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O&M Best - Practice - Guidelines - V - 5
O&M Best - Practice - Guidelines - V - 5
Maintenance
Best Practice Guidelines
Version 5.0
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Welcome to the fifth edition of SolarPower Europe’s Operation & Maintenance (O&M) Best Practice Guidelines.
O&M is a hugely important sector for the solar PV industry and for the EU. Based on its 100% Renewable Europe
study, SolarPower Europe calculates that an additional 870 GW of solar PV installations will be required for the
EU to meet its 2030 emissions commitments. This rapid growth makes it even more important to ensure that
industry best practices are harmonised, allowing O&M service providers to scale up their operations while
maintaining quality standards.
These guidelines take a more integrated approach to occupational health & safety by combining them with
security and environmental protection in a revamped Health, Safety, Security, and Environment chapter. The
Innovations and trends chapter has been updated to include innovative new field inspection techniques, such
as drone-based UV Fluorescence imaging. Furthermore, the increasing popularity of commercial & industrial,
and residential rooftop PV installations has led to an overhaul of the O&M for rooftop solar chapter to separate
these two segments and provide more specialised recommendations. Finally, this fifth edition has seen the
Definitions chapter move to the new Lifecycle Quality Guidelines, reflecting the overall importance of a shared
language between the stakeholders of a solar PV project.
This document is the first O&M Best Practice Guidelines produced by the newly rebranded Lifecycle Quality
Workstream. It builds on 2019’s fourth edition and is the result of a year of intensive work by 29 leading solar
experts, from 20 companies. The contributors work across the solar PV industry and include O&M service
providers, Asset Managers, Asset Owners, renewable energy consultants, legal experts, digital solutions providers,
and technical advisors.
The Workstream has been busy in 2021, updating the EPC and O&M Best Practice Guidelines and writing the
new Lifecycle Quality Guidelines. Members have also been involved in several international projects, including
cooperating with the South African PV Industry Association (SAPVIA) to produce the South African edition of
the O&M Best Practice Guidelines (launched in October 2021). The Workstream has also launched projects to
create the Indian and Sub-Saharan African editions of the EPC Best Practice Guidelines and will be working to
complete these and a new Jordanian edition of the O&M Best Practice Guidelines.
We thank our members for their extraordinary level of engagement, which reflects the importance of lifecycle
quality for our sector. We will continue the work in 2022 and invite interested stakeholders to join our
Workstream activities and help us further improve our contribution to the solar PV industry.
Vice-Chairs of the SolarPower Europe Lifecycle Quality Workstream: Ralph Gottschalg, Fraunhofer CSP; Alden Lee, ABO Wind.
Coordinator of the SolarPower Europe Lifecycle Quality Workstream: Benjamin Clarke, SolarPower Europe.
Contact: info@solarpowereurope.org.
Contributors and co-authors: Adele Ara, Lightsource bp; Alden Lee, ABO Wind; Alessandro Sacco, NovaSource; Ali Rahmati, Fronius; Alison Finch, Solaredge; Bengt
Jäckel, Fraunhofer CSP; Casey Fergus, NovaSource; Chris Voet, Solaredge; Constantinos Peonides, Alectris; David Moser, Eurac Research; Dor Ioushua, Solaredge;
Elaine Teo, Heliospekt; Eric Tilly, ENcome; Florian Stüwe, Greentech; Grant Hilti, Heliospekt; Ioannis Tsanakas, CEA-INES; Jan Gershoj Jensen, Gershoj Energia;
Jasmina Brajkovic, NovaSource; Jörg Althaus, TÜV Rheinland; Nicholas Mutch, Lightsource bp; Peter Van der Stock, Cast4All; Ralph Gottschalg, Fraunhofer CSP;
Raphaël Chervier, Akuo Energy; Reece Lowry, NovaSource; Rob Andrews, Heliolytics; Roger Taylor , EXXERGY; Thomas Lebreuilly, Akuo Energy; Timo Moeller,
NovaSource; Vincenzo Giorgio, Bird & Bird; Will Hitchcock, Above surveying; Wolfgang Rosenberg, TCO Solar.
Acknowledgements: SolarPower Europe would like to extend special thanks to all the Workstream members that contributed to this report with their knowledge
and experience. This work would never have been realised without their continuous support.
