Cambridge International IGCSE

Complete Physics 4th Edition Stephen

Pople
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/cambridge-international-igcse-complete-physics-4th-e
dition-stephen-pople/
Cambridge IGCSE® & 0 Level
Complete
Physics
Fourth Edition

Stephen Pople
Anna Harris
Naseemunissa Azam
Elliot Sarkodie-Addo
Helen Roff
OXFORD

OXFORD
\.'NTVBRSITY PRESS
(,ff;\l ( l.1JYJll1on ~ln: l O~onl OXl 601'. lJnltt'd Kingdom
Oxlunl lh11\·1•"1 Pn", 1, .. tlr11.u111w•111 c>i lh\' l1'111-.,-n.1ry or O\lun1 II
furth,•~ [ht' ll111\'t•l'\1I)..,. UlJJt'tll\'f' uf f').( >Jk'Otl' bi rl'".l".lh ll -.<ho t.mlup.
;md Nlui: ¥Ion by publblalng wurlctwklc. O>.Jonl h ~ Jt'~lf'Jt'd tn<k' m;u>. ol
OXlllfd llru\'l"T'aty ...-n, ml~ llK iWl1 m «'rt.UU otlt<•-rcountri
0 O\lonl Umv,•r.11)' Pw-., 202 l
lbC" moral rigllh 01 lhl' a.-JJOI\ b.1\'t' l>ttn , 'o('ftOO
I '"' 1mbl """' 111 2021
AU light, ft' rwd '-0 p,ut 01 tl1.h pubbc:ulnn OU)' br ~ rroc1Ul't"(l ,ton'<I
U1 ... n'tril"'\•.tl \o) 'll°lll or lr.\mIDJllC'd. in ,wy form T by ;wy D)t',\U\, Wllhoul
Cltc• pnnr Jk'nlll\\lCJU III wn1111y,01 (hlc•nll1111\1'"''Y Pn,, o,,.,,•x11n ,ty
l"'m> 1J1t'tl hy t.n,, , I>}' 1it1"11t1" 01 1111tlt"1 IN 1n, ~""''tl v, 11 h , l1 .11>11n>1>rur,•
ft"pt'\~plllt'> ~•.Lili. orr,.mlutJon.. [llilpJ[J;e,,, (00 maog n,inxlllctlOO otmklf'
u... ,... OJ ll .bot, ,boul<I br s.t'nl totbl' R.lglll'\. l>-'p.1ttmt'nt. Ollllln1
llau\ l'l"lt)" f'n•-,.,, .-.t UM" Mlrtn,.. •,1)()\'t'.
You n,m, 110C cm uLtlf' 1 lili v,01 l.. u1 .iu,y O(Jlf'r 1,, m1-' 1x1 )'t"1 uHl'll 1u1po'lt' Ltu"
~mlf' CllllditJOll 00.lny .-.n,iln·r
flnt"h IJhr,11) c~ratnr,111_,,. 111 l\1hh, ..aic111 n.1r,1
0.tl,\ .lV,111.lblt•
97&- l •~ . 200W.t_,. 1,u111c1,utl)
10 9 8 7 6 3 •l J 2 I
•,13- ,. J.<lt ,,mo •'>, 1 4t"lllu,l('\"C'ft
10 9 A 7 <• :; I l '2 I
11,lJk'f u I lo lb pnnictftl() 0, Lilli boo.. o a ~mral r«)dlbl proclU<t
m.vlr lrom "'ooctgrowu Jnsu~.unilbk- l•'lff~,. lbr- ru.\uu~cturiug pro<',")
ni11lcim1, 10 tl t'IIV1nrn11w•11ul n •p,1bhm1, of thf' n11111try of PTiY,111,
Pnutt'tl Ln 11,11)' b)' Lt G .O. Sp,\
At·knowlt'()~•111eut,
ICC'\ I (I) "'t 11 n,.~,h'll'll lr,1d1.•1i1,ul: ,,1 C.u11bnl1,-• hllC' m.Ut1l1 ul l:\.a111111Jctt1m
AU ;\IL"-"l'1' II.IV(' ~ o wrtttl'D b)• tu , l t ~. lll f'X.1lllln.tlx)l) , ll:u.• w;\y ru.u~
Ml" ,l\l,,Udrd m;q be- dlllt'n'llt,
SI•• 1•lt1• 11 Pupk• wuuk1 hu• 10 llun._ ~11"'111 h 111h• ..1111 J)r 0MT1'11 IA-WI'- aur 1lt1•ar
IW'lp, WIii\ 'Pf'(a.\l lll.lJII.., ;\MIO Z.ll. ll.ll)' ,\lldl Ii ii lklpk,y too 1:N.>piu~: lll,
,plrill> up
111 p,.,h,l111•r ..,wl .mthn" \tot11ild m,1• tn 1l1.111l.; tltt• foll<Mm:,,. lor tH•m1i-.,,n11
[O ll~ phou~:, .11>lt, .u111tlll11•r (ll IJ)'11Y,lll 1ll-'h'1'1.l I:
OVt'r: Will.).im Bratl> 11)1 Jruttt'NOCL
Photo : pt 1 : Vac t.J\•llilJCbtcbJ ltullc mod.:: p M It J.2: ~l'UC('pUola./
AL1111~• !.I (X I: Photo: Jl H,: !lo('~('\• 1..1 pan,. h11l h~.-.ioc t , {l I K! ,A \A, p.LH:
j.1-lll)"'-lV)'i&toctphoto; pl t . Jl'lJl lniVC'f'\jty of Arl7on; '\A~A; pl:!bt
Ti\•U,oll<Lt &.~tod;photo. p2.lh EJ~•UK'llUlhU,\g&Hf,/l tud, photo: vi1:
fldvicl 11,llk'lt/ ~t• 1ng., /ArP,'(;c,uy In•~·. plK: KNIil KNH/ ~ lt'lk i• r'llC•l0
tibral)-: p32~ Dl~egu Pk~ luc/Al.uuy tocl Photo: pJ4; ( Lt.uk~ \I . Dull"
JrJ~\A: p 39; n y F,bl/t5todplloto· p40: Ell lo( lod,,,1..-.0: p42;
'J~tC"'ihi r.tk.1-h.1DJ!,tic11cc Photo Ll1>r.uy. p1:.U : l'lXbox77/~hll11C'NOlt.:
p-131: I'( N PbotOf.i,jphy/.i\laoay ~tocli. fllaoto; p13r. Trub,wiltJ llullc~loct:
p4K! 1m.1gt•IUtOICI AL11U) MOtl.: Pli to, p54 : Kt}l\11~!.hnltC'r-., 1::
p:;'J: 7.t'br.10.l09J~hu11,·ruoct · p(,:1: ;i1"foto...toct1AL1my ~toct l 1hoto;
p(•7! c~ug u,~S1111tll•Nn<l.: p(,9J: Anc ln-w Bud,m./ h11tll'Noe l.· 11169111:
,urlato C,111lt;ll).lil l «)loll,1: pC,9 . PNt•r Gca1lc 'OllP: p70: O:\RJ'-lt 10 11,11
Uudc~~ea R~e,ud1 Program C'-lflP►: \\\xxls llok O~aiiograpluc botJ
'°"''° p72· \~AJ)PI.NC DJ " p74; Phil1p1,c.• Pl.ully/ Ol"tw-t• Photo
Ubracy. plCO: Action Pba, ~ports )O).lf.~/Al,uuy ~· I. ('11oto: pMt:Jmi
B~jmcr/l)n-a.unuruc p88b: \lidL.tt'Jl939 Stockpholo: p90: c.;.uy
V,Ul.:t' SOt'UO' l'hOlu I lhr.uy. p9. I: I).; Id It. l"r.17. r l'hotolihr.1 • lnr ~
Al.101y !.tock Photo; P'JY: l'm1l Urabo(J~hnllM'\t t.: p 100: 1'ttti10lkb)
l)l<>d1>1J~o: pt 07: JtAfl fr.UK'O~ \lmu..•r,St nugl•rfAJllf(,('ll y IU14'K(
pi 01}: \lilt• IHI Llw~., A'l.\tlC 1;\lt IPlkio,IN 1'<,t'lt)' llll"&C'' pint: Wotlcl
lmlory Anlun.·/Al.tmy l k Ph~o: pt 1 w : \' tr;wcJ bt1lll·ntock:
pl IJl,- "ngt•Dl bulll'nloc:l.: p114: Pt'll•rGuu)f~otJP: pt l -1:Ju\lm
Pu01frl'yfll1c llll.i\f.{' lwlk.i(.t'lty IDl.lf.l"; pl r;na: KcrtU 'i~t L7>hoto;
pl 1:;r. l l i ~ t 'ji~ kpboto: pi J'J: Auc1cr.cu-Ra. Getty lmag!.."~ pl24:
~l.lri07/ ~h11llt'NOt Ii: p l ZK: J.lnant' Wli'tk-1 Ph tolibl ry/AL: "''' !.toe Ii:
l'l1olo; plltJI: Antony Jon ,'< Olllributor,c:t-tty lo1.1r. pl.!'!Jr. A,·pk'-.J
AJ..\my \le IC t.. Photo. pJ :m: ,oAi-\ n•ulr.l] I 1br.uy: 0 ,\RJFRIJ\~l lOIM_l
!\c•vt'n~ \•uma-.. l..:ahor.uo t'-~~I OM l'hu,o I 1b1 p1 :w : \t t•tll11
TutUl", llt'UC\.' Photo libraJ)': pl35 ; Monkey Bu.~lll ..., ;F toliA; p139;
lrtJf>IC""111~tug,q)Ol'\'1JStc.x I.J)boto: pl IOC · en,y1>lX/iSlod,pboto: pMOb:
(\'tcr \kni:c~~CClC(' Pholo Libr.uy: pl41: \ ~ icnn- Plaoto lJbrary:
pl42: Br.mli.lo lmllc~lcxt.: pt46: Pl'tl"rGwk~'OUP: pM9r. Da, id ~I.
\{, nm, :\ll)i\Ol' lltt' l'IKIIO I tbr.uy pM9l ltl 16'\. l.>.wkl P.ITi:t'r,!\c "110"
l11oto Libr.uy: p 1S 1: Royc1('('/~ loct phueo. p 160: Joriwo)~lnrttc r.1ock:
p1<.ll! Kr'-) ~11, no•AnNmll', pl<,th: Tc!Ul,IJ' 1\IO( .. l)h11co: pl(.~l:
Al)t ·-.V••:~111111C'"IO(l.. p ,,.,: (.r,IIV'' Alu hb.on/1ulOI&.:. p 1(,11: P~•t•r
\klllc\ CX'llCl" Pllolo Libr.uy. pl70&172: P :tcr ~ll'lll'-'~So,•tan• PltolO
LJ.br.uy: p174 p17?: l\•ll"T Goul(~<)llP; pJ84; Aki~ 8.llocltJll.l'llll'r..:
pl4J'.l: hdJoij.lnJ bulll'~loct; pl '>J: ('l'lcrC..wk~Ol ': pl tJ7: l.o'i Abmos
Nauoual LaboralOl)'I ClC.'UC\.' Photo Library: pl 9-J : ScicuCt'pbot
Al.lmy ''°'
t l'hOCo p-Z00: ·~•er
c.oul(~ )I IV- pl0 I ! nry;m t, C lK-11)'
.Ak-x.rndcr l•h~or,raph)'/Arctkphoco; p'.l.O:J: ~cit-uccphoco,, /1\L1-my ~lock
Photct. p204: Nl}',UM \\•11\Ur-'!'ft •l'UY lm..lgt • p:Z05: P1.•ll"r(.c,11J(I/
OUP; p207. !.c1,•1k i'pl1 hl-lo/Al;m•y !.Hk i.. Phurn: 1-,209. Pt••rr C.oukV
OUP: p21 l ; ,\j.ty B~ktlJI lmttt•~tock p213; dcdeb\fiSlod.,phcto:
.,:z
1;,.r: ·.1uh ,...,J}'¥Ll,l)'"'Dn•.un"w11.•: p21 ;1 b p216t· Pl•lt'I' C.ouJ,\OUP:
p216r.1)·lcr OlsortJ hultc~toct : p1 llC: J\ID71 tol~· pUl : ~tcphm
Mmk)crjl)rean"llnK': p'.l:JO: David Pa.rtcr,:i.c-k'u~ Photo Library: p231 :
!.Cil'(l<(' Photo lihr.i ': p-Z:17: ,1.man llon(~~irn,t' l'llOCO I 1hr;i •
pl~UC: u~ lkp.1rt01cnt or1:.t,c'Y.,V/~<'lln' l'hOCo l lbrary: p:Ll'J: (.clp¥
SI111lll""'101 p240: B.." P111u1~"(•NI llU~(•, C:ro111•!C..•uy hU~"\; p24 I :
,i.11n t)ul.l.:;i1 ~!.huHt·"u>tl::, t"l4:J: n-.1 K11hm~n ,~ ,rnn· ~c•an.-. l!.c11•1w ,-.
Plloto LibraJ)•: p244: 0 2007 { at.'t p249; Ev(.'Ul lloriLou Tel•• ~ c
roll,dlC.lr,.tluu· pl51 ; julil•uTcllt 1~0t l..J>ht.Co· p?:>4t· ,A. \; · 'IK'\' Photn
Library. p2:>-1t ~C'UC"t' l 1bo10 Library • Victor Habbict VL'iion, 'Brancl
X PKtun- Gl'lly ln•~~l..._~ p2jjl;Jcny l odrigu J:i.c-icuCt' Photo Libr.uy:
p:Zur. l);ivill l);u-1.t-r/ k'll<'t' Ph~ o I lhr.uy: p:C.7: !.c. tt'llC'r Photo llhr.t I) ':
p15Hr: Audmb Utrl>il~ ~IUlllt"N t.: p£,7b: lll\'ld l~rtt' ~<'Irr Photo
L1b1 .uy. pl :,9: C t'k"~I Ml h1 t.1gt• ( <¥S( k'U('(' Pl10111 Uhr,11 , p2',2: [l.lv1d
1
N11nt1~ !.rif.•1w ,, PIMIIO I 1b1 ;\fV {lU17: unLbn1hf1S,oc 1...ph.oto: p2<)1ll.
l.dwn'uC\.'Sa"-)'\'ijl l kphotn; p2~8b: Tr,11r.port oC Dcbgblµ\l~IU) locl
Plt w: p26C)t · Alo111Mlon",'Dn·,llmlJD) ·: Jl269h· m r, bulll'nlllC'l.:
p:.t?O: SpulmtJ ClCUCt' P1lot.o Libr.tlj': p:011: Prol. Pt-ll"r fowler, l<'llCt'
Photo LibraJ)•: p271b: a:R., IICUC\.' Pll~o library: p272l: 81}'.lll It
C huty Alt'X,10C lt'r l'htAOf.l~phv/Arct c photo, p:Z72b. ~Wit~ \locli.:phot~
p:Z7.it L>orU nr. Kmd('r.lcy/l nc,/~ii.'ncc l'hoto lJbr.uy. p.l? Jb: Roo1.1n
K1ucia11 ~h11UtT'\lo1 ._ p:Z74: ~ 1,•111; \' Pholo I al>rAI) , p275l Roy ..1
A<ill'01.--n11c ;\l ~ K IV/!.C' ac•aw i• PIMIIO I ihr.uy p:Z7"ih. ,A.\A. p277: P,•tN
\ll'ULc\ Ol'UCl" Photo LihrM)-: p278 & p279: 1\-ler GoukV<XJP
AltWo ct.: by: GrN'oG ll' l'Ublbhlug ~rvt . Q.B~ l.L'.mllog t.i °' .
f , IV I ISi~ l'l. l'N'n DlMlr en ('(1111 ¥"I, ori,Tf.111 ,•• •111-f', 41' OUI rnal n-pm.lllf'\"CI 1n
lli~ l••IL. Au nal6,i•~ ~Ul l~ h' (llllNI "dl1il't41J(1)l rnuat~ U OICJn• l, rJ\rO
lo thf' p1hlhl1"r.
11\·ou an: tudying ph, ic~ forCJmbridge JGC E >, then lhi book i de\igned
for\ ou. IC cxplai ns the concepts that you will meet, and should help \'OU
\\ il h \'our practical work. It i mo!'lth \\Titten in double-page uni~
which we htl\e a lied !ipre ads. Th~c are group--d into sections.
Sectio ns I to J 1 The main areas or ph) ic arc covered here.
t the end of each ol thi..: e cction there i a 1-c,i ion un1n1at')
g iving the main topic!-. covered in each spread.
His tory o f key ideas ection 12 describe ' how scicnti t have
devdoped 1heir unden,ttmding or phy~i.cs on:1· the \'ean,.
Practical physics ection 13 te11 )OU how to p]an and ca1T)' out
c,pcriments and interpret th,. 1-c uh . It include uggc lion for
invc tigations, and guidance on taking prnctical te t~ .
l\1athematic for physics ection 14 un1mmi:1~ the mnthcnialical kill
you wilJ need \\hen stud\·ing ph)sics tor Cambridge IG E.
Examinatio n questio ns The1-e are practice examination questions at the end ot each
ection (1 to 11 ). Jn addition, ·ction 15 conlain a collection ol ome altetnatiYc-
to-practical que tion .
Reference section ection 16 incJude e ential equation , unit of mea urement,
ircuit )mhols, answers to questions, and an index.

