunndta have a verb,
“lunbatunbatterama,” meaning to grumble or to be sulky, in which
“unba” stands for bile.
In view of the great number of Australian tribes and the multiplicity
of their dialects, any attempt at linguistic generalizations would seem
to be futile, when often even adjoining tribes have adopted totally
different vocabularies for the most common commodities of life. As a
matter of fact, the groups which build up one and the same big tribe
often have considerable differences in their vocabularies. For
instance, the eastern groups of the Arunndta make use of very many
words and expressions which are quite foreign to the western. Yet in
respect of certain words, it is known that with slight modifications
their significance has carried far beyond the borders of a single tribe
and has been accepted by a group of tribes living up to a few
hundred miles apart.
Although the aboriginal tongue is crude in its construction, it is,
nevertheless, wonderfully rich and scientifically exact. Whereas a
modern language becomes very commonplace in the ordinary
course of conversation, and is inclined to handle subject matter
somewhat flippantly, the aboriginal system of nomenclature is both
profuse and incontrovertible. During his descriptive narrations from
Nature, a European rarely bothers about discriminating between
objects composing one big class. If he talks of a forest, he is usually
satisfied to convey the idea of a number of trees standing collectively
at the site his story is dealing with; if he wishes to be exact he might
specially describe the trees as pines or gums. But the aboriginal
wants, and gives, more; his vocabulary, in fact, rarely includes such
words as “tree,” “animal,” “meat,” or “seed”; he tells you immediately,
without being specially asked, that the “tree” is a gum, the “animal” a
wallaby, the “meat” that of kangaroo, and the “seed” that of the
water-lily. Moreover, his verbal supply is so copious that in a single
word he can tell one the name, the age, the habitat, and many
characteristics.
A language without words is known to most Australian natives;
thoughts and messages are communicated by means of gestures
from individual to individual, and from tribe to tribe. This system is so
perfect, and the code so well understood by all, that important tidings
are transmitted from one centre to another in incredibly short time.
The method might to a certain extent be compared with the flag-
signalling of a marine; it is too complicated to be discussed in detail,
but we shall select a few code signals by way of illustration.
Halloa! To attract the attention of a person whom conversation is
to be taken up with, the native, standing as erect as possible, and
with his legs astride, lifts his hands to his head and swings them
outwards (in opposite directions), downwards, and upwards again,
time after time. Whilst doing so, he calls aloud, with a shrill, piercing
note, even though the other fellow be well beyond hearing distance.
 PLATE LII

Aluridja man rendering a musical accompaniment with boomerangs.

“... he claps their ends together in quick succession, and by so doing produces
rhythmic clanks to suit the style of any dance or the time of any song.”

Come here! Maintaining the erect position, he throws both hands

upwards, to above a shoulder on one side, then sweeps them
(extended) in front of his body to well behind it on the opposite side,
at the same time bending his body forwards from the hips.
 I am coming to you. The person places his hands upon his chest,
and throws them towards the stranger.
Follow behind me. He slaps his right hand against his buttock.
Stop or stay there. The arms are held, bent at the elbows, at each
side of the body, with the open palms of the hands turned towards
the distant man, and vertical circles are described with them in that
position.
Go that way. He points the index finger in the required direction
and jerks the hand forwards several times.
A woman. He places his hands over his breasts.
Kangaroo. The hand is passed, with successive semi-circular
movements, indicating the hopping, from one side of the body to the
other.
A snake. The hand is moved forwards in a wavy line.
I can see. He touches one or both eyes with his hand.
Dead man. Throws his head back and extends his arms laterally
upwards.
A man. He strokes his chin.
I can hear. He points to his ear.
To kill. The palms of the hands are placed together and moved as
if striking an object.
Emu. Bends the fingers of one hand at right angles to palm and
sways the arm to and fro.
Sleeping. He lays his head upon the palm of a hand.
Sitting. He points to the ground.
Running. His legs are moved in a running fashion.
Hungry. He draws in his abdomen and shows his ribs.
An intricate system of sign language is carried on by movements
of the hands and fingers when the natives are at close enough range
for the signals to be visible. The following are a few of the more
common signs used every day by the Arunndta tribe:
To call the attention of a person, a man holds his open hand in
front of his face, with the palm towards him, and drops it again. The
sign having been acknowledged, a mutual exchange of gesture
correspondence is indulged in, by means of which an almost
inexhaustible number of ideas can be communicated in the form of
coherent “speech.” The following few signs (most of which are
sketched on page 391, Fig. 57) may be taken as typical of a
vocabulary which in its entirety is both elaborate and intricate:
 Fig. 57. Sign-language of Arunndta tribe.