Project Information: The SolarPower Europe Lifecycle Quality Workstream officially started its work in April 2015 and continues with frequent exchanges and
meetings. The first version of the O&M Best Practices Guidelines was published in June 2016 and since then, the Workstream has regularly updated the Guidelines
and produced new ones on EPC and Asset Management. In 2021, the first edition of the Lifecycle Quality Guidelines will be published - the latest addition to the
suite. The SolarPower Europe O&M Best Practices Guidelines reflect the experience and views of a considerable share of the European solar PV service provision
industry today. There has been no external funding or sponsoring for this project.
Disclaimer: Adherence to the SolarPower Europe O&M Best Practice Guidelines report and its by-products is voluntary. Any stakeholders that wish to adhere
to the O&M Best Practice Guidelines are responsible for self-certifying that they have fulfilled the guide requirements through completing the self-certification
procedure offered by the “Solar Best Practices Mark” (www.solarbestpractices.com). This report has been prepared by SolarPower Europe. It is being provided
to the recipients for general information purposes only. Nothing in it should be interpreted as an offer or recommendation of any products, services or financial
products. This report does not constitute technical, investment, legal, tax or any other advice. Recipients should consult with their own technical, financial,
legal, tax or other advisors as needed. This report is based on sources believed to be accurate. However, SolarPower Europe does not warrant the accuracy or
completeness of any information contained in this report. SolarPower Europe assumes no obligation to update any information contained herein. SolarPower
Europe will not be held liable for any direct or indirect damage incurred by the use of the information provided and will not provide any indemnities.
Please note that this Version 5.0 may be subject to future changes, updates and improvements.
ISBN: 9789464444247.
cast4all
T E C H N O L O G I E S
List of boxes
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) has become a compliance obligations may be triggered by
standalone segment within the solar industry, and it is components of the solar PV system itself, such as
widely acknowledged by all stakeholders that high- those that include hazardous materials, and by-
quality O&M services mitigate potential risks, improve products that may be used by the O&M service
the Levelised Cost of Electricity (LCOE) and Power provider such as herbicides and insecticides. In many
Purchase Agreement (PPA) prices, and positively situations, solar power plants offer an opportunity to
impact the return on investment (ROI). Responding to support agriculture and are a valuable natural habitat
the discrepancies that exist in today’s solar O&M for plants and animals alongside the primary purpose
market, the SolarPower Europe O&M Best Practice of power production.
Guidelines make it possible for all to benefit from the
experience of leading experts in the sector and
Personnel & training
increase the level of quality and consistency in O&M.
These Guidelines are meant for O&M service It is important that all O&M personnel have the
providers, investors, financiers, Asset Owners, Asset relevant experience and qualifications to perform
Managers, monitoring tool providers, technical work in a safe, responsible, and accountable manner.
consultants, and all interested stakeholders in Europe These Guidelines contain a skills’ matrix template that
and beyond. helps to record skills and identify gaps.
In this edition of the O&M Best practice Guidelines, the
Definitions and Stakeholders sections have been Technical asset management
moved to the new Lifecycle Quality Guidelines. This has
Technical Asset Management (TAM) encompasses
been done to reflect the importance of having a
support activities to ensure the best operation of a
common understanding of the roles and
solar power plant or a portfolio, i.e., to maximise energy
responsibilities, and core workloads of each stakeholder
production, minimise downtime and reduce costs. In
in a solar PV project. This document then walks the
many cases, the O&M service provider assumes some
reader through the different components of O&M,
TAM tasks such as planning and reporting on Key
classifying requirements into “minimum requirements”,
Performance Indicators (KPIs) to the Asset Owner.
“best practices” and “recommendations”.
However, in cases where the Technical Asset Manager
and the O&M service provider are separate entities,
Health, Safety, Security, and Environment (HSSE) close coordination and information sharing between
the two entities is indispensable. TAM also includes
Solar PV power plants are electricity generating power
ensuring that the operation of the solar PV power plant
stations and have significant hazards present which
complies with national and local regulations and
can result in injury or death. Risks should be reduced
contracts, and advising the Asset Owner on technical
through proper hazard identification, careful planning
asset optimisation via repowering investments, for
of works, briefing of procedures to be followed, regular
example. For more information about AM, please refer
documented inspection, and maintenance. Specific
to SolarPower Europe’s Asset Management Best
training, certification, and personal protective
Practice Guidelines, which can be downloaded from
equipment are required for several tasks. Almost all
www.solarpowereurope.org.
jobs have some safety requirements such as fall
protection for work at heights and electrical arc-flash,
lock-out tag-out, and general electrical safety for Power plant operation
electrical work, eye, and ear protection for ground
Operation is about remote monitoring, supervision,
maintenance. Power plant security systems should
and control of the solar PV power plant and it is an
form an integrated part of health & safety (H&S) by
increasingly active exercise as grid operators require
ensuring that trespassers or members of the public do
increasing flexibility from solar power plants. Power
not gain access to the plant or its hazardous areas.
