NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

I. Atomic Structure
"
!𝐶
Z = no. of protons in the nucleus = e– A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Nuclear equations are balanced in terms of Z [atomic number] and A [nuclear
mass/nuclear mass numbers]
II. Nuclear Stability
𝑛 𝐴−𝑍 𝑛
!
= ; 𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 ! = 𝐵𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝 𝑍 𝑝
" $
§ Nuclear stability in lighter elements [Z < 20] – #! → $ [1] 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
"
§ Nuclear stability in heavier elements [20 ≤ Z ≤ 83] – #! → [1.51] 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
o No nuclei with more than 83 protons are stable
§ Magic numbers – Isotopes with these numbers in either of their nucleons
(protons or neutrons) are stable
Proton 2 8 20 28 50 82 114
Neutron 2 8 20 28 50 82 126 184
§ Nuclei with even number of nucleons [protons or neutrons] tend to be
more stable than those with odd number of nuclear particles. Basis:
Proton number (Z) Neutron Number No. of Stable Isotopes
Even Even 163
Even Odd 53
Odd Even 50
Odd Odd 4
§ Stable nuclei at odd-odd – %$𝐻, '&𝐿𝑖 , $)(𝐵, $+*𝑁
III. Radioactivity
Unstable isotopes decompose (decay) through radioactivity
Modes of decay
+ %!
Alpha (𝛼) particle emission %𝐻𝑒 nucleus is given off. 2+ is usually
omitted although it is important to know that
it is specifically the Helium nuclei that is
given off, with its valence electrons missing.
Occurs with nuclei Z > 83
Highest ionizing power (Massive particle)
Beta (𝛽) particle emission Produces electron ( 𝛽 emissions converts
neutron to an electron) in symbol ,$)𝑒
Occurs with nuclei that contain too many
neutrons for stability (n:p too large)
Lower ionizing power (Smaller and lighter)
Gamma (𝛾) ray emission Emits high–energy photons. Since it changes
(radiation) neither Z nor A, it is omitted in nuclear
equations. Indicated by *
Lowest ionizing power
 Positron emission
K–electron capture
Happens when
(n:p is too small)
Produces a positron written as !$)𝑒 (converts
proton to a neutron)
Occurs with nuclei having too many protons
for stability (n:p too small)
Electron in the innermost energy level (n=1)
“falls” into the nucleus
More common with heavy nuclei

Mode Emission Example Change in Penetrating

A Z Power
+ %&. + %&+
𝛼–decay %𝐻𝑒 -%𝑈 → %𝐻𝑒 + -)𝑇ℎ –4 –2 ≈ 0.03 mm
) , %&+ %&+
𝛽–decay ,$𝑒 -)𝑇ℎ → 𝑒 + -$𝑃𝑎 0 +1 ≈ 2 mm
𝛾–decay Photons 0 0 ≈ 10 cm
) +)
Positron $𝑒 $-𝐾 → )$𝑒 + +)
$.𝐴𝑟 0 –1
Emission
.% ) ,
K-electron none &*𝑅𝑏 → ,$𝑒 + .%
&'𝐾𝑟 0 –1
Capture

Bombardment Reactions
Neutron Bombardment Neutron of low energy (written as $)𝑛) is produced
in a fission reactor to react with a stable nucleus,
converting it to a radioactive one. This decays
into stable products by 𝛽–emission
Charged Particle Electron, positron, 𝛼–particle, etc. accelerated to
Bombardment very high velocities in electric and/or magnetic
fields to acquire enough energy to bring about a
nuclear reaction despite electrostatic repulsion
with the components of the atom