Which way? The forefinger is held erect (the other fingers

 of the hand being closed) and several
times moved downwards or away from
the face (No. 1).
Big! The hand is held supine while the fingers are
first extended and then closed in again
upon the palm. The thumb is kept more
or less erect (No. 2).
Little! The hand is held with its palm upwards, and
the fingers moved towards the thumb,
the middle one touching it (No. 3).
To rest (“I am going The hand is held semi-prone, with the
to sit down”) fingers extended and lying closely
together, the thumb resting at the top. It
is jerked downwards two or three times
(No. 4).
To camp (“I am With the hand in the same position as in No.
going to camp”) 4, the middle, fourth, and fifth fingers
are closed in upon the palm, while the
index is made to touch the thumb (No.
5).
To camp (collectively) The hand remains in semi-prone position,
but with the forefinger pointing towards
the ground at half a right angle, and the
same three fingers as mentioned in No.
5 remaining closed (No. 6).
To walk The hand is held supine with only the
forefinger extended; it is moved from
side to side (No. 8).
Come this way Holding the hand nearly horizontal and semi-
quickly! prone, the fingers are closed in upon the
palm and the thumb placed over them;
in that position the hand is jerked
sideways (No. 7).
Listen! The hand, with fingers fully extended, is held
with its palm turned towards the face
 and moved to and from the face a
number of times (No. 9).
Hear him! The hand is kept prone, with the middle and
fourth fingers closed and the remaining
three digits extended. Thus it is several
times jerked towards an ear of the man
who is “speaking” (No. 10).
What did you say? The hand is held erect, with the palm
towards the face; the thumb and
forefinger are kept straight, but the other
fingers flexed; the forefinger is jerked to
and fro (No. 11).
Fighting With the hand in an erect position, but the
palm turned away from the face, all
digits except the index are closed; the
last-named, moreover, is jerked with a
circular motion (No. 12).
On the summit of a The sign-maker extends his hand and with
Hill the small finger border of it taps the
crest of his head (No. 13).
Running up the Hill He extends the index and middle fingers
upwards, while the hand is more or less
prone, and jerks them up and down (No.
14).
It is no good! The hand in a prone position (with the index
and small fingers extended, the fourth
finger closed in, and the tips of the
thumb and middle finger touching) is
moved in a circle from the wrist (No.
15).
He is dead Change the position of hand from that of No.
7 to that of No. 16.
Moving up the Valley The hand is held partly extended in a prone
position and moved horizontally, from
side to side, at the side of the man’s
head (No. 17).
Behold the ears (of a He holds the hand in a vertical position with
Kangaroo) the index and middle lingers extended,
moving them in imitation of an animal’s
ears (No. 18).
Steady! Hold the hand in position indicated in No. 7
and move it vertically with a striking
action.
A Euro Much the same position as shown in No. 18,
but the index and middle fingers are
only semi-extended; the other fingers
are made to touch the thumb (No. 19).
An Echidna or The hand is held prone and horizontally, with
Native only the forefinger extended, which is
Porcupine moved regularly from side to side (No.
20).
An Opossum Hand semi-prone and horizontal; thumb
extended and forefinger bent in second
joint from the tip; the remaining fingers
closed in upon palm. The hand is
moved downwards (No. 21).
An Iguana Hand semi-prone and horizontal. The tip of
forefinger is brought nearly into contact
with that of thumb, the remaining fingers
being fully extended. The hand is
moved vertically up and down (No. 22).
A Carpet Snake Hand semi-prone and horizontal. The points
of the fingers are bunched against the
thumb, and circular movements made
with the hand (No. 23).
A Tiger Snake Hand semi-prone. The forefinger extended
and directed downwards at about half a
right angle; thumb extended; the
remaining three fingers are moved
alternately away from and towards the
palm of the hand (No. 24).
A Black Snake Hand semi-prone and horizontal. All fingers
 closed in upon palm, thumb extended
upwards. Slight downward movements
(No. 25).
The Evil Spirit Hand in prone position and directed
downwards. Thumb, index and small
fingers extended, the remaining fingers
closed. Frequent down and up
movements (No. 26).
Native Pear Hand held erect; forefinger flexed to touch
(Marsdenia) the tip of thumb; the remaining fingers
closed (No. 27).
Native Orange Hand prone; index and middle fingers flexed;
(Capparis thumb, fourth and fifth fingers extended.
Mitchelli) Forward and slightly upward jerks (No.
28).
Marsupial Mice The hand is held in a supine position, while
the points of the fingers are grouped
around the thumb and jerked towards
the sign-maker’s mouth (No. 29).
Native Plum With all fingers semi-extended, the hand is
(Santalum) held in a supine position and jerked
towards the face (No. 30).
A Dingo or Wild Dog The hand is held in a vertical position, with
the forefinger extended; the other digits
are flexed, the tips of the middle finger
and thumb touching. Side movements
are made with the forefinger (No. 31).
A Bustard or Wild Hand prone; thumb, middle, fourth, and fifth
Turkey fingers bunched together, the forefinger
bent downwards. Vertical movements
(No. 32).
A Lizard Hand semi-prone; forefinger and thumb fully
extended, the remaining fingers flexed.
Upward and downward movements
from the wrist (No. 33).
A Crow The thumb, index and middle fingers
 extended, the remaining fingers flexed.
The two extended fingers are moved
against each other (No. 34).
Wild Bee Honey The tip of the forefinger is repeatedly flicked
from the thumb, while the three
remaining fingers are kept in a flexed
position (No. 35).
A Wallaby Hand semi-prone; the forefinger and thumb
are extended while the remaining
fingers lie against the palm. Small,
jerking, upward movements are made
with the forefinger, in which the hand
also takes part (No. 36).
My Son The sign-maker taps his chin with the
extended forefinger of his hand.
My Sister’s Daughter He holds his right nipple between the thumb
and forefinger of his right hand.
My Sister’s He surrounds his right nipple with the tips of
Daughter’s his fingers and alternately opens and
Daughter closes them with a scratching action.