Core s yllabus content Supplement syllabus content s

11you ttrc following the Con..·~) llabu:,; contl·nt.) ou For thb, you n-..·cd all 1h-..· ma1crial on the while pages,
can ignun.- ..my matc1ial with a rc<l Ii nc hl·sidt· it. indu<ling tht.• supplement matt·1ial markL-d ,, ith a red line.

The..• Enhanced Online Book supports thb student book h • olTc..•ring hii!h-quality digital resources that
help lo hui]d scientific an<l l'xamination skills in prl.'par~uion fur thl' high-slakes !GCSE assessml.'nl. H
you purchasca1:ccss to the digital cou1~c.~c>U will find a \\l.'ahh ofac.Jdi1ional rl.'soun:c..•s 10 hdp)OU with
)O\ff stu<.Hc., ;m<l n.:\·ision:

• A \\ork...,fu:l.'t anc.l intcracti\t.' quiz frn·L'\L'I)' unil

• On Your Mark:-, activitic to hdp )<>U ~chic,c )OUI" ~st
• Glossary quizzes to consolid:ne ,·ow· und..:1 . landing of scientific 1tcrmino]ogy
• Full prac tkc papc1'.S \\ it h mark schemes

Each pe~on ha their own way of working, hul the lollo,, ing tip might help you to
gel the most from 1his book:
• U e the content · page - thi will pro\'ide infonnation on large topic
• u~e lhe index - thi wiJI ollow you to u~e a single woa-d to dkect vou to page
\\ here you can find out more.
• Use the que~tions - thi · is the be t way of checking,, hether you ha\'e le~u-ned nnd
understood Lhe n1aLe1ial on ~jch spread.
Oucslions arc to be lound on mosl units and wiLhin or at the end of each seccion.
Harder que ·lion are identified by the blue circle.

tephen Pople iii

• \Vatch for this~, mbol, bclo,, and throughout the book. It indical<.~ spreads or
parts of spn:a<ls that ha\'c been included lo pro\'ide cxlen~ion material to set
phy~ics in a broader context.
For inionnation about the link bct\\'ccn prcad and the \llnbu ,
·cc page vii- x.

Syllabus and spreads VII

3.6
0
Pressure in liquids 70
Measurements and units 3.7 Pressure from the air• 72
3.8 Gas pressure and volume 74
Check-up 76
1.1 Numbers and units 12
1.2 A system of units 14
1.3
1.4
Measuring Length and time
Volume and density
16
18
0 Forces and energy
1.5 Measuring volume and density 20
1.6 More about mass and density 22
4.1 Work and energy 8o
Check-up 24 4.2 Energy transfers 82
4.3 Calculating PE and KE 84
4.4 86
0
Efficiency and power
Forces and motion 4.5 Energy for electricity (1) 88
4.6 Energy for electricity (2) go

2.1
4.7 Energy resources 92
Speed, velocity, and acceleration 28
4.8 How the world gets its energy 94
2.2 Motion graphs 30
2.3 Check-up 96
Recording motion 32
2.4 Free fall 34
2.5
2.,6
More motion graphs
Forces in balance
36
38 C, Thermal effects
2.7 Force, mass, and acceleration 40
2.8 Friction 42 5.1 Moving particles 100
2.9 Force, weight, and gravity 44 5.2 Temperature 102
2.10 Action and reaction• 46 5.3 Expanding solids and liquids 104
2.11 Momentum (1) 48 5.4 Heating gases 106
2.12 Momentum (2) so 5.5 Thermal conduction 108
2.13 More about vectors 52 5.6 Convection 110
2.14 Moving in circles 54 5.7 Thermal radiation 112
Check-up 56 5.8 Liquids and vapours 114
5.9 SpecUic heat capacity 116

0 Forces and pressure

5.10 Latent heat
Check-up
118
120

3.1 Forces and turning effects 60

3.2 Centre of gravity 62
3.3 More about moments 64
3.4 Stretching and compressing 66
3.5 Pressure 68

1V
 G Waves and sounds 0 Magnets and currents

6.1 Transverse and longitudinal waves 124 9.1 Magnets 198

6.2 Wave effects 126 9.2 Magnetic fields 200
6.3 Sound waves 128 9.3 Magnetic effect of a current 202
6.4 Speed of sound and echoes 130 9.4 Electromagnets 204
6.5 Characteristics of sound waves 132 9.5 Magnetic force on a current 206
6.6 Ultrasound 134 9.6 Electrtc motors 208
Check-up 136 9.7 Electromagnetic induction 210
9.8 More about induced currents 212

0 Rays and waves

9.9
9.10
9.11
Generators
Coils and transformers (1)
Coils and transformers (2)
214
216
218
7.1 Light rays and waves
9.12 Power across the country 220
140
Check-up 222
7.2 Reflection in plane mirrors (1) 142
7.3 Reflection in plane mirrors (2) 144
7.4
7.5
Refraction of light
Total internal reflection
146
148
Eli) Atoms and radioactivity
7.6 Refraction calculations 150
7.7 Lenses (1) 152 10.1 Inside atoms 226
7.8 Lenses (2) 154 10.2 Nuclear radiation (1) 228
7.9 More lenses in action 156 10.3 Nuclear radiation (2) 230
7.10 Electromagnetic waves (1) 158 10.4 Radioactive decay (1) 232
7.11 Electromagnetic waves (2) 160 10.5 Radioactive decay (2) 234
7.12 Sending signals 162 10.6 Nuclear energy 236
Check-up 164 10.7 Fusion future 238
10.8 Using radf oactivity 240

0 Electricity
10.9
10.10
Atoms and particles (1)
Atoms and particles (2)•
Check-up
242
244
246
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Electric charge (1)
Electric charge (2)
Electric fields
Current in a simple circuit
168
170
172
174
e The Earth in space

8.5 Potential difference 176 11.1 Sun, Earth, and Moon 250
8.6 Resistance (1) 178 11.2 The Solar System (1) 252
8.7 Resistance (2) 180 11.3 The Solar System (2) 254
8.8 More about resistance factors 182 11.4 Objects in orbit 256
8.9 Series and parallel circuits (1) 184 11.5 Sun, stars, and galaxies (1) 258
8.10 Series and parallel circuits (2) 186 11.6 Sun, stars, and galaxies (2) 260
8.11 More on components 188 11.7 The expanding Universe 262
8.12 Electrical energy and power 190 Check•UP 264
8.13 Living with electricity 192
Check-up 194

V
 e History of key ideas 0 Mathematics for physics

12.1 Force, motion, and energy• 268 The essential mathematics 294
12.2 Rays, waves, and particles• '1:10
12.3 Magnetism and electricity-
12.4 The Earth and beyond•
Key developments in physics
272
274
x,6
El) !GCSE practice questions

Multichoice questions (Core) 298

G) Practical physics
Multichoice questions (Extended)
IGCSE theory questions
300
302
IGCSE alternative-to-practical questions 312
13.1 Working safely 278
13.2
13.3
13.4
Planning and preparing
Measuring and recording
Dealing with data
280
282
284
0 Reference

13.5 Evaluating and improving 285 Useful equations 316

13.6 Some experimental investigations 286 Units and elements 318
13.7 Taking a practical test 290 Electrical symbols and codes 319
Check-up 291 Answers 320
Index 333

www.oxfordsecondary.com/complete-igcse-science

Vl
Below, is an outline ot the Cambridge lGC Es~ llabu~ as il tood at the time of
puhJication, along ,,ith detail · of where each topic i~ covered in the hook. Before
con tructing a teac hing or rcvi ion progran1mc, pica c c heck with the late t ver ion of
the s, llabus/~pccificat ion fo1· any changes.

IGCSE syllabus section Spread

-
1 Motion, Forces and Energy
1.3
1. 1 Physical quantities and measurement techniques 2.1
2.13
2.1
2.2
2.3
1.2 Motion
2.4
2.S
2.6
1.6
1.3 Mass and Weight
2.9
1.4
1.4 Dens,ty 1.5
1.6
2.6
2.7
2.8
1.S Fofces 2.14
3.1
3.2
3.4
~.'iomemum 2.11
1.6
2.12
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
1.7 Energy, Work and Power
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
3.S
1.8 Pressure
3.6
2 Thermal Physks
3.8
S.1
2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter
S.2
5.4
The<rnal pcoperties and 1empera1ure S.2
5.3
5.4
2.2
S.8
S.9
S.10
Transfer of thermal energy s.s
2.3 5.6
S.7

vii
 ~

IGCSE syllabus section Spread

=
3 waves
General propeuies of waves 6.1
3.1
6.2
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
3.2 Ught 7.5
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.12
Electromagnetic Spectrum 7.10
3.3 7.11
7.12
Souid 6.1
6.3
3.4 6.4
6.5
6.6
4 Electricity and Magnetism
Simple phenomena of magnetism 9.1
4.1
9.2
Electrical quantities 8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.S
8.6
4.2
8.7
8.8
8.11
8.12
8.13
9.9
Electric circuits 8.4
8.5
8.6
43 8.7
8.9
8.10
8.11
4.4 Electrical safety 8.13
Elect1omagnetic effects 9.3
9.4
9.S
9.6
9.7
4.S 9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
10.2

viii
IGCSE syllabus section Spread
5 Nudear physics
The nuclear model of the atom 10.1
10.2
10.4
s.1 10.6
10.7
10.9
Radioacli\licy 10.2
10.3
5.2 10.4
10.S
10.8
--
6 Space physics
Eanh and the Soiar System 11. 1
11.2
6.1 11.3
11.4
11.5
Stars and the unive,se 11. 1
11.S
6.2 11.6
11. 7

Assessment for IGCSE

The ICC E exam inatio n will induck questions that Lesl you in lh1~c diITcn:nt
,,·a, s. These arc called A scssmcnt Objec ti,cs (AO for short). Ho\\ these
difkl'ent AOs are te ted in the c:..amination i · c,pl~,ined in the table below:
Assessment What the syllabus calls
What this means in the examination
Objective ~-
these objectives
--~~----------
A01 Knor.,'1edge wi tn Questions which mainly test your recall (and
understanding unde.-standing)
of what you ha\'e learned. About 50% of the
marks in the examination are fOJ AOl.
A02 Handling infOJmation and prob· Using what you have learned in unfamiliar
lem solvmg situations. These questions often ask )'OU to
exarrune data in graphs oc tables, or to carry out
cakulations. About 30% of the ma s are for A02.
A03 Experimental sblls and investi· These are tested on the Practical Paper or the
gations Alternative to Practical (20% of the total marks).
However. the skills you develop in practising for
these papers may be valuable in handling
questions on the theory papers.
The cn<l-of-M~ction qucMions in this book include c'\'.amplcs of those testing
AO I , A02 an<l A03. Your LL'achcr will help you lo attempt quC!,lion~ of all
t~ pc . Yo u can cc from the abo\'c table that it will no t be enough to try onl)
'recall' QUL~tion .
All candidate~ take lhrcc papers.

The niakc-up o f eac h m, c m cnt progra mnic i hown below:

Core assessment
Quc ti on arc ba ed on Core content.
Paper 1: Multiple Choice (Core), 45 mins
There are a total of 40 marts available, worth
30% of yout iGCSE. The paper consists of multi-
ple-choke questions.
Paper 3: Theory (Core), I hour 15 mins
There are a total of 80 marh avaiable, worth 50%
of your IGCSE. The paper consists of compu~ory
short-answer and suuctured questions.

Extended assessment
Questions arc based on the Core and upplemcnl s ubjec t content.
Paper 2. Multiple Cno:ce (Ell.tended). 45 mIns Pape, 4. lheory (b:tended). I hour 1~ m,ns
There are a total of 40 marls available, worth There are a total of 80 marls avaiable, worth 50%
30% of your IGCSE. The paper consists of multi- of your IGCSE. The paper consists of compu~ory
ple-choice questions. shon-aM•Ner and structured questions.

Practical assessment
Lu dents take ei the,- Paper - or Paper 6.
Paper 5: Practical Tests. 1 hour 15 mins
There are a total of 40 marls available, worth
20% of your IGCSE. You will be required 10 do
e:q:,eriments in a lab as part of the assessment.
Paper ,6: Ahemative to Practical, I hoUJ 15 mins
lhere are a total of 40 marks avaiable, worth 20%
of your IGCSE. You v.;o NOT be required to do exper-
ments in a lab as part of the assessment.