IV. Rate of Radioactive Decay

Radioactive decay is a first–order process:
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘𝑋 𝑋/ ln 2
ln = 𝑘𝑡 𝑘=
𝑋 𝑡$/%
𝑘 = first–order rate Xo = amount of 𝑡$/% = half life
constant [fraction of radioactive species at t=0
atoms decaying in X = amount of radioactive
unit time] species at time t
By which rate of decay is measured, it is often described as activity (A) (no. of
atoms decaying in unit time)
𝐴 = 𝑘𝑁
Where N is the number of radioactive nuclei present. Conversion factor using
Avogadro’s number and nuclear mass of the isotope [A] is used to calculate N
 Units for A:
1 𝐵𝑞 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑠) = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚/𝑠
1 𝐶𝑖 (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠) = 3.700 x 10$) 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠/𝑠

Carbon–14 Dating
C-14 is produced in the atmosphere by interaction of neutrons from cosmic
radiation with ordinary nitrogen atoms:
$+ $ $+ $
*𝑁 + )𝑛 → '𝐶 + $𝐻
This eventually become incorporated into the CO2 of the air and consumed by
living things. A sample of one gram of carbon has an activity of 15.3 atoms/min.
When a plant or animal dies, intake of C-14 stops and decays
$+ $+ ) ,
'𝐶 → *𝑁 + ,$𝑒 𝑡$/% = 5730 𝑦
Therefore,
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝐴/ ln 2 15.3 𝑚𝑖𝑛 ln 2
ln =] ^ 𝑡 ⟹ ln =` a𝑡
𝐴 𝑡$/% 𝐴 5730 𝑦
Where Ao is the original activity, A is the current activity (both same unit) and
t & t1/2 can be expressed in different unit time from 5730 y

V. Mass–Energy Relations
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 % → 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )𝑐 %
Where m is in terms of nuclear masses. To get J in ∆E, since c = 3.00 x 108 m/s,
𝑚%
∆𝐸 = ]9.00 x 10$' % ^ ∆𝑚
𝑠
Since 1 J = 1 kg· m /s ; 1 m /s = 1 J/kg. Therefore,
2 2 2 2
3
∆𝐸 = e9.00 x 10$' 45f ∆𝑚 where m is in kg
Ordinarily, ∆E is in terms of kJ, and masses are in grams. Therefore,
𝑘𝐽
∆𝐸 = `9.00 x 10$) a ∆𝑚
𝑔
Remember: Since this is in terms of nuclear masses where values are found on
the table, the unit of the ∆m is in g/mol. Grams of the isotope that decays is
given and therefore should be used along with the conversion factor per mole
to get the actual mole (from grams) that decays
• Spontaneous nuclear reactions implies the products weigh less than the
reactants (An exothermic reaction)

Nuclear Binding Energy

→ A nucleus always weighs less than the individual protons and neutrons of
which it is composed.
∆𝑚 = i(𝑝! + 𝑛) ) − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 > 0
[Mass Defect]
𝑘𝐽
⟹ ∆𝐸 = ∆𝐸 = `9.00 x 10$) a ∆𝑚
𝑔
 The second formula calculates the amount of energy required to decompose
one mole of a nuclei into its constituent protons and neutrons (nucleons).
Therefore, the magnitude of ∆E is the amount of energy released when the
nuclei is formed (just negative in sign)
§ An atom’s nuclear mass is always less than the sum of its nucleons.
§ Use Avogadro’s number to relate desired units.

VI. Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission is a splitting of heavy nuclei (heavier then Fe-56) into lighter
nuclei either by bombardment or natural radioactivity. This process evolves
energy in heavier nuclei because they contain large number of nucleons that
coulombic repulsion starts affecting the strong nuclear force, decreasing
binding energy. This means that when fission occurs, the products has higher
binding energy (more stable) than the parent nuclei, yielding an excess mass
in form of energy.

VII. Nuclear Fusion

Nuclear fusion, also known as thermonuclear reaction, is a fusion of two light
nuclei (lighter than Fe-56) into a single heavier nucleus by collision at
extremely high temperatures. This high temperature means the kinetic energy
is extremely high as well; i.e., nuclei are at extremely high speed. These
extreme conditions allow nuclei (which has a natural repulsion with each
other) to come close enough that strong nuclear force dominates, overwhelming
coulombic repulsion and releasing very high energy, much more than a nuclear
fission.