plant operation also involves liaising with or
Environmental problems are normally avoidable coordination of the maintenance team. A proper solar
through proper plant design and maintenance, but PV power plant documentation management system
where issues do occur, the O&M service provider must is crucial for Operations. A list of documents that
detect them and respond promptly. Environmental should be included in the as-built documentation set
accompanying the solar PV power plant (such as solar Spare parts management
PV modules’ datasheets), and a list of examples of
Spare Parts Management is an inherent and
input records that should be included in the record
substantial part of O&M aimed at ensuring that spare
control (such as alarms descriptions), can be found in
parts are available in a timely manner for Preventive
the Annex of these Guidelines. Based on the data and
and Corrective Maintenance to minimise the
analyses gained through monitoring and supervision,
downtime of a solar PV power plant. As best practice,
the O&M service provider should always strive to
the spare parts should be owned by the Asset Owner
improve solar PV power plant performance. As there
while normally maintenance, storage and
are strict legal requirements for security services in
replenishment should be the responsibility of the
most countries, solar PV power plant security should
O&M service provider. It is considered a best practice
be ensured by specialised security service providers.
not to include the cost of replenishment of spare
parts in the O&M fixed fee. However, if the Asset
Power plant maintenance Owner requires the O&M service provider to bear
replenishment costs, the more cost-effective
Maintenance is usually carried out on-site by
approach is to agree which are "Included Spare Parts"
specialised technicians or subcontractors, according
and which are "Excluded Spare Parts". These
to the Operations team’s analyses. A core element of
Guidelines also include a minimum list of spare parts
maintenance services, Preventive Maintenance
that are considered essential.
involves regular visual and physical inspections,
functional testing, and measurements, as well as the
verification activities necessary to comply with the Data and monitoring requirements
operating manuals and warranty requirements. The
The purpose of the monitoring system is to allow
Annual Maintenance Plan (see an example in Annex e)
supervision of the performance of a solar PV power
includes a list of inspections and actions that should
plant. Requirements for effective monitoring include
be performed regularly. Corrective Maintenance
dataloggers capable of collecting data (such as energy
covers activities aimed at restoring a faulty solar PV
generated, irradiance, module temperature, etc.) of all
power plant, equipment or component to a status
relevant components (such as inverters, energy
where it can perform the required function.
meters, pyranometers, temperature sensors) and
Extraordinary Maintenance actions, usually not
storing at least one month of data with a recording
covered by the O&M fixed fee, can be necessary after
granularity of up to 15 minutes, as well as a reliable
major unpredictable events in the plant site that
Monitoring Portal (interface) for the visualisation of the
require substantial repair works. Additional
collected data and the calculation of KPIs. Monitoring
maintenance services may include tasks such as
is increasingly employing satellite data as a source of
module cleaning and vegetation control, which could
solar resource data to be used as a comparison for on-
be done by the O&M service provider or outsourced to
site pyranometers. As best practice, the monitoring
specialist providers.
system should ensure open data accessibility to
enable an easy transition between monitoring
Revamping and repowering platforms and interoperability of different applications.
As remotely monitored and controlled systems, solar
Revamping and repowering are usually considered a
PV power plants are exposed to cybersecurity risks. It
part of extraordinary maintenance from a contractual
is therefore vital that installations undertake a
point of view – however, due to their increasing
cybersecurity analysis and implement a cybersecurity
significance in the solar O&M market, these Guidelines
management system. To evaluate monitoring tools, it
address them in a standalone chapter. Revamping and
is recommended to refer to the Monitoring Checklist
repowering are defined as the replacement of old,
of the Solar Best Practices Mark, which is available at
power production related components within a power
www.solarbestpractices.com.
plant by new components to enhance the overall
performance of the installation. This chapter presents
best practices in module and inverter revamping and
repowering and general, commercial considerations to
keep in mind before implementation.