X
An a~tronomical clock in
Prague, in the C.1.ech Republic.
A ,veil a · giving the tin1c, the
clock al ·o sho\\ the position ~
of the Sun and Moon relat i\'e
to the con tellation~ of the
Lodiac. Until about fifty year
ago. 'Cienti ·t had to reh on
n1~chanical locks, ~uch a ,
the on above, to n1ea ur
tit11e. Today, they have accc s
to ato1nic clock ,vho ' c
tin1ekeeping varie ~ by less
than a s cond in a n1illion
\Cal .

chapt~r 1 11
 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 m - - - - - - - - - - - --
/ \
ourr ber unit (m 1s the ~yrnbol for metre)

\Vhcn )OU make a 1ncasurcmcnt, you mighr gd a n..~ull like the one abo,c: a
di~tancc of 10 m. The complete mca~urcmcnt is called a physical quantit .
1L i n1adc up o f two part ·: a number and a w1it.

10 m really mean · 10 x 111 (ten time · metre). just a in algebra, 1Q\· n1cans
10 x x (ten tim~x). You can treat them ju t like a , ,nbol in an algebraic
equation. Thi is important when combining unit .

Advanced units
5 m/s 1s a space-saving way
0 Combining units
In l he diagram abon?, the girl cycle!-. 10 met n!!-. in 2 s. So she l r..1.vcls
of writing 5 ~ . 5 mctn.:s c,·c~ second. Her .\p.!ed L') S metres ~r second. To work out the
m 1
But 5 sequals S ms. spet.·d, you divide the <liMancc Lr'Jvclkd by Lhc time taken, like Lhis:

Also, { can be wntten as s- 1• spcl.'<-1 : 1O m ( · is the s~ rnbol (or econd)

So the speed can be written 2s
as S ms- 1• A · m and · can be treated as algebraic ·ymbols:
This method of showing units peed = .!Q .m- Sm
. ,o.,. save space,- -n,- . u ·ua IIy wnttcn
, s
is mo,e common in advanced
1s
. as - ms.
/
work.
o m/s is Lhc unic of spcc<l.

Tables and graphs

You mc1y see table headings
0 Rights and wrongs
Thi equation i correct: pced - 10 m _ 5 m/
2s
or graph axes labelled hke this:
Thi equation b incorn:ct: speed : 10 - m/
cfiSt aoce or distance/m 2
m It h, incorr~ct because th e m and h,wl.! been left out. I 0 divided hy 2
That is because the values equals - , and noL - m/s.
shown are just numbers,
Vv'ithout units So t,;crly ~peaking, units should be indu<lcd at all stages of a calculation,
If distance - 1O m nol just al the end. However, in thi~ book, the ·incorn..-ct' t~ pc of
Then distance _ 10 cquatjon "iU somL•Cimes be used so Lhat )OU can follow Lhe arithmetic
m without unit \\hich make the calculation look more complicated.

12
 MEASUREME TS AND U ITS

Bigger and smaUler

You can mak .. a unit bigger or mallcr bv putting an e-..:tra vmbol, caJlcd a
prefh, in front. (Below, \ \' tand for watt, a unit of powc1: )

prefix meaning example Powers of 10

G (919a) 1000000000 (109) GW (gigawatt) 1000 - 10 X 10 X 10 - 103

2
100 -1 0 X 10 - 10
M (mega) 1 000000 (106) MW (megawatt) 1 - 10 I
0.1 -10
k (kao) 1000 (103) km (kilometre) 1 1 1
0.01 - 10
- 100 - 10 2
d (dec1) -1
10
(10 1
) dm (decimetre)
0.001 - 1000 -
l 1
103 - 10-3
1 2)
c (ceot1) (10 cm (centimetre)
100
1 3) 'm1lh' means 'thousandth',
m (milli) (10 mm (rrnllimetre)
1000 not ·m1lhonth'
1
p (rrucro) (10 6> µW (micrO\vatt)
1000000 • You would not normally be
1 9 tested on micro, nano or
n (nano) (10 ) nm (nanometre)
1000000000 g1ga 1n d Cambridge IGCSE
exarrunat,on (see also
Scientific notation yellow pa, el at the start of
An ada~ says that the population of Jee land i~ this: the next spread. 1.2)
320000
There ill'\: two probh:ms "ith gi\ing the number in this form . \\'riling lots
of LCl'O i n't \Cl"_\ con,enient. Al o, )OU don't knO\\ \\hich Lero arc
accurate. Mo l arc onh there to ho\\ ,ou that it i a ix-figure number:
Thc~c prob]cn1~ arc avoided if t lr" nu mbcr i \\Ti Hen u ing powc, of ten: decimal fraction scientific
3.2x 10i; (10~::; t 0x I0xl0x l 0x 10 = 100000) notation
r

500 5 X 102
'3.2 x I Or;, tells~ ou that the figurl.!S 3 an<l 2 are in1portanl. The number
i being given to 1wo ~igni{icmll figure:... If the population \\Cl~ kno\\n 0 .5
5 5 X 10- 1
10
rno1 ~ accuratch, to three ignificant figure , it might be \\rittc-n like d1i :
0 .05
5 5 X 10 2
3.20 X l Or; 100 I

Kun1be1 wriuen u ing powcl'~ of ten arc in cicntific notation or 0 .005

5
5 X 10 3
standard form . The cxamp1c!'I on the ,;ght arc to one ~ignificant figure. 1000

® 1 How many grams are there in 1 kilogram? 5 Write down the following in km:
2 How many millimetres are there in l metre? 2000 m 200 m 2 x 104 rn
3 How many microseconds are there in 1 second? 6 Wnte dov\fn the following in s:
4 This equation is used to work out the area of a 5000 ms S x 107µs
rectangle: area - length x width. 7 Using scientific notation. write down the following to
If a rectangle measures x m by 2 m, calculate its area, two signifacant figures:
and include tt e units in your calculation. 1500 m 1500000 m 0.15 m 0.015 m

Related topics: SI units 1.2: speed 2 .1; sign•flcant figures 13.3

13
 Mass Length Time

oz cm hour
lb s
~
A lme down the side of the 9 kg mile da~ month
text means that the ton ft r(tn'\
material as only required for cwt km year ms
Extended Level

.. An asterisk 1nd cates
extension material. proVlded
to set physKs in a broader
context. You v,ould not
normally be tested oo this an
a CA E !GCSE examination
There are many different unils inducling those above. Bue in sc ientific
work, life b much ca':)ic1· if C\'cryonc u c~ a common ') ·tcm ol units.
SI units
Mo ·t ' dcnti ts u ·c SI unit s (full name: u: y ·teme lnte1national d'Uniles).
Thl" ba~ic l unib for inca ·udng mass, time, and length arc the kilogram,
the econd, and the metre. Fro n1 th~c base unit come a whole range of
unit for measuring \'Olumc, peed, fo1 e , ene1'S', and other quantitie .
Other f base unit · include the amp~rc (for measuring electric current )
and the kch in ( for measuring tcmpcr~llure).

.& The mass of an object can be
found using a bal ance hke this.
The balance really detects the
gravitational pull on the object
on the pan, but the scale 1s
marked to show the mass.
Mass
Ma i a mclli>urc of the quantity of maucr in an object. ll h~ two cficc t
• 11 object ar ~ attracted to the art h. The greater the n1a. of an
object, the stronger i the a11h' gra\'itutional pull on it.
• All obiects resisl being made to go lru,tcr, slower~ or in a different din: lion .
The g rt!attc>r the mass, Lhc g l"\!aler the n.-si..,.lanc c lo changL' in motion.
The I base unit of mas · is the k'ilogrnn1 ( ;ymbol kg). At one time, the
!-.tanc.lard kilogram was a hloc k of platinum allo~ stored in Pad~. However.
Lhcn: is now a more m.:curatc buL ,non: compli atcd dl:finition invoh ing an
electromagnetic balance. Other unit baM:<l on the IJlogram arc ·ho\\ n below.

mass com_pa rison ,with scientific approximate size

base unit notation

1 tcrine lll - - - - - - - - - 1000 lg - - - 10, ►.g - - - -

1 kilov,•m (kg) - - - - - - - - 1 kg - - - - - - - - - bag of ~ugar

l 9f~ ;g) - - - - i 9 - - - - 1 ;o 9 - - 10, ►-9 - - - -

1 rtulgr.am (ffl9) -
I
i<oo 9 - - -
I
~ kg - - 10
~
~-0 - - - -
----~~---
human hair

14
 MEASUREME TS AND U ITS

Time
The Iba c unit of time i the ccond ( \ n1bol ). Here at~ on1c
The second was originally
defined as 60 x 6~ x 24
0
shorter unit ba~cd on the ccond:
of a day, one dill being the
l time it takes the Earth to
l milli~ccond ( m~) = - 10 's
1000 s
rotate once. But the Earth4s
rotation is not quite constant.
l microsL-cond (µs) = I 000000 s - 10
6
s So, for accuracy, the second is
now defined in terms of
something that never
l nanosecond (ns) -
1 000 000 000 s changes: the frequency of an
To keep Liml!, clocks and watches need somcLhing that beats at a stead~ osdlatt00 which can occur in
rate. Some old dock.-.. used Lhe s\\ ing · of a pendulum. Modern digital the nucleus of a caesium
atom.
\\~1tchc count the \'ibration · made b) a Liny quartz Cl') tal.

Length
The l ba.-;c unit of length is the metre ( ·ymbol m ). At one time, the
·tandard met,~ was the di tance bctwcc:n t\\o mark on a metal bar kept
By definition. one metre
is the distance travelled
0
by light in a vacuum in
at the Office of \\'eight and Mca tu ... in Pari~. A mo1 .. accurate tandard 1
299 792 458 of a secood.
i now u ed, ba c.'Ci on the pced of light, a c"plaincd on the right.
There are la rger and smaller uniL~ of length based cm the metre:

distance comparison w ith scientific approximate si2e

base unit notation - ----....,, .... _
'"r--~~--------~
1 lomtttt m) - - - - - I 0)() m - - - - - 10
1
m- - - ----------♦
1O foo•ball o.tches

1 metre (m) - - - - - - - , m- - - - - - - - - ----- '!>

1 milrr.ctre (lffll) - - - - -
m- - - - -

m - - - - - 10
m- - -

EJ. . :. L.:. .'.:. .:. .;

m--- .......

1 naromttre (Ml)- - - 1 mtW&J m - - - - - to-4m - - -

® 1 What is the SI unit of length? What is the ma~ of each page a in kg b in mg?
2 What is the SI unit of mass? 7 km pg µm t nm kg rn
3 What is the SI unit of time? ms s mg ns µs g mrn
4 What do the following symbols stand for? Arrange the above units in three columns as below.
g mg t µm ms The units in each column should be in order, with the
5 Write down the value of largest at the top.
a 1564 mm in m b 1750 g in kg
c 26 t in kg d 62 ~ in s mass time
e 3.65 x 104 gin ·g f 6 .16 x 10 7 mm in m
6 The 500 pages of a book have a mass of 2.50 kg.

Related topics: numbers and units 1 .1~mass 2.7

15
 Measuring length

0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 no 140

mm

Lc-ngth from a few mill metre up to a metre can be mea ured u ing a
rule, n~ ~hown abo\'e. \ hen t1 ing the rule, the , cale :-.hould be placed
right next to the ohje t bci ng mca~un:d. If thi~ i~ not po ~ihlc, calipers
can he u:-,ed, a:-, sho\\n on lhc left. he calipcrs arc ~et so that their
point:-, c:\m::tl) matc h 1he enc.ls of the ohjc<.:l. Then the~ arc moved across
to a rule to make the measurement.
E Lt!nglhs of sc\·crc1l mctn.""i can he nlcasun."<.I u~ing a tape with a :i,,calc on it.
Acc:uratd, nw.._, · uring 1nall objl·Cts is mo1\..' difficult, but thct'-! arc wa)S
around the problem. a,, for example, \OU wanted 10 find the thicknt: ~
ol a heet of A4 paper.
l"sc a ruh:1- to mca~urc the 1hickncs~ of a -oo sheet pack: 49 mm
Di, iding 49 n1m by 500 gi\ l.~ the thic:kne~~ of one sheet: 0.09 mm

• If the rule cannot be placed

next to the object being
measured, calipers can be used.
Measuring Length with light
Surveyors don't need a tape to mea5ure the dimensions of a room. They can ~e a
0
laser tape measure instead. Despite its name, no tape is involved. The surveyor
places the instrument against one wall, points it at the opposate wall, presses a
button, and reads the distance on the display.
There are various systems, but in one type, the instrument frres a pulse of laser
light at the opposite wall, picks up the reflection, measures the time delay
between the outgoing and returning pulses and uses this to calculate the distance.
light travels at a speed dose to 300 000 000 metres p~r second. So. for example.
if the pulse had to travel 30 metres out and back, it would take 100 nanoseconds.
If this were the time measured, the display would show a distance of 15 metres.
(In this example, the numbers have been simplified. Typically, the instrument is
accurate to within 3 mm.)

16
 MEASUREME TS AND U ITS

Measuring time
Tin1c interval o f man) ccond or minute ca n be n1ea ~ured u ing a
topclock o r a stopwatch. Son1e in tn1mcnt ha\'C a n analogue
Zero error
You have to allow for this on
0
displa~. wilh a needl e (' ha nd') m o\ ·ing ro und a ci1·cular ~calc. Other~ many measuring instruments.
ha\'C a digital dis pla~. which s hows a numbe r. There an.: butto n~ fo r For example, bathroom scales
s ta r ling the timing, s to pping it, a nc..l n:~elling the im,trume nt to zero. might give a reading of
46.2 kg when someone
\ ith a hand-opera ted topdo k or topwatch, making accurate
stands on them. but 0.1 g
mca~uremcnt of hon tin1c intc1,al!- (a re,\
~econds or le- ) can be Vi/hen they step off and the
difficult. Thi i!-. bt.'Cau~ of the time it ta ke · vou to 1 "act whe n , ·ou have to expected reading is zero. In
pn,;.~._. the hulto n. Fortuna ld~. in some experiment""', then: is a ~imple wa~ o f this case, the zero error is
overcoming the problem. Here i~ a n example: 0.1 . g and the cOC'rected
ngio support _ _ _ __ measurement is 46.1 kg.

A pendulum can be set up to

investigate the time taken for
a single swing.
electromagnet
·o release ball

!>tnng--------1 one complete

swing

simple ► Measuring the

pendulum
bob---
(sma!I 0 time t it takes for a
steel ball to fall a
m~~s)
distance h.

The pcndulun1 above take about two econd to n1a ke o ne complete

J,.wing. Pr odded the ~wings an: J,. m alJ, eve~ swing ta ke~ the sam e tim e. h
Thi~ time i ~ called its period. You can find it ac uratcl~ by m ca,uring timer
the tinlc for 2- ~wing~. and th en di,·ic..ling the res ult b} 25. Fo1· example:
Time rO J' 25 '\\ ing · • ssecond l)
o: time for 1 wing - · 5125 e ondi,. - 2.2 ccond~
Ano ther method o f impn>\·ing accurac, i~ to u.,c a utom a tic t iming, a,
s ho wn in the ~xamplc o n the right. He~. the time La ken for a ~mall o bjecl to hght
~ ...J• sensor
fall a short <lb La.nce i · being n1e~t..') Ut~d. The limer j~ staitcd a utom atically -~ I to stop
,, hen the ball cut o ne Jight beam and ·topp..-d when it cut a nothet: ba I timer

® 1 On the opposite page, there is a diagram of a rule. 3 A student wants to find the thickness of one page of
a What is the ,eading on its scale? this book.
b The rule has not be drawn to ,ts true s,ze. a Explain how she might do this accurately.
What is the length of the red line as printed? b Measure this book and then hod your own value for
2 A student measures the time taken for 20 swings of a the thickness of one page.
pendulum. He finds that the tune taken in 46 seconds. 4 a What ,s meant by zero ,error?
a What trme does the pendulum take for one swmg? b Grve an example of when you would have lo allow
b How could t e student have found the time for one
swing more accurately?
'°' it.

Related top1cs: units of tenglh and time 1.2 : timing a falling object 2.4
17

Cubk metre (m 3)
H>OO litres <I)
1 rubic ll'lClt(I (m ) ts 1e volume of a
cube measur119 1 m 1 m x I m
A The glowmg gas in the tail of
a comet stretches for millions of
kilometres behind the comet's
core. The density of the gas is
less than a ilogram per cubic
kilometre.
18
Volume
The qunntity of space an object take · up i · called it volume.
The l unit of ,·o]umc is the cubic me tre (m 3 ). Howe\'cr, thi~ i~ rather
large tor evcr)da. work, ~o other units an~ often used for con,l:nicnce,
a ho,, n in the diagram below:
Cubic centimetre (cm 1)
Litre (1 or L) or millilitre (ml or ml)
Note: the symbol
I for Mre can be
confused ,...,th
a
1 (one).
- 1000 cubic centimetres (c.m3>
1000 m1lhl1tres (ml)
1 cubic cent11T1etre (cm3) 1s
the v01\Jme of a cube
measur ng 1 cm . 1 cm
1 ~tie 1s the same vo ume as t <ub c It ~ the same vol 1me as
deometre (d m3) 1 mBlihtre (ml)
Density
1 lead heavier than ,,atcr? l\ot ncces ·aaily. It dcpcn~ on rhc voluml: oJ
lead and water being compa1\.=-d. I loweYe1; lead i n1ore dense than water:
it ha!-, more kilograms packed into e,·ery cubic metre.
The dens ity of a material is cakulated like thi
. ma-..-..
<.ll•ll~ll\' - - - -
n>)umt.:
In the case of ,,ater:
a ma~s of I 000 kg of water has a \'Olumc ot I m 3
a ma~~ of 2000 kg of water has a volume of 2 n1'
a mlli> ol 3000 kg of water htU> a \'olumc oi 3 n1', an<l o on.
sing any of Lhc c set~ of figu1·c in the above equation, the den ·ity o
water\\ ork out to ~ I 000 kg/m 3•
H m~~ are n1easured in gran,~ (g) and volume in cubic centimetre. (cm3 ),
it i simple1· Lo calcula1c den iti~ in g/cm'. Con\·~rti ng to kg/m ~ is ea!-.):
1 g/ m 3 = I 000 kgtin 3
The dtmsily of water is l g/cm ' . This simple \aluc is no accident. The
kilogram ( l 000 g) was originaU) supposed to be the ma ·s of J 000 cn1 1 of
 MEASUREMENTS AND U ITS

walcr (pure, and at 4 °C). H O\\ t.:\'CC a \'Cl''\' lig ht ctTo r ,, a n1adc in lhc carh
The densities of solids and
mca~ure mcnt, o thi i no lo nger ttM!d a~ a denni1io n o f lhc kilogram.
liquids vary slightly with
density density substance density temperature. Most substances
substance
get a httle bigger when
heated. lhe increase 1n
air granite
volume reduces the density.
expanded polystyrene 14 0.01 4 aluminium 2.7 lhe densities of gases can
1,vood (beech) 750 0.75 steel (stainless) 7800 7.8 vary enormously depending
petrol 800 0.80 copper 8900 8 .9 on how compressed they are.

ice (0 °C) 920 0.92 lead 11400 n .4

polythene 950 0.95 mercury 13600 13.6 The rare metal osmium is the
densest substance found on
water (4 °C) 1000 1.0 gold 19300 19.3
Earth. If this book were made
concrete 2400 2.4 platinum 21 500 21 .S of osmium, it would weigh as
glass (varies) 2500 2.5 osmium 22600 22.6 much as a heavy suitcase.

Density calculations
T he cqualion linking density, mas~. and volume can be wrillcn in ~)mbols:
Ill
I'
\I
dcn_sity, 111 = mas.s. and V = \'olunlc
Ill
Thi equation can be rcan~1gl-d lo give: I'
and Ill

The:,c an: u ·dul if the den il~ b kno\\n , but the , olumc or rna · · i 10 be
c alculated. On the 1igh t i a n1etho d o l finding all three equatio n .

Emmpll.' u~ing dcn~itv da t~• from the t~,blc a bo,·c. cakukttc the
nmss ol ~t.:"-•I having the s.unc , olumc as~400 kg of aluminium.

Fin-it , calculate the \·olumc of - 400 kg o f alun1inium . l n this ca se, A Cover V in the triangle and
p i s 2700 kglm ', m i s 5400 kg, a nd Vi ~ to be found. o: you can see what Vis equal to.
It works form and /I as well.
V = !E. 5400 kg , ~
P 2700 kg/m ' · - m ·
Thi i al o the vo lume o f th e tcel. Therefo re, fo r the tccl, p i
7800 kg/n11, \/ i~ 2 111 '. and 111 i to b ' found . So: In the density equation,
the symbol p is the Greek
0
m = Vp 7800 kg/m ' x 2 m' ~ I - 600 kg
letter 'rho'.
So the mass of ~led is 15 600 kg.

® 1 How many cm3 are there in l m3 ?
2 How many cm 3 are there in 1 litre?
3 How many ml are there in l m3 ?
4 A tankful of liquid has a volume of 0.2 m3• What is
the volume in a litres b cm3 c ml?
5 Aluminium has a density of 2700 kgtm 3.
a What is the density in g/cm 3?
b What is the mass of 20 cm 3 of aluminium?
c What is the volume of 27 g of aluminium?
Use the information in the table of densities at t~e top of
the page to answer t e following:
6 What material, of mass 39 g. has a volume of 5 cm3?
7 What is the mass of air in a room measuring
5 m x 2 m x 3 m?
8 What is the volume of a stOJage tank which will hold
3200 kg of petrol?
9 What mass of lead has the same volume as 1600 kg
of petrol?

Related topics: pressure 1n liquids 3.6

19
 <; 1000 cm>- - measuring asuring volumP
cyt1nde, Liquid A \'olume of about a litre or ·o can be mca ·urcd u i ng a
measuring cylinder. \ \'hen the liquid i._, poured into the cylinder,
the le\ don the scale g ives the volume.
1o t mca::,uring cylinch:-1"' have 'Cale- · rnarkcd in millilitres (ml), or
- - 1-- levEI Of'I sca1e cubi centimctr~ (cm ').
g,...es volume
of hqutd Regular solid Han object ha!> a simple hapc, it · volume can be
.
calculated. For example:
volume of a rectangular block length x width x height
.& tvteasuring the volume of a liquid volume of a c~ tinder n X radius 2 X heig ht

c:;
Irreg ular solid lf the s hape is 100 awkward for the \·olume to be
1000 cml IOOOcnr calculated, the olid can bl" lowered into a parll~ filled mca udng
. cylinder a ho\\ n on the lclt. The ri e in level on the ,olume calc gh ·c
the volume o f the ~olid.
If the ~olid noaL,, it can be weig hl.!d down with a lump of metal. Thi.!
total volume is found . The volun1c of the metal is n1casured in a
separate experiment and then ·ubtrac ted lrom this total.
Using a displacement can lf the sol id is too big for a measuring
cylinder, its \'Olun1c can be lound using a di~pla cmcnt can, shO\\ n
below left. First. the can i~ filled up to the lc\'cl of 1hc spout (thi · is done
.& Measurmg the volume of a b · o,·criilling it, and then waiting for the urplu water to run out) .
small solid Then the olid i lowl) lowered into the wate1: The olid i n ow taking
up pace once occupied by the water - in other word~. it has di~placed
it · own volume of water. The dis placed water i collected in a be~1ker
and emptied into a mca~uring c..-ylin<lcr·.
The displaccmcnl method, so the story goc , was disco\C1\:d by
accident, b, A1 himcdc . You can find out how on the oppo itc page.

Measuring dens ·ty

The density of a material can be found by calculation, once thl.! volume
and mass han! been measured. The ma~s of a ~mall solid or of a liquid
can be mca-;urcd using a balance. Howcve1: in the case of a liquid, you
must remember to allow for the ma of it~ co1uainl·1:

-- .... Here arc some r~adings from an experiment to find the density of a liquid:

.& Using a dispfacement can. vol«Y".,...! of Liqt-tid t.'I. .~as1,o L,~ Ct:jlt~~r = ~ 00 c:,1.. ( A)
Provided the can is filled to the
.~•Q.SS of '"""-a.;v.ri~ er;li ,-..der == 2 ,,;o 0 ( B)
spout at the start. the volume of
water collected in the beaker 1s w.nss of .~o.~.ot.v..g c~ti ,W.!r Vitt 1 LUli.tt.0. tv.. = r;w !3 (C)
equal to the voJume of the
object lowered into the can. The refore: mas. of liquid - 560 g240 g - 320 g (C - B )
320
Therefore density of liquid = ma - g - 0 g/cm 3
20 volume · 400 cn1 ' - ·
 MEASUREME TS AND U ITS

Checking the density of a t·quid*

A q uick method of finding the den it\ ot a liquid it lo me a mall float called
a hydrometer. There b an e'-an1plc on the right. It i~ bn~ on the idea tha t
a Routing object floats higher up in a chmscr liquid. You can •·cad more abouL
flo aling, ~inking, a nc.l thl' link \\ilh dcnsil\ in the n l!xt sprt!ad, 1.6 .
The c.:alc on a h~ dromdel' non,1all) indicate the relmit-11 density (or ' ·pcci[k
gra, it\ ') of the liquid: thar i th e den H, compar e<l \\1th wat er ( I 000 kg/m ').
hydrometer
A reading of l.05 mean. tha l the d ~1i.s it, of the liquid i 10·0 kg/m 3•
De n ·ity check like this a re im port a nt in soml! production proces ·e~. For
c xa mplt!, crt!am~ milk is !--.lightl, l~s dense Lhan skimmed milk, and
s lrong beer is slighth le~~ d c nst.· tha n ,, eak beer.

Archimedes and the crown

Archimedes, a Greek mathemat.cian. lived in Syracuse
(now 1n Sicily) around 250 BCE. He made important
d1scovenes aboul levers and liquids. but 1s probabty best
remembered for his clever solution to a problem set him
by the King of Syracuse.
The K1"9 had given his goldsmith some gold to
make a crown. But when the aown was
delivered, the King was suspicious. Perhaps
the goldsmith had stolen some of the gold and mixed in cheaper silver
instead. The King asked Archimedes to test the crown.
Archimedes knew that the crown was the correct mass. He also knew
that silver ""as less dense than gold. So a cro..,,m with silver in it \l\'Ould
have a greater volume than it should have. But hO\v could he measure
the volume? Stepping into his bath one day. so the story goes, Archimedes
noticed the rise 1n water level. Here was the answer! He was so excited that
he lept from his bath and ran naked through the streets, shouting
"Eureka!", which means "I have found rt!".
Later. Archimedes put the crown in a container of water and measured the
rise in level. Then he did the same with an equal mass of pure gold. The
rise m level was different. So the crown could not have been pure gold.

®- - - - - - - empty hquxi added stone added

148
cm
100 _J
crown A aownB crown( cm 3
mas~g 3750 3750 3750

volume/cm 3 357 194 31S

I density: gold 19 3 glcm3; sctver l 0 S glcm3

1 Use the information above to decide which crO"Nn 1s 2 Use the mformatton above to calculate:
gold, which as salver, and which 1s a mixture. a the mass, volume, and density of the liquid
b the mass, volume, and density of the stone.

Related topics: \IOlume and density 1--4

21
 Comparing masses

Density essentials
. mass
0 beam
density = volume

► A simple beam balance

.& A more modern type of
balance. It detects the
gravitational pull on the object
on the pan, but gives its reading
in units of mass.
The device above i~ called a beam balance. It is the si mplcst, and probably
Lhl! okkst, wa) of l inding the mass of so,nething. You put the objec t in one
pan, then add ~tandartl ma ·e · to the oLhcr pan until the beam balances in
a level po ·ition. If , ou ha\'c to add 1.2 kg of tandard ma ·c , ~ in the
diagran1, then , o u know that the object also ha a ma o f 1.2 kg.
The balance i • reall\' compa,;ng weight · rather than ma~::.e ·. \r\'eig ht i::, the
do\\nwarcl pull of gr.nily. The beam balances when the downward pull on
one pan is equal lo the <lown\,ard pull on rhe other. However, ma."isc~ an
be compared bccau c of the wa~ gr-j\ ity a CL"i on them. If the obj"-'Cl · in the
two pan have the a mc weight , the) mu t also have the amc ma ~.
\r\'he n u ing a ha )ance like the one abo\'e, yo u might a \ ' that you we re
'weig hing' ·ome1hing. However, 1.2 kg is the mu · of the object, not its
wei ghl. \ \'eight is a force, measured in fon:c units called newtons. Fo r
m o ~ on this, and the differl!nce between mass an<l weighL , sec spn~a<ls
2.7 and 2.9.
A more m odern t~ pc o f balance is sho\, non the left.

1 On the Moon, the force of gravity on an obJect 1s ontt
about one sixth of its value on t:arth. Decide whether
each of the following ,, 'Ould give an accurate
measurement of mass 1f used on the Moon.
a A beam balance like the ooe an the d agram at the
top of the page.
b A balance Me the one in the photograph above.
2 A balloon like the ooe on the opposite page contains
2000 m3 of air. When the air 1s cO,d, its density 1s
1.3 kgtm 3• When heated, the air expands so that some
1s pushed out of the hole at the bottom, and the
density falls to 1.1 k!;;'m 3• Calculate the following.
a The mass of air in the balloon when cold.
b The mass of air in the balloon when hot.
c The mass of air lost from the balloon during heating.

22
 MEASUR TS AND U lTS

Float or sink?
You can tell whetl er a mateoal will float or sin by com.paring its density with that
of the surrounding hquid (or gas). If it is less dense, at will float: if 1t is more dense,
1t will sink. For example. wood is less dense than water, so it floats; steel is more
dense, so it sinks.
© 011 as less dense than water. so 1t floats on water.
Density differences aren't the cause of floatmg or Sil ·mg, Just a way of predicting
which wil occur. Floating is made possible by an up·ward force produced whe ever
an object is immersed in a liquid (or gas}. To feel this force, try pushing an empty
bottle down into water.

.& Hot air is less dense than cold

air, so a hot•a1r balloon wdl rise
upwards - provided the fabnc,
gas cylinders, bas et, and
passengers do not increase the
average density by too much.