© Shutterstock
1.1. Rationale, aim and scope According to SolarPower Europe’s 100% Renewable
Europe study, a further 870 GW of solar will be required
Quality must be present at every stage of an asset’s
by 2030 if the EU is to achieve its ambitious climate
lifecycle to ensure that it operates smoothly. A
targets. The shear amount of additional solar capacity
professional Operation & Maintenance (O&M) service
means that O&M service providers will be under
package ensures that a photovoltaic system will
greater scrutiny than ever to provide exceptional
maintain high levels of technical, safety and
“health care” that keeps new solar PV plants running
consequently economic performance over its
optimally. This makes harmonisation of best practices
operational lifetime. Tt is widely acknowledged by all
more vital than ever as Europe transitions to carbon
stakeholders that high quality O&M services are vital
neutrality. For this version 5.0, the Definitions and
to improving the overall quality management of an
Stakeholders sections have been moved to the new
asset’s lifecycle, mitigating the potential risks,
Lifecycle Quality Guidelines, highlighting the
improving the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) and
importance of a common understanding between all
Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) prices, and
stakeholders through a project’s lifecycle. This version
positively impacting the return on investment (ROI).
also takes a more integrated approach to Health,
Therefore, increasing the quality of O&M services is Safety, Security, and Environment (HSSE), showing
important and, in contrast, neglecting O&M is risky. how quality processes and systems across all these
However, O&M does not work in a vacuum and poor areas interact with each other. Finally, the growth of
practices at any stage of an asset’s lifecycle can lead the commercial & industrial rooftop segment has led
to problems in the future. For a full overview of how to the redesign of the best practice recommendations
quality can be assured throughout a solar PV project, in Chapter 13. O&M for rooftop solar.
please refer to SolarPower Europe’s Engineering,
Procurement, and Construction (EPC), Asset
Management, and Lifecycle Quality Guidelines,
available at www.solarpowereurope.org.
NOTE: This list is not exhaustive and new standards are under development.
SolarPower Europe’s O&M Best Practice Guidelines are installations are explained in Chapter 13. O&M for
a key tool to set quality standards for service providers rooftop solar. These Guidelines are based on the
and enhance investors’ understanding and experience of companies operating globally (with a
confidence.1 The value proposition of these Guidelines concentration in Europe), therefore, it provides high-
is that its industry-led, containing the knowledge and level requirements that can be applied worldwide.
the experience of well-established and leading Specific national considerations such as legal
companies in the field of O&M service provision, requirements are not included and should therefore
project development and construction (EPC), asset be considered separately if these Guidelines are to be
management, utilities, manufacturers and monitoring used in specific countries.
tool providers.
The scope of the current work includes the utility scale
1 In addition to the O&M Best Practice Guidelines we recommend
segment and more specifically, systems above 1 MW. SolarPower Europe’s Asset Management Best Practice Guidelines,
Specificities related to O&M for distributed solar another useful tool to enhance investors’ confidence and improve
service quality in the field of solar asset management. This report can
also be downloaded from www.solarpowereurope.org.
The content covers technical and non-technical 1.2. How to benefit from this document
requirements, classifying them when possible into:
This report includes the main considerations for a
1. Minimum requirements, below which the O&M successful and professional O&M service provision.
service is considered as poor or insufficient, and Although it has not been tailored for each stakeholder,
which form a minimum quality threshold for a its use is similar for all: understanding the mandatory
professional and bankable service provider. requirements and the necessity of professional O&M
and incorporating the recommendations accordingly
2. Best practices, which are methods considered
into the service package. Any of the directly relevant
state-of-the-art, producing optimal results by
stakeholders (see Chapter 3. of SolarPower Europe’s
balancing the technical as well as the financial
Lifecycle Quality Guidelines) can benefit from this
side.
work, tailor it to their needs without lowering the bar
3. Recommendations, which can add to the quality and know what to ask for, offer or expect.
of the service, but whose implementation depends
Although the focus is European, most of the content
on the considerations of the Asset Owner or Asset
can be used in other regions around the world. The
Manager, such as the available budget.
requirements described in the maintenance part apply
As for the terminology used in this document to without changes in regions with conditions similar to
differentiate between these three categories, verbs Europe and a moderate climate and additional
such as “should” indicate minimum requirements, requirements or modifications can easily be made for
unless specified explicitly otherwise, like in: “should, other regions with unique characteristics. With
as a best practice”. regards to the operations and technical asset
management part, the requirements apply to solar PV
assets regardless of their location.
The Asset Owner has ultimate legal and moral key that others working around the equipment - for
responsibility for ensuring the health and safety of example panel cleaners - are equally aware of the
people in and around the solar plant, the security of the potential risks and have safe methods of working
site, and the protection of the surrounding around HV and LV electricity.
environment. The practical implementation is normally
Hazardous areas and equipment should carry
subcontracted to the O&M service provider. In some
appropriate markings to warn personnel of possible
cases, the Asset Manager can provide or prescribe the
hazards and wiring sequence. Such markings should
systems, which are then implemented by the O&M
be clear and evident to all personnel and third parties
service provider. This chapter will investigate specific
(and intruders) entering the plant premises.
areas of Health, Safety, Security, and Environmental
(HSSE) policy and coordination that relate to O&M As well as the inherent dangers of a typical solar plant,
service providers. For a general overview of the every site will have its own set of individual hazards
fundamentals of HSSE coordination, please refer to which must be considered when working on the plant.