A Ice is le~ dense than water 1n its liquid form, so icebergs float.

Related topics: mass 1.2; volume and denstty 1-4 1..5; force 2.6, mass and weight 2.9. convection 5.6 ; densities of
planets 11.2 23
F ~ t1r a ,:. ions 6 \ Vhich of thl' [ollowing statements islal-C
1 op~ and comp le Le Lhc table sho,, ll below: con·cct?
A One milligran1 equal one million gram .
measurement unit symbol B On~ lhou-.and milligrruns cqualli one gram.
length ? ? C One million milligrams ~quals one g111m.
7 kilograrn ? D One million milligrams equals one
7 7 s kilogram. [2]
7 m g,'cm3 m3 km cm 3
[6]
kg ms ml kg/m 3 s
2 Write down the nu mbcr of
A mg in I g \ Vhich ot the abo,•.c arc
B gin I kg a unit ol ma ?
C 111g in 1 kg b unit..'> ol length
D n1m in 4 km c unit~ of \'olumc?
E cm in 5 km d units of time?
3 Write down the values of e units of den ity? I I01
a 300 cm, in m 8 \ Vhich block i n1ndc of lhc dense t matc1ial?
b SOO g, in kg
c 1500 m, in km blodc masslg breadthJcm height/cm
d 250 n1 , in s A 4 4
e O. - ~, in n1~ B 10 4 3
f 0.75 km, in m C 10 5 7.
g 2.5 kg, in g D 600 ~ 4 3
h 0.8 m, in m1n [81
4 The ,·olun1l: of a rcclangula1 block can be fll
calculated u ing thi equation: 9 The m~1ss of a mcasur-ing cylinder and its
volume length x ,, idth x h "1ghl contents at-e measured before and afLcr·
sing lhi:-. inf01·mation, copy and complete pulling a slonc in it.
Lhc Lablc bclO\\. r41 measuring
()finder
length/cm width/cm height/cm volume of
rectangular same volume
blodclcmJ ------ of water - - -- .

2 3 4 ?
5 5 ? H>Cl
6 ? 5 300 balance

? 10 10 so
\Vhich ot th "' Iollo" ing could vou calculate
5 l n each ol the follo\\ ing pairs, which quantity using n1casur "ments taken from the apparatus
i ~ the larger? abo\'c?
a 2 km or 2500 m? A the density of Lhc liquid onh·
b 2 m or I -oo n1 m? B the dcnsitv
. of Lhe stone onl\'.
c 2 tonnes or 3000 kg? C the dcnsitic of the liquid and
d 2 li L1-e~ or 300 cm'? the tone l2 I

~ OUP: this may be reproduced for class use solely for the purchaser·s lnst1lule
24
 s s II I S

10 A plastic bag ril]ed wiLh air has a \'olume of 13 The table ~how~ the density of \'arious
0.008 1n1. \ \'hen air in the bag i~ -..qucC/t.'<l into Mtl>!,,tance~.
a rigid containe1, thL' nla ~ ot the containe1 substance density/ glcm1
(with air) incr~ase from 0.02 kg to 0.03 kg. copper 8.9
~, th, fon11ula iron "/,9
. ma-..-..
densll v - - kerosene 0.87
vo1ume
mercury 13.6
to calcu1atc the dcnsit\ of the air in the hag. [21
water 1.0
11

Consider thl' tolJo,\ ing statements:

0.4 m
hqu d X
mass80kg
102m
liqutd Y
mass SO kg
In chc diagrnm above, the tank~ contain t\\O
different liquid-... X and Y.
a \ Vhat b thc \olumc ol each liquid in m ' ? [21
b 11 , ou had I m oi the liquid X, \\ hat
\\ ottld it.-, ma-..~ be?
c \Vhat b the dcn~it, ol liquid X?
d \ Vhat i~ the densit, of liquid Y?
12 ~c th' table ot data on pl9 ( pr "ad 1.4) to
ans\\cr the follO\\ ing:
a \ Vhi h of the ~olids in the table wi11 noat in
water? E.\'.plain ho\\ ,ou 1nadc ,our
ded~ion.
b \\'hich -,oli<l in the t~,ble will Hoat in
pell ol?
P ·trol and \\~\lcr don't mix. 11 ,on,c water
b t ippcd in to p 'l rol, wh~\l \\OU Id , ou
e,pc l to happen? E,plain ~ouranS\\l.!l. r21
A I c.:m l of men:un has a greater mass than
I cm ' of ~lll\ other -,ubscance in thi-.. table -
tl'ue or lalse?
B I cm' or \\atcr has a sn1allcr ma~s than
I m' of an, other sub~tanc~ in thb tahl ' -
tn.H~ or· I alsc?
C I g of i,·on has n smaller \·olumc than I g of
copper - tn1L" or la)se?
D I g oi mercun ha~ a greater mas than I g
o[ copper - true 01 fol-..c? [2)
14 A stud "n t decides to mcasur • the ()\:riod of n
pendulum (the period is the time taken for
om.· complC'tc s\\ ing). ~i ng a stop,\ atch, he
[ incJ.~ that eight complete M\ ings lakt•
7.4 ~ec.:ond~. \\' ith hi-, c.:aku]ator, h~ then u e
thi data to work out the tirnc fo1 one ~wing.
The numb 'r sho\\ n on his calculator b 0.925.
a h it acceptable for the student to claim
that the period of the pendulum i~ 0.925
seconds? Explain ,ouranM\l'r: [21
b Ho\\ could the student measure tht• period
more accuratch? [ 2]
c Later: another student find that I 00
complete \\ ings take 92. second . From
thcs • n1 "a~ur "m "nt~. what is th' p •riod of
[2] thcp •ndulum? [21
[21
[21
f S]
[2]
25
 AS S N l S

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. The spread number, in brackets, tells you
wh(!re to find more information.

Revi ion checklist

Core Level
□ Ho,, lo use units. ( l. I)
□ Malcing bigger or smaller uniL, using prcfixl!s. ( 1.1)
□ \\'riling numbl!rs in scientific (standard) notation. ( 1. I)
□ ignificant figures. (I. I )
□ I unit • including the metre, kilogram, and ccond. ( 1.2)
□ Ho,, to n1ca urc J ,ngth . (1.3)
□ Ho,, to mea ure hort intervals of time. ( J .3)
□ How to find the period of a simple pendulum. ( 1.3)
□ nits for measuring volume. ( l .4)
□ Ho,, dcm~it, is defined. ( 1.4)
□ U ing the equation linking den itv, mass, and \Olumc. (I .4)
□ Finding the \olun1e of a regular olid. (1 .5)
□ U ing a n1casuring cvlind 'r to find the, olumc ol a liquid. ( 1.5)
□ 1caswing th ~ den it\ of liquid. ( 1.5)
□ Measuring the dcnsil\ of a r~1ar solid. ( 1.5)
D How lo use a displacement can. ( 1.5)
D Measuring the clcnsit, of an irrl!gular solid. ( 1.5)
□ HO\\ to compare massl!s with a beam balance. ( J .6)

Extended Level
Core Lc\'el. plu the lollo\\ ing:
k, for
D U c d 'n it\ data to pr~dict ,, hcthcr a n1atcrial will ink or float. ( 1.6)

26
Abu ngce jumper leaps rnore
than 180 n1ct rcs ti·on1 the top
of thl: Sk, To,vcr in Auckland,
c,v Zealand. \Vith nothing
to oppose his fall, he \\ould
hit the ground at ~ speed of
60 n1ctrcs pcr~cond. l Io,\·cvea~
his fall is slo\\ cd b} the
re~i lane · of tht;; nir rushing
past hiin, and eventually
slopped b~ the pull of the
bu ngec rope. ide ropes are
also being used to ~top him
crashing into the lO\\'er.

chapter 2 27
..... . ~ .
... .
-
. ---· ~ -•. -
. --
-- ..,. - . -~ ,_ .. .....
..__ - ....,....., ---~ .

.& Thrust su person c car

travelling faster than sound. For Speed
speed records, cars are timed If a car lr-avds bct,,ccn two point o n a road , its a \'cragc speed can be
over a measured distance (either cal ulatcd like thi ·:
one kdometre or one m1fe}. The
di -.ta llC..'l' mo\ L'd
speed lS worked out from the Jn ymbols: ,. = -·'
average of two runs - down the timl.' takL·n I

course and then back again - so If di. tance i n1eas ured in n1e tre (m ) nnd time in seconds ( ), peed is
that the effects of wind are m t!asurcd in metres per second ( m l ·). For example: if a car move~ 90 m
cancelled out. in 3 s , its avc n1ge spt!~d is 30 m /s.

Trov• I times
tune ta en to travel
~
0
kilometre (1000 m)
On most journC) S, the speed o f a c ar ,·a iies, so the ac tual speL-d at a ny
m o ment i ' u~uall~ difte r~nt r om the a\'crage s pe ed. To find an actual
peed, vo u n eed co di co\'er how tar the car mo\'e in the ho rte t time

~
you can measurCll. Fo r e'(a mp)e, if a car move 0.20 m etre in 0.0 I ~:

Runner ISO s pced 0 .20 m 20 m/ .

0.01
~B Velocity
Grand Pr Cclf 1Os
Velocit) means the ·pccd of ·omething and il dirccLion o f travel. Fo r
example, a C}dis t mig ht have a velocit) of 10 111/ due ea~l. On paper~
thi , elocit, can be ~ho\\ nu ing an an'O\\ :
45
lOm/~

l]m>})))))))))))}J)} 3,
>
Fo r mo tion in a traig ht Jine \ o u can u e a o r - to indicate dh et io n.
Sound Fo r cxa mple:
I O nl./~ (\'clucity o f I O m/s to rhe right )
- 10 nl/s (vclodt\' o f LO m/s tu the l e-fi)
ote: l O m l~ mav be writte n without the :-, j u t a~ 10 ml~.
(E) Qua ntilic , ~uch a ~ vclocit,, which have a di rec tion a well as a
28 I magnitude ( ize) arc called vectors.
 FORCES A D MOTIO

Acceleration
omething i accelerating if it \'elocit, i dza11gi11g. Acceleratio n i
calculated like thi :
change..· in ,clol:il\'
~l\·c..•ragc..• acc..dc..•ration
time..• takl.'n

(I
time velocity
Os O m/s
The , n1bol tand for 'change in'.
1s 3 m/s
or example, if a car inc rca c it \'docity (i-0111 zero to 12 1n/ in 4 : 2s 6 m/s
a, ·rage acccl "'ration - 12/4 ml 2
(omitting ·om , unit · for implicity) 3s 9 m/s

otc that a ccdcral ion is mcas un:d in mcLn!s per scco nd 2 ( m/s 2). 4s 12 m/s

Accdcration i · a \'Cc tor. lt can be ·hown u ·ing an anow (u ·ually c.Jouble- The velocity of this car is
hcadcd). Alternatively, a or ign can be u ed to indicate whether thl: increasing by 3 m/s f!Very
\'cloci tv i incrca~i ng or dccrca i ng. For c'\an1plc: second. The car has a steady
2 acceleration of 3 m/s2•
+ 3 rn/ (velocity increa.sb1g by 3 m/ ' e,·e•~ econd)
2
ml (\'cl ocity decrea~-,ing b) 3 111/ ~ cvef) econd )
A m!gari,·e accclcnllion is called a deceleration or a re tarda tion.
A 1mifon11 acceleration means a cons tant (ste-ady) acceleration.

Solving a problem

E.wu11ple The ,ar on the r ig h t pm,~!'i po!-.l A ,\ith a ,drn,;iL\ of 12 m/s. If

it ha!-i a ~lead~ accdcrntion of 3 m /s2 • what is its \ t.•locil) - ~ later, at B?

The car is gaining 3 1n/ · of \'clocity e, er~ second. o in Ss , it gain~ an

extra 15 m/ on top o[ it o riginal 12 nt/ , Thea --l ore it final vdociC\' i
27 fft/ •• ote that the r~ uh i worked out like Lhi :
final ,elocity orig inal velocity extra ,·clocil)
o: linal \'elo city - o liginnl velocily (accclcrntion . time)
The ;.1bo, ·c cquaLion also \\orks for rc1ardation. 1ra car ha... a retardation
or 3 m /s 2, you tn:aL this a~ an at:cclerc1Lion or - 3 m /s 2.
® 1 A car travels 600 m in 30 s. What 1s its average speed? C, A car takes 8 s to increase its velocity from 10 m/s to
Wl y is its actual speed usualty different from its 30 m/s. Wha t is ,ts average accerat,on?
average speed? 0 A motor cycle, travelhng at 20 m/s, ta ~es S s to stop.
0 How 1s velocity different from speed? What 1s its average retardation?
3 A car has a steady speed of 8 m/s. 0 An aircraft on its take-off run has a steady acceleration
a How far does the car travel m 8 s? of 3m/si.
b How long does the car take to travel 160 m? a What velocity does the aircraft gain in 4 s?
4 Calculate the average speed of each thing in the chart b If the aircraft passes one post on the runway at a
of travel times on the opposite page. velocity of 20 mls, what 1s its velocity 8 s later?
0 A car has an acceleration of 2 m/s2• What does this 0 A truck travelling at 25 m/s puts its brakes on for 4 s.
tell you about the velocity of the car? This produces a retardauon of 2 mls2 • \l\lhat does the
What 1s meant by an acceleration of 2 mls2 ? truck's veloci ty drop to?

29
 Distance-time graphs
G1 aph C-J n be u clul whl'n tucl\ ing n1otion . Below, a C-Jr i tr~wclJing
along a ~traight road, away from a marker po l. The car' di tance fron1
the post i. nicas ured e\'er) econd. The c hart and graph ho w four
I diflcrent c~ample · of what the car• , motion might he.
lr
I
______ J On a graph. the Ii nc's rise on l he vertical scale di\ ide<l by its ,isc on the
X ho1iLontal ·cale is called the gradient , as sho,, non the ll"fL \Vich a
<li ~1ancc--t imc g raph. the gradient tell you ho,, muc h e~tra di ·tan cc i ·
A On a straight line graph hke
tl'a,·clled e\'en ~ccond. o:
this, the gradient has the same
value wherever you measure y
On a di~ta ncc - tin1c g raph, the g rn<licnt of the line is nun1c1ically
andx.
equal l o the speed.

tme ("t>\
ta en~
M-_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ d1s1i:m,e _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
travelled

A Car trawl ng at steady speed 8 Car travelrng at higher steady speed

t,mets 0 I 2 3 d s tlffif:"ls 0 1 2 3 4 s
d~t.mc.e/ m 0 IO 20 30 40 50 dtStaocelm 0 20 40 60 80 100
100 100
80 80
E E
"r; 60 \ 60
~ ~
-"' 40
I,;

"0
20
~
~
"0
40
20

0 2 3 4 5 tml'/s 0 2 3 5 t mels

The line nses 10 m on the d tance sc for every 1s on l 1e hne ,s steeper ari b fore tt uses '-0 m on the distance
1he tr.me scale sca•e or f!Very 1 s on the trme sea'
C Car a«elerating D :ar stopped

time( s O I 2 3 4 5 M'le'/ 5 1 2 3 4 5
dist,mc.e/ m O 10 I 2S I 45 'iO 100 dlstaoce/m ~ SO SO I~ SO

E
100

80
"r; 60 •=------=
~
100
80
60
..,__________
~ 40 40
"0 ~
20 20

0 2 3 4 S t mc/s 0 2 3 5 tmcls

The speed rises So the car tra Is further each second n l 1e car ,s parked SO m from t 1e post. so ttus d1Star e stays
the one before. and ne curves upwards the sarne

30
 FORCES A D MOTIO

Speed-time graphs
Each pc-cd- tin1' gra ph belo w j tor a car travc1ling along a tra ig ht road .
The grad i,,mt tdl~ you how much c"tra ~pced i gain ,d C\'cn · econd. So:
Velocity-time graphs
Velocity Is speed in a
0
particular direction.
On a ~pct..•d- timc g raph, the g r,idicnt of the line is numcricnlly <..-qtml Where there is no change in
to the accderat ion. the direction of motion, a
velocity-time graph looks the
same as a speed-time graph .
In gra ph E , the car tra\'c l · a t a tead~ 15 nl/~ tor 5 , o the- di ·tancc
tra\'elled i 7- 111. The are a o l the hadcd rec tangle, calcula ted u ing the
calc number , i~ a l o 75. Thi ptinci plc work~ fo r m ore complicated
gra ph lines ,1s \\ell. In graph F, the a rea of the s ha d<.id tria ngle,
1
/ 2 ,· base hei g ht, equa ls 50. o th e d ista nce trc1 vc llcd is -o metre~.

On a ~pec<l- timt..• g l'aph, the area under the line i, numericalh l.'4ual
to the dbtancc travelled.

E Car Havellmg at s1eady speed F Car with steady acceleration

I~ I1°s I ~~ I,2s I 1 I:5 , .~ I

m/S
3
~ I ~~ nvs I~ I! I~ I,2 I,~ I2~ I
3

20 20

~ 15

} to
5

0 2 3 4 S timels 0 2 3 4 S t me/s

The speed stays tt e same. so the line stays at the same level As the car gains speed. the line rises 4 rm on l espeed
sea! for eve('J 1s on the time sca'e.

® 1 60 2

--
E

s
E 40
"'c:)
V
C

""
"'b
20 -
-
--
~
~

I
20

10
--
--
---
5 10 15 20 25 llmels 0 5 10 15 20 25 time/ s

lhe distance-time graph above is for a motor cy{"}le
travelling along a straight road.
a What is the motor cycle doing between points D
and Eon the graph?
b Between which points is it accelerating?
c Between which points 1s its speed steady?
d What is this steady speed?
e What is the distance travelled between A and D?
f What is the average speed bemeen A and 07
The speed- time graph above is for another motor cycle
travelling along the same road.
a What is the motor cycfe's maximum speed?
0 What is the acceleration during U1e first 10s?
(t \AJhat is its deceleration during the last Ss?
d What distance Is travelled during the first 10s?
e What is the total distance travelled?
f What Is the time taken for the wtiole Journey?
g What is the average speed for the whole journey?

Related topics: speed, vetoctty, and acceleratlon 2.1

31
 Using ticker-tape

SO dots punc ed on
tape (!llf":ry second

Speed, velocity, and

acceleration essentials
0 In the laborator,•, motion can h' in,·cstigatcd using a trollc) like the on ..
aboh!. A~ the lmJlcv tr~l\cl~ along lhc bench, ii pull~ u lengt h of paper
capc (ticker-tape) behind it. The lapc passc~ through a tickcr-tapl! Lime,-
speed*- distance mQ\led '' hic h punches ctu·bon <lou-. on the tape al regular intervals. At~ pical
lime taken Limcr pro<lm:c -o dot~ en:I') second.
velooty 1s speed In a
particular diJection
Togctht.·1~ Lhc dot~ on the tapl' form a complcll: nx:ord of Lhc n1otion or
Lhc trolll.:\. The £u11hcr apan the dots. the taster the trolley i~ mo\ing.
acceleration·
change in velocity Hcrc arl.: omc cxampJc :
time taken
•average sta ,
I
. ............... • • • • • • • • • ·• • ♦

:, •ady~eed o t-,nce betw en dots ~By:, the me

hi.g 1er steaay s?(!eo distance bet\\'eefl dots greater tn n be•ore

Motion can also be recorded

'If/ff
) -· ..... • •
photographically. These images
acce crauon d tance between dois mcrr:ascs
of the Sun were taken at regular
intervals, at midsummer, in
t -·. . . . . . .
ccecratJOn - - - - - - - - - nen - - - - - - - - - retaroa· on
Alaska. Even at midnight. the
Sun is still above lhe horizon.
 FORCES A D MOTIO

Calculations from tape

l-. () . l • . c. d l e •
1
--
I

. _.._
i Oi s 0 1s 0 1s
•
0 1s
I
I 0 1s

I I
I '
I
I When the sections above are
start
arranged s1de-by-s1de as below.
the d,art has the shape of a
speed-time graph.

The ticke r-ta pe record a bo, ~ i · for a trolley \\ ith ·ready acceleratio n.
The tape ha been marked off in cction • dot- pace long. One d ot- pace h:..
the cliMa nce tra\'e llc.~ by the trolley in tr o !-tccond (0.02 ). So 5 doH,pace ·
is the dista nce tra\'cllc.~ in 1/ 10 second (0 . 1 s).
Tf the tape i ch opped up into it .. d ot- ·pace ection , a nd the t.'"Clio n put
s idc-b~ -sidc in o rder, the re:-.ult is a c hart like the one on the rig ht. The chart is
the s ha pe of a Sfl'!<..--<l time grjph. The lengths or the sectio ns represent speeds
because the tro lley l ra\'cls rurthcr in eac h 0. 1 s as its speed increases. ide-by- . .
·idc, the ·cction · pro\ i<lc a rime -c.:alc bccau ·c each sectio n ·ta r ts 0. 1 sa lte r
the one before.
(E\ The acceleration of th e trolley can be fo und fro n1 n1ca urcn1 nt on the tape. 01 Is
Y Do q ueMions 2 a nd 3 below to disco, ·er how. L
•
04s
J

®. 1 c Measure the distance from C to D, then calculate

the average speed of the trolley between C and D.
~. . . . . . . ~ Section CD was completed exactly one second after
section AB. Calculate the acceleration of the trolley m
mm/s2.
Describe the motion of the trolley that produced the 3 Look at the chart above.
t,d::er-tape record above. a Using a ruler, measure the distance travelled by the
2 The dots on the tape below v.iere made by a ticker- trolley in the first 0. 1 s recorded on the tape.
tape timer producing 50 dots per second. b Calculate the trolley's average speed during this
a Count the number of dot-spaces bet1A-een A and B. first 0. 1 s.
Then calculate the time it took the tape to move c Measure the distance travelled by the trolley in the
from A to 8. last 0 .1 s recorded on the tape.
b Using a ruler, measure the distance from A to B in d Calculate the average speed during this last 0 .1 s.
mm. Then calculate the average speed of the e Calculate the gain m speed during the 0.4 s.
trolley between A and 8, in mm/s. 0 Calculate the acceletation of the trolley in mrn/s2.
A B
.. . • • • • • • • • • • ♦ •

Related top1cs: speed, veloctty, and acceteratfon 2. 1; mot ton graphs 2.2 and 2.5
33
 The acceleration of free fall, g
H yo u drop a k·ad weight and a feather, bolh tall downward bccau c of
gr ~nitv. Ho wever, the leather b lowed n1uch more by the air.
The diag ram on the lch sho\\~\\hat wo uld happen H lhcrc were no air
re Ltance . Both object ,,ould full\\ ith the amc do\\nwa rd acceleratio n:
9. mJ-l ·. Thi i called the acceleration of free fall. It L the san1e for a/I
obje t falljng near the Earth's urtace, lig ht and hea,: alike.
The accderation of free falt is represented b~ the S)mhol g. IL~ \'alue
\'arie · ·liglHly fro m o ne place on the Earth's surface to ano lhcr, because
fea·her the Earth·~ gravi Lat io n al pull ,·aric . Ho\\ eve 1: the \'ariation is le ~ than
1c,. Mo \ing awa) lro m the Earth and o ut into pace, g dccrca e.
oh!thar the value of g m~ar the Earth's urfoce is clo e to 10 m/s 2. This
~implt' figurt' i~ uccun1tc enough for many calc ulation~. and will ht' the
one used in thi~ book.

• in the experiment above, all

the air has been removed from
the tube. Without air resistance,
a light obJect falls with the same
acceleration as a heavy one.

electromagnet
to re ease ball

......_......., I ght
sensor
to start
timer

.6. On the Moon, the acceleration of free fall 1s only 1.6 rn/s1 . And as there 1s no
atmospt ere, a feather would fall with the same acceleration aS a lead weight.
ttmc l
Measuring g*
h
An ex~dment to find g is hown on the left. The principle i to n1easure the
timl.! taken for a ~led ball to drop throu gh a known heigh 1, and 10 calculate
Lhc a ccdcratjon from thi~. Air resi~tance ha~ liulc cffo-ct on a small, hcav)
ball faUing only a sho11 distance, ·o the balls ac dcration is eff~ti\'d) g.
The ball i dropped by c utting the power to the elec tro mag net. The
e lectt ni tin1er i automatica)h witched on whe n the ball pa~ e
light throug h the upper light b eam. and witc hed o fl when it pru ses thro ug h
_.__.sensor the lo\\'er beam. If the height of the fatl is I, and the time taken is 1, then
to stop
t1met g can be calcu latcd using thi~ equation (dcri\'cd from other equations):
2'1
• Experiment to measure g
g - -.,..
34
 FORCES A D MOTION

E Up and down Om/s

In the (ollowing exa mple, a un1c tha t g b 10 m/ 2, a nd that the re i no (3 s)

a ir rc ·i ta nce. I \
10 nv., 10 rr •,
The ball o n the r ight is thrown upw.ir<ls \\ ith a veloc ity o r 30 m/s. The
(2 s)
t t 4s

-
diagra m s ho \\ s Lhc Ydociry of the ball en ~ry second a s it d ses to iL~ ..__
highest point and then falls bac k to whe re it s tarted . I
f I
A a n upward \'clocil\' o f 30 m/ i the a mc a~ a down u·ard \'clocity o f
I J
30 ml , the n1o tio n of l he ba 11 can be described Ii kc l hi l
At O s .... the down,\ a r<l, doc ii~ is m /s f I
Aftcr I s ....
After 2 s ....
the
the
downward , ·clocit~
d o,\nwa n..1 ,clocit~
is
i
20 m/s
-10 m/
10 n1/s b
being added 20tM
' ;::.. 1 20m/s

'
(l s) ,r) s)
to lhe
A(tcr 3 .... the do\\ nward , ·clocit~ i· Om/ ..,._
down\\anl .....,
Alte r 4 .... the d o,\ nward \'clocit~ i 10 m/~
\ 'clod l~ C\'CI')' I
After S ·.... the downwa rd \'docity i 20 m l~
ccond
Afler 6 s .... I he d ownward \'docity is 30 m/s I
\Vhether the ball i · tra\'elling up or down, it i gaining downwa rd \'clocity I
a l the ra te of IO m/s per second. So it a lway~ has a d O\\ nwa rd accd e ratio n
o l 10 m/s 2, whic h isg . Even when 1he ba ll i~ mo, ing up,\ a rds, or is
s la Li o nm') at its highes t point, it still h ..L~ clo wn,\ a r<l accdcr,llio n .
''
Belo,,, \ OU can sec a ,·clocitv- time gr•.-'ph for the motion. { I
30- - - - - - - - l --
20 t======::=======:
30 JM
(0 s)
I
- r nv,
~

,t:, s)

.A A ball in flight. As g is 10 m/s2•

the ball's velocity changes by
1O m/s every second.

◄ The velocity- time graph for the

ball's motion is shown on the left.

® Assume that g - 10 m/s2and that there is no air resistance. 0 1his question ,s about the three p01nts, A. 8, and C, on
0 A stone is dropped from rest. Wt at is its speed the graph above left.
a after 1 s b after 2 s c after 5 s? a In which direction is the ball moving at point C?
0 A stone is thrown downwards at 20 m/s. Vvhat is its b At which point 1s the ball stationary?
speed c At which point 1s the ball at its maximum height?
a after 1 s b after 2 s c after 5 s? d What is the ball's acceleration at point C?
0 A stone ,s thre1Nn upwards at 20 m/s. \'\'hat 1s its speed e \"Jhat 1s the ball's acceleration at p01nt A?
a after 1 s b after 2 s c after 5 s? f What is the ball's acceleration at po·nt B?
g At which point does the ball have the same speed as
when 1t was thrown?

Related top1cs: acceleraUon 2.1; motion graphs 2.2 and 2.5; gravitational rorce 2.9
35
Motion graph essentials
Here are four exampfes of velocity-time graphs for a car travelling along a straight line:
0
20 20 20 20

~ i ~ i
~c;., 0 ic;.,
10 ic;.,
10· ic;.,
10
St St St St
0 0 0 . 0
s s s s
t c/s me/s tJme/s mc/s

Steady acceleration Steady acceleration Zero acceleration Steady retardation

of 2 m/sl
The speed of the car Increases
by 2m/s ~ery second.
The ,nmal ~Peed 1s :ero, so the
car iS starting from rest.
of 4 rnJsl
The speed of the car tncrea5eS
by 4 m/s 'Nery second.
The an,ual speed is zero. so the
car 1s startmg from rest.
TI .e c.ar hdS a steady speed of (deceleration) of 4 ml~
2onvs. The s ~ of the car decreases
by 4mlS2• In other \YOf'ds:
the acceleration rs -4mlS·.
The f nal speed rs zero, so the
car comes 10 rest.

Uniform and non-uniform acceleration

A car is lnl\·dling along a ~lraig ht road . If it has uniform accdcralion,
this means that it~ accdcr&1tiot1 i::, slt:ad) (constant). In other wore.ls, it is
g:.-'jning ,clocity at a tc-a<ly rate. In practice, a Cal'' accdc-r..1tion is ra1·dy
teadv. For example, a::, a car approacht: it::, ma7\in1um vdocit\, the
acceleratio n beconlc~ le ::, and k~~ until it b 7el'O , a h o wn in the
e xample heJ o w. Als o lhc ca r d<.>cclerntc~ lig htlv durin g gear c han ge~.
If ac<.: dcraticm is not stead, lhen it i'i non-uniform. On a, clocity- timc

f graph , as bdow, th.: maximun1 accderacion i~ when: the gr'1ph line ha::,
its highest gradient (::,tecpnc ).

gear
change

gear zero acce:eration

dlarlge at ma mum speed

gear
cl\ange

h gt est gradient
greatest acceleratK>n

t1rne
 FORCES A D MOTIO

Hen: an: mo n: cxampk·~ or uniform and no n-unifo1·n1 a cc:dcraLion:

A stone h, d ropped from a gn~at height. \Vith no a ir resis tance, the \'clocity-
rimc gra ph for rhc ~Lo ne would be: a., shown below left. The accclcralio n
woulcl be unjfo1m. It would be JO nl/s2, Lhc acceleration or frc~ tall,g.
E In practice, there i air 1 • btance o n the to ne. Thi aHcct~ it n1otion ,
producing non-uni foa~m accckratio n, a hown b · IO\\ d ght. At 1he
-
-
ins ta nt the st o ne is dropp<.>cl, ii has n o velocit). This mean · tha t it s initia l
a cceleration is g bccam,c there b. no t yet an~ air resis ta nce on it.
Howe\·cr, as Lhe ,clocit, increases , air rcs i~tancc also inc n:ases. 0
E\'enluall~. the air re ·is tancc is so great tha t the \·clocit, n:ac: hes a
maxin1t1m and the accelera tio n fa lls to zero.

A Uniform acceleration of a falling stone with no air A Non-uniform acceleration of a falling stone with air
resistance acting. resistance acting.
On a speed- rime g ra ph, the a rea under the ]inc is numcrica11~ equal to
th e dislancc travcllecl . This applies whether the motion is unifo r m o r
no n-uniform - in other words, \\ hct lu: r the g raph line i~ tra ight or c urvecl.
\Vith a ·traighc-linc graph , the area can be ca lcula ted. \\'ith a cua,cd-linc
graph, thi ma, no t be po iblc, althoug h a n c timatc can be n1adc b)
counting ·quare ·. \ Vhcn doing thi , rcmen1bcr tha l the ar ·a mu t be worked
o ut using the scale numb ~rs on the a '\is. ft isn't 1he 'real' a rea on the pape r.

1 A boat moves off from its mooring in a straight fine. A speed-

time graph for its motion 1s shown on the right. The graph
has been divided into sections. AB, BC, CD, and OE. OvN
which sect10n (or sections) of the graph does the boat
a have its greatest speed?
b have its greatest acceleration?
C D
c have retardation?
(> have uniform acceleration or retardation?
Q have non-uniform acceleration or retardation?
0 travel the greatest distance?
0 Sketch a speed-time graph for a beach-ball falling from a
E
great height. How will this graph differ from that for a A
falling stone, shown above right?

Related topics: speed, vetoc;ty, and acceteraUon 2.1; motion graphs 2.2; g and free fall 2-4
37
 A force b a pw,h or a pull, c,crL1:d b, one ohjc I on :mc>thcr: le ha.s
Typical forces in
newtons
0 direct ion a~ wdl a~ n1agnitudc (~ize), :-.o it i!', a n!ctor·.
'l"hc 1 unit ol f orl'.'c i~ the ne,"\-10n ( 1) . rnal1 ron.:c!', cart be n,ea~unxl
rorce lo switch on a u~ing a pring balanc.e like the one bclo\\. The grcatc1 the lorcc, the
bathroom light....... 10 N n1orc Lhc pling i u 'lchcd and l he higher the reading on the scale:
force lo pull
open a drinks ca1 ...... 20N
force to lift
a heavy suitcase..... 2OON · .- . --- . :¥//I/Ill/Ii
rorce from a large
10 9 8 1 6 S :4 3 1 1 0N
Ietengine.... 250000N
J
e read ng• newtons

Common forces
Here arc ·omc e~a mplc ol lo1 1..:

Upthrust The upward force

frc m d l,qu1d (or ga!,) that
mak~ ::.ome things flodt

Tension The force 1n d hat

we c.l ed n)ateraal. oppc~ the mo:10n o! one
ma•enal slid n

Weight I e gr.wita,IOflal
, ,, c , an ob;ect Thrust The forword force Air resistance
from dn a1tcraft engine 0,,e ype of fr .et 'J'1

Motion without force

On Ea11h, unpo,\\..·t-cc.l ,chicle ·oon come to re t bl'CaUM~ ol friction. But
wilh no l1iction, gravit,, or other external for con il, a 1noving objc twill
keep moving for ·n:r - at a tcad, ~pc."'Cd in a ~trnight line. It doc n't need
a forcl! Lo kct.!p it modng.
T hi~ idt: a i~ su inmed up in a law fln-t put lorwartl by ir lsaac.: , l:\\ ton in 16 7:

If no ~'\h!t-na1 for ' (..' b, a ,ling on it. nn objc ·t wi II

A Deep in space with no forces

- if !',[ationary, tl!main stationary
,t.
to slow a moving obJect wdl - if moving, kL'L'p mrwing at a stL•a<ly spL•c.:d in a straight Iinl.'.
keep moving for ever.
Thi~ i:-. known as • ewton's first law of mo1ion.
 FORCES A D MOTIO

Balanced forces
An ob ject may ha\'c C\ Cra l forces o n it. But if the force arc in b ala n c,
they caned each other out. The n, the object he ha\·e~ a~ if there i no
fo1·ce o n it a l all. Here a re o m l.! e xample :

upv,a,d orce
from ben t beam

Stationary gymnast Skater w ith steady veloci ty Skydiver w ith steady velocity

\ ith bala nced fm c on it , an o bj~ t i eitlzer at ,~ t, or mo\'ing at a tcad,

\clocit) ( tcady pced in a traight line). That follo\\ fron1 . C\\1on' fit t law.

E Terminal velocity
\\'hen a k\·di\'er fall fron1 a hovc1i ng h --licopt"t~ as her pecd incrca~ ,
the a ir 1 ~~i ta nce on her a l o increa c~. Eventually, it i enough to bala nce
he r· we ight , a nd he gain · no more ·p~ d . he i a t her· terminal velocity.
Typically, thi~ is a bo ut 60 m/s , though th l! actua l , a luc d epend ~ on a ir
condition , as well m~the s ize, s ha pe, and ,, ~ight o f the s k\'cli, er.
\ hen the k,dhc1 ope n · he r pa rachute, the c,rra area ol 1natc1ia l
inc rca~e the a ir re i tancc. he lo~~ pccd ra pidly until the force arc
aga in in ba la nce, at a greatl y re duced te rmina l \'d o ity.
If air re.\ i "ilmrce bala11cec; lrer \\'eight, why doe.\ 11i a skydi,:er .,lay s till?
If ~he wasn't mo, ing , there wo uldn't be any air r c!,is la ncc. AncJ \\ ith
A If a skydiver is falling at a
o nl) her wdght acting, he wo uld gain ,clodtv.
steady velocity, the forces on her
ure('v, if he i trm•ellinf, downu·arcls, her weigl,111u1,r be ~rcau·r than the are balanced: her weight
air re ·i taHce? Only if i ~he i gaining \'elocity. At a tcady velocity, th e downwards is exactly matched
fo rce · mus t be in bala nce. Tha t fo ll O\\S fm m \fowton's fit- ·t law. by the air resistance upwards.

1 Wl at is the SI uo,t of force?

2 What does Newton's first law of motion teU you about U e forces on an object
that 1s a statiooary b rnoviny at a steady velocity?
0 I he parachutist on the right is descending at a steady velocity.
a What name h given to this velocity?
b Copy the diagram. Mark in and label anot er force acting.
c low does this force compare W1th the weight?
d If the parachutist used a larger parachute, how \iVOuld this affect the steady
velocity reacted? Explain \\thy.

Related topics: frlctlon and mov1rig vetucles 2 .8 ; weight al'Mt mass 2.9
39
 Inertia and mass

► Once a ma.ssrve ship like this

is moving, 1t is extremely difficult
to stop.

If an ohjL-cl bat n:~t. il takes a fore'-! lo maki! it m o\ ·c. If it i~ moving, it

takes a force lo make it go faster, slower, or in a different direction. o
all objects 1~ ·i ' ta change in ,·elodt) - l!\'Cn if the \'clocil) is lCl'o. Thi ·
re i tancc to change in vclocit,· i called inertia. The more mas
~on1ething ha , the n1ore inertia it ha .
Velocity is speed in a
particular direction.
0 Any change in \'docily is an acceleration. o the mon~ ma ·s something
has, the more difficult ic is to make ic accelerate.

Resultant force
Jn 1hc diagram on the left, the L\\O forces are unbalanced. Togl! thcr, they
These two forces ...
are equi\aknt to a single force. This is called the resultant force .
I( torcc ,H'C balanced , the rc:,uhant (orcc i~ zero and there b no
acceleration. Anv other re ulcant force cau ~ an acceleration - in the
are equTValent to a single
force of (S-3) N.. ,
. an1e direction ( the resultant for e.

E Linking force, mass, and acceleration

-•lll• 2N There is a link between the n:suhant force acting, the mas~. and lhc
This ,s the- resultant forc.e acceleration produced. for example:
If Lhis resuhant force... acts on this ma:s... then Lhis •~ lhc accderc.1Lion ...
I t\ I kg
")

2 2 kg l n1/ ..
")

2 kg 2 ml ..

Symbols and units

F force, in newtons (N)
0 2 kg
ln all cases, the following equation applies:
3 m l·
.,

m - mass, in kilograms (kg)

a - acceleration.in
metres/second2 (mts2)
In s\'mbols: F 11w
Thi relation hip between force, ma , and acceleration i omctin1e
40 called cw1on' econd law of motion.
 FORCES A D MOTIO

ma~s
Example \ \'hat is the accde1~1lion of th(' modd car on the r,ight? 2 kg

Fil l , \\ ork o ut the re u ltan t force on th e car. A force of J8 ~ to the ,-;gl,J

con1bined with a force of 10 to the le{r is eq ui\'a]ent to a for ce of JO N - - - - ~ l8 N
(I I 0) " to the riglzl . o the f\! suha nl force i 8 J.
Next, wo rk o u t th e accele ra tio n whe n F 8 i\ a n<l 111 = 2 kg:
1- -1
total f0<ce
fr,ctional force from mo•or
F- 111a

o: 8 2a (o mjtting units tor si mp licity)

2
Rcan-anged, thi gin~ a - 4. o the car'- accelera tion i 4 n1/ .

Finding the link

paper ape
> troteys
2 units of mas!
flat bench

E The ]ink between force, mas~. and accd er.llion can be found e;\pc1i mcntally
.__ ___,,,,,- cord
unstretched
using the equi pment a bon ~. Oifforenl fo rces arc applied to the Lr-ulle~ by
p ulling it alo ng ,,i th o ne, t\\ o, or thrc(' ela tic cords, ll~ tchcd to the same
length each time. Owing each run , the tickea~ta pc lin1cr m arks a ea·i~ of
d ot~ o n the p:iper tape. The acceleratio n c:in be calculated from th e ~paci ng
o f the do t . To v~U) the ma~~. o ne, two, o r thn:e trolle). a~ used in a tack. ti-t=:_
........-_-_-_-_-_-~-• 1 1,n,~ of force

Defining the newton

A I \l n.~u ha nl force act ing o n 1 kg p rodu ces a n ::iccelera tio n o f I m/· 2• Thi~
simple 1'! ·ult b. no accident. It arise~ from the wa) th e nl!'wto n i!-. d l.!fined :

I newton is the lorn.~ n:quin .·tl to giH: a mass of J kilogram an

accck·ration of l ,n/~2 •

Further effects of forces

Fo rce <lo no t onl) aflcct motion. If two or more lorcl: · act o n M>mcthing,
the) change it hapc or , olun1e (or bo th ). The e ffect i light" ith hard
objc l~. but can be vet" no ticeable with flc,iblc o ne , as hown o n the tight. Forces causing a shape change

®0 a What equation hnlcs resultant force, mass, and 2 a What as t e resultant force on the car below?
acce eration? 0 What is the car's acceleration?
b Use this equation to calculate the resultant force on G If the total frictional force rises to 1500 N, \-"mat
,each of the stones shown betow. happens to the car?
m~s
800 ·g

~ o rrvs'
SOON ◄4--•
I
I --111111111111-►1
.I SOO N
I
total force
fr1C.t1onal force from eng ne

Relat ed top1cs: mass 1.2; acceteratlon 2.1: ustng tlcke<-tape 2.3; balanced rorces 2.6; stretching and compressing 3-4
41
 reduong fncuon rtictio n i the lo t c that tric to ~top material sliding acr , eac h other.
' roller beat•~ • grease
1
Then: i lliction between , ottr hand~ when , ou rub them tog ·thcr, and
fri ction hct\\(.•cn ,our ~hoe and the gr ound \\h •n ,·ou ,, ,1lk alo ng.
Fric tio n pr·c\·ent~ machinen From mo\ in r rrccl~ and hculs up it,
m o \'ing pan~. To reduce rrict io n. ,, heds are mou ,ued o n ball or rollc,
be..uings , "ith oil or g c'\:a.-;c lo m a ke the mo, ing w ftu.:L's slippt.•I).
Ftiction i n o l alwav~ a nui a nee. Il give~ ·hoi.: and l\ 1 c~ giip on thl·
ground, and it i u cd in m o l braking \ t ·n1,. On a bic, clc. for c~anip]e,
rubber blo k~ arc prc~~c.."<..I ngaim,L the\\ he "I. to ~low th em do,, n.

Two kinds of friction

\Vhcn the block b IO\\ b pull~d gcnth, fli ction Mop~ it moving. A, the
brake pad tyre gnpp,ng road
fo rce i~ increased, the fri c ti o n lisc~ un1il the block is aboul to ~lip. Thi~
using fnction i, lhe ,tailing m sta tic fri cti o n. \ Vi th a g reater- d o \\ nwanI fo rce o n Lhe
A This wheel is mounted on bloc"-, th~ sl..Hic tric Li o n i~ high~r. Once 1he block Marts lo ~lidc , the
rolle< bearings to reduce friction. hiction <l, o ps: moving or d rnamic h ictio n i · le ~ than tatic la iction .

..- Air resistance is a form of

dynamic (net.ton. When a car 1s
travelling fast. it is the largest of
all the frictional forces opposing stat,c fric ,on 1s greater an • • . dynam>e nctJor
motion.
Air resistance wastes energy, so
less air resistance means better D~ 11ainic fric ti o n heat · mah~11als up. \\'hen , o mcthing i-., moved again..,l
fuel consumption. Car bodies the tor ce o frictio n, iL ener~ of mocjon (ca1k-<l ldneLic cncrg~) b
are spec,alty shaped to smooth convened into thcrn1al cncrg\' (heat). Brake · and other n1a hincn mu l
the air flow past them and b de,igncd ~o th at the, gel dc.l ofthi. thcrn1al cncrg, . Othcn,i. · their
reduce air resistance. A low
n10,·ing ptu-l~ ma) become. o ho t tha t the\ sci1:e up.
frontal area also helps.
 FORCES A D MOTJO

Drag
Obj "'Cl ·Ii .. nee fric tion\\ h , n the, 111 0 , ... through a liquid or a ga~. hb fore · is called drng.
C"\P
Drag (ah,o kno\\ a:-. ai1· resbtancc ) ac ts on ~m air n1ft a" it n10, c.s throu g h the afr. Drag ac t!-. on a boat a~
it mo\c.S acro~s wat e r: nd if ,ou d1np a pebble into dl.!1..'p water. dr-dg slo w:-i it. dcsc t?nl.

Friction highs and lows

As the Eanh moH~s 1lu-ough space, it rum, inlo ~mall bit · or
m.ucrial, also orbiting the Sun. ThC""iC mo.sth· range in ~il'l! from
g rain~ ol sand to sn1ull pebbles , anc.l the, can hit lh4..• atmosphl!re al
.spt:c<l of up to 70 km/s ( 1-0 000 mph ). rric tional heating makc.s
them btu-n up. cau-.ing a trcak or lig ht t:a lll!d a meteor (or· hoo ting
tar'), a on the right. ometimc~. 1hc bun1ing pr ducc il fireball.
Belo\\ arc n101 • C"\amplc~ ol fri lion in u tion.

& A curling stone slides across the ice towards a target.
To ma e the stone travel further, the sweepers brush
vigorously in front of it with brooms. Friction from the
brooms has a heating effect which melts some of the ice.
The melting layer reduces fraction under the stone.
A The top of a surfboard 1s often given a wax coating. Tiny
bumps of wax increase friction by sticking to the surfer's
feet. However, the underside of a surfboard has a smooth,
glassy surf ace so that ,t can slide across the water W1th as
little friction as possible.

1 In a car, fnct,on 1s essential in some parts, but needs 10 be
reduced in others GNe MO examples of where friction ,s
a essential b needs to be reduced
2 Why are car bod es des191 ed so that air res,stance is
reduced as much as possible?
3 Comparrig the top and bottom of a surfboard:
a On which surface does the frtctJon need to be high?
Explain why.
b On which surface does the fnct10n need to be IOIN?
Explain why.
4 Write down whether, in each of t e following
examples. the friction has a I eating effect:
a The soles of your shoes gripping the ground when
you are standmg on a slope.
b A crate being dragged ac,os.5 the ground.

Relat ed topics: speed 2.01, thermal energy 4-1; ene rgy transfers 4.2
43
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
material. Cables, zig-zags, and beads are used to ornament them,
and the whole is a good example of Assyrian taste in little things.

Fig. 228.—Comb. Actual size.

Louvre.
So far we have treated Assyrian metal-work of the ornamental
kind only as it is seen in bronze. Hardly any objects of gold or silver
have, in fact, been discovered in Mesopotamia. And yet it is
impossible that those two metals can have been very rare in the
Nineveh of the Sargonids or the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar; war
and industry certainly led to considerable accumulations of both. We
must find a reason for their absence in the success with which the
Assyrian tomb has so far avoided discovery. The tomb alone could
offer a safe asylum to such treasures, and preserve them in its
shadows for the inquisitive eyes of modern archæologists. Before
being abandoned to the slow effects of time, the temples and
palaces were pillaged. Here and there, however, in some well
contrived hiding-place or forgotten corner, a few trinkets may have
escaped the eyes of greedy conquerors, or of the later marauders
who sounded the ruins in every direction for the sake of the precious
metals they might contain.
 Fig. 229.—Comb. Actual size.
Louvre.
The oldest jewels left to us by these peoples are those found in
the most ancient tombs at Warka. Their forms are simple enough—
bronze bracelets made of a bar tapering rapidly to each end and
beaten with a hammer into a slight oval (Figs. 232, 233). These bars
are sometimes very thick, as our first example shows. The golden
ear-drops from the same tombs (Fig. 234) are made in the same
way.
At Nineveh the art is more advanced. We may form our ideas of it
from the bas-reliefs, where people are shown with jewels about their
arms, their necks, and hanging on their cheeks; and also from a few
original specimens that have escaped the general wreck. In the
foundations of Sargon’s palace, under the massive threshold, were
found too, together with a large number of cylinders, the remains of
necklaces made up of pierced stones, such as carnelian, red and
yellow jasper, brown sardonyx, amethyst, &c., cut into cylinders,
polygons, medallions, and into the shapes of a pear and of an olive
or date-stone (Fig. 235). This use of precious stones was a survival
from the days when pebbles were turned to the same purpose.
Earrings were made in the same fashion (Figs. 236, 237). In one of
the reliefs we see a eunuch wearing a necklace in which double
cones alternate with disks (Fig. 238). The same elements could of
course be used for bracelets or armlets, by shortening the wire on
which they were strung. From an art point of view such a jewel was
quite primitive; all its beauty lay in the rich colours of its separate
stones, among which beads of glass and enamelled earthenware
have also been found.

Figs. 230, 231.—Bronze fork and

spoon; from Smith’s Assyrian
Discoveries.
Kings and other high personages were not content with such
simple adornments. It would seem that princes wore necklaces
made up of separate pieces each of which had an emblematic
signification of its own (Fig. 239), because we find them constantly
reappearing in the reliefs, sometimes around the sovereign’s neck,
sometimes distributed over the field of a stele. In the stele of Samas-
Vul, the king only wears a single ornament on his breast; it is exactly
similar to what we call a Maltese cross (Fig. 116).
Figs. 232, 233.—Bracelets; from Rawlinson.

Fig. 234.—Ear-drop. British

Museum.
 Figs. 235–237.—Necklace and
ear-drops. Louvre. Drawn by
Saint-Elme Gautier.
These ornaments must have been of gold and of some
considerable size. The grand vizier, and the king when his tiara is
absent, wear a diadem about their foreheads in which the rosette is
the chief element of the decoration (Vol. I. Figs. 25 and 29). The
queen’s diadem, in the “Feast of Assurbanipal,” is crenellated (Fig.
117), reminding us of that worn by the Greek Cybele. In the same
monuments the wrists of kings and genii are surrounded with
massive bracelets (Vol. I. Figs. 4, 8, 9, 15, 23, 24, 29, &c.). In the
Louvre there is a bronze bracelet of exactly the same type (Fig.
24c).[441] We may see them figured among the objects offered in
tribute in a bas-relief at Nimroud (Fig. 241). From the same reliefs
we gather several examples of ear-pendents (Figs. 242–244). It is
probable that the same models were carried out in gold, silver, or
bronze, according to the rank and fortune of the people for whom
they were made.[442] The forms were not altogether happy.

Fig. 238.—Necklace; from Layard.

And yet the Assyrian workmen could sometimes turn out lighter
and more graceful objects than these. It was, no doubt, when they
laboured for the softer sex that they modified their methods of work.
The figure of a winged genius in which we ventured to recognise a
goddess wears several necklaces, and one of them looks like a
chain with alternately thin and stout members (Fig. 162). Now, at
Kouyundjik, a necklace has been found (Fig. 245) bearing no little
resemblance to the one here copied by the sculptor. It is composed
of slender gold tubes, separated from each other by beads of the
same metal. These beads are alternately ribbed and smooth. The
workmanship is good and very careful.

Fig. 239.—Royal necklace; from

Rawlinson.
That these articles of personal jewelry were made in the country
is proved by the fact that not a few of the moulds used by the
jewellers for the patterns most in favour have been found. They are
small slabs of serpentine or very hard limestone, in one face of
which the desired pattern is cut in intaglio (Figs. 246 and 247).
Wherever the pattern communicates with the outer edge by a small
opening, it may have been used to receive the liquid metal; where no
such gutter exists, the design must have been stamped, the leaves
of metal being placed over the hollow and beaten into it with a
mallet.[443]

Fig. 240.—Bracelet. Diameter 5 inches.

Louvre. Drawn by Saint-Elme Gautier.
It was by this latter process, no doubt, that those buttons which
have been found in such quantities by every one who has explored
the Assyrian palaces, were made. They are sometimes small disks
ornamented with concentric bands (Fig. 248), sometimes lozenges
with beaded edges (Fig. 249). These buttons have sometimes
staples for attachment like ours, but more often they are pierced with
a small hole for the passage of a metal thread. They were thus fixed
on the king’s robes and the harness of his horses. Our Fig. 250,
which is copied from a bas-relief at Kouyundjik, shows how the
leather bands that encircled the necks of the chariot-horses and
supported bells, metal rosettes and coloured tassels, were
decorated.[444]
Fig. 241.—Bracelets; from
Layard.

Fig. 242.—Ear-drop; from

Layard.
Figs. 243, 244.—Ear-drops; from
Layard.

Figs. 248, 249.—Gold buttons.

British Museum.
 Fig. 245.—Necklace. British Museum.
The habits and tastes of the Oriental saddler have not changed
since the days of antiquity. We cannot get a better idea of Assyrian
harness than by examining the sets exposed for sale in the present
day in the bazaars of Turkey, Persia, and India. More than once,
when some Kurdish bey rode past him on his Arab, Sir H. Layard felt
as if he had seen a vision from one of the Ninevite reliefs. The
leather stitched with bright coloured threads, the housings of gaudy
wool, the hawk’s bells tinkling round the horse’s neck, were all
survivals from the past. The equipment of a Spanish mule, or the
harness that used to be worn by the waggon teams of Eastern
France within the memory of men not yet old, gives some idea of the
effect produced.
Figs. 246, 247.—Moulds for trinkets; from Layard.

Figs. 248, 249.—Gold buttons. British Museum.

 Fig. 250.—Part of the harness of
a chariot-horse.
Personal jewelry and the apparatus of the toilet seem to have
been no less elaborate in the Babylon of Nebuchadnezzar than in
the Nineveh of Sennacherib, but we possess very few objects that
can be surely referred to that period. To the very last years of the
Chaldæan empire, if not to a still later date, must be ascribed two
golden earrings now in the British Museum (Figs. 251 and 252).
They represent a naked child, with long hair and a head much too
large for its body. We are told that they were found in a tomb at
Niffer, with other objects whose Chaldæan character was very
strongly marked. Without this assurance we should be tempted to
think their date no more remote than that of the Seleucidæ.
Among the knobs, or buttons, used so largely by joiners, tailors,
and saddlers, some have been found of ivory and of mother-of-pearl.
The jewellers, too, must have used these substances, which would
give them an opportunity for effective colour harmonies. Thus Layard
mentions an ear-pendent that he found at Kouyundjik, which had two
pearls let into a roll of gold.[445]
 Figs. 251, 252.—Ear-pendents. British Museum.
On the other hand no amber has been found in Mesopotamia.
That substance was widely used by the Mediterranean nations as
early as the tenth century before our era, but it does not seem to
have been carried into the interior of Asia. It has been asserted that
one of the cuneiform texts mentions it;[446] that assertion we cannot
dispute, but it is certain that neither in the British Museum nor in the
Louvre, among the countless objects that have been brought from
the Chaldæan and Assyrian ruins to those great store-houses of
ancient art, has the smallest fragment of amber been discovered. If it
ever entered Mesopotamia, how could it have been more fitly used
than in necklaces, to the making of which glass, enamelled
earthenware, and every attractive stone within reach, contributed?
[447]

§ 7. Textiles.

Among people who looked upon nudity as shameful, the robe

and its decorations were of no little importance. Both in Chaldæa
and Assyria it was carried to a great pitch of luxury by the noble and
wealthy. They were not content with fine tissues, with those delicate
and snowy muslins for which the kings of Persia and their wives
were, in later years, to ransack the bazaars of Babylon.[448] They
required their stuffs to be embroidered with rich and graceful
ornament, in which brilliant colour and elegant design should go
hand in hand.[449] The Chaldæans were the first to set this example,
as we know from the most ancient cylinders, from the Tello
monuments and from the stele of Merodach-idin-akhi (Fig. 233). But
it would seem that the Assyrians soon left their teachers behind, and
in any case the bas-reliefs enable us to become far better
acquainted with the costume of the northern people than with that of
their southern neighbours. Helped and tempted by the facilities of a
material that offered but a very slight resistance to his chisel, the
Assyrian sculptor amused himself now by producing a faithful copy
of the royal robes in every detail of their patient embroidery, now by
imitating in the broad thresholds, the intersecting lines, the stars and
garlands woven by the nimble shuttle in the soft substance of the
carpets with which the floors of every divan were covered.
The images on the royal robes must have been entirely
embroidered (Figs. 253 and 254). They cannot have been metal
cuirasses engraved with the point, as we might at the first glance be
tempted to think. In the relief there is no salience suggesting the
attachment of any foreign substance. Neither have we any reason to
believe that work of such intricate delicacy could be carried out in
metal. It was by the needle and on a woollen surface that these
graceful images were built up.
The skill of the Babylonian embroiderers was famous until the
last days of antiquity.[450] During the Roman period their works were
paid for by their weight in gold.[451] Even now the women of every
eastern village cover materials often coarse enough in themselves
with charming works of the same kind. They decorate thus their long
hempen chemises, their aprons and jackets, their scarves, and the
small napkins that are used sometimes as towels and sometimes to
lay on the floor about the low tables on which their food is served.
It is likely that the Assyrian process was embroidery in its strictest
sense. In the modern bazaars of Turkey and Persia table-covers of
applied work may be bought, in which hundreds of little pieces of
cloth have been used to make up a pattern of many colours; but in
the sculptured embroideries the surfaces are cut up by numerous
lines which could hardly have been produced, in the original,
otherwise than by the needle. This, however, is a minor question.
Our attention must be directed to the composition of the pictures and
to the taste which inspired and regulated their arrangement.
Fig. 253.—Embroidery on the upper part of the
king’s mantle; from Layard.
Fig. 254.—Embroidery upon a royal mantle; from Layard.
 Fig. 255.—Embroidered pectoral; from Layard.
The principle of the decoration as a whole is almost identical with
that of the bronze platters. A central motive is surrounded by parallel
bands of ornaments in which groups of figures are symmetrically
disposed. Outside this again are narrow borders composed of forms
borrowed chiefly from the vegetable kingdom, such as conventional
flowers and buds, palmettes, and rosettes. The figures are strongly
religious in character; here we find winged genii, like those about the
palace doors, adoring the sacred tree, floating in space, or playing
with lions (see Fig. 253); in another corner the king himself is
introduced, standing between two monitory genii, or in act of homage
to the winged disk and mystic palm.
All these images are skilfully arranged, in compartments bounded
by gracefully curving lines. The designer has understood how to
cover his surface without crowding or confusion, and has shown a
power of invention and a delicate taste that can hardly be surpassed
by any other product of Mesopotamian art. There is no trace of the
heaviness to which we alluded in our section on jewelry.

Fig. 256.—Detail of embroidery; from Layard.

Fig. 257.—Detail of embroidery; from Layard.
 Fig. 258.—Detail of embroidery;
from Layard.
The impression made by these compositions as a whole is
intensified when we examine their separate details. The variety of
the combinations employed is very striking. Sometimes the ornament
is entirely linear and vegetable in its origin. Look, for instance, at the
kind of square brooch worn on his breast by one of the winged genii
at Nimroud (Fig. 255). The sacred tree surrounded by a square
frame of rosettes and wavy lines occupies the centre, the palmette
throws out its wide fronds at one end. In another example we find a
human-headed lion, mitred and bearded, struggling with an eagle-
headed genius. On the right of our woodcut (Fig. 256) a bud or
flower like that of the silene inflata, hangs over the band of
embroidery; it is a pendent from the necklace. Sometimes we find
real combined with fictitious animals. In Fig. 257 two griffins have