SolarPower Europe’s Lifecycle Quality Guidelines V 1.0 An up-to-date plan of hazards is important for the
(available at ww.solarpowereurope.org). O&M service provider to manage their own staff and
provide third party contractors with adequate
information. It is usually the case that the O&M service
2.1. Health, Safety, and Security
provider holds the authority and responsibility for
Managing the risks that solar plants pose to the health reviewing and, where necessary, rejecting works taking
and safety (H&S) of people, both in and around the place in the plant. Failure to carry this out properly has
plant, is a primary concern of all stakeholders. Solar important consequences for general safety.
plants are electricity generating power stations and
Besides workers on the solar plant, it is not unusual for
pose significant hazards which can result in
other parties to require access to it. This may be the Asset
permanent injury or death. Risks can be mitigated
Owner, or their representative, the landowner, or, in some
through proper hazard identification, careful planning
situations, members of the public. It is important that the
of works, briefing of procedures to be followed, and
plant access control and security system keeps people
regular and well documented inspection and
away from areas of danger and that they are
maintenance (see also 5.8. Power plant security).
appropriately supervised and inducted as necessary.
The dangers of electricity are well known and can be
The Asset Owner is ultimately responsible for
effectively managed through properly controlled
compliance with H&S regulations within the site/plant.
access and supervision by the O&M service provider.
The Asset Owner must make sure that the installation
Any person accessing a solar PV power plant should
and all equipment meet the relevant legislations of the
expect some form of introduction to ensure they are
country and, that all contractors, workers, and visitors
briefed on any hazards and risks. Staff working on
respect the H&S Legislation by strictly following the
electrical equipment must be appropriately trained,
established procedures, including the use of
have sufficient experience, and be supervised. It is also
established personal protective equipment (PPE).
At the same time, the O&M service provider should and additional equipment is required when
prepare and operate their own safety management working at heights.
systems, previously agreed with the Asset Owner, that
3. Collisions. Collisions can occur between personnel,
take into account site rules relating to H&S and the
machinery/vehicles and structures. The large areas
potential hazards involved in the works. The O&M
covered by solar farms often necessitate the use
service provider should ensure that they, and all
of vehicles and machinery which, when combined
subcontractors, comply with H&S legislation.
with the generally quiet nature of an operational
The Asset Owner will expect the O&M service provider solar plant, can lead to a lack of attention. General
to assume the role and duties of the principal risks such as difficult terrain, reversing without a
contractor under the relevant national regulations banksman and walking into the structure
governing H&S. This involves the O&M service provider supporting the solar panels require special
proving that they are competent and are able to attention.
allocate enough resources to fulfil these duties.
4. Strains and sprains. Lifting heavy equipment, often
Before starting any activity on-site, the Asset Owner in awkward spaces or from uneven ground,
will deliver a risk assessment and method statements presents increased risk of simple strains or longer-
to the O&M service provider who will provide a term skeletal injuries.
complete list of personnel training certifications and
5. Electrocution. Operational solar plants, whether
appoint a H&S coordinator. During the whole duration
energised or not, present a significant risk of
of the contract the O&M service provider will keep the
electrocution to personnel. This risk is exacerbated
H&S file of each site up to date.
by the nature and voltage of the electricity on site
The O&M service provider must have their personnel and the impossibility of total isolation. Staff
trained in full compliance with respective national engaged in electrical work obviously suffer the
legal and professional requirements. This generally greatest risk but everybody on site is at risk from
includes obtaining certification necessary for working step potential and other forms of electrocution in
in a variety of environments, such as MV and/or HV the event of a fault. Specific training needs to be
electrical plants. Within Europe, referral to European given to all those entering a solar farm on how to
Standards is not sufficient (examples of standards safely deal with the effects of electrocution. In
used today are ISO 14001, OHSAS 18001 etc). addition to general electrical safety, common
issues for solar PV power plants include arc-flash
To achieve a safe working environment, all work must be
protection when working on energized circuits;
planned in advance. Normally written plans are required.
and lock-out-tag-out to ensure circuits are not
Risk assessments which detail all the hazards present unintendedly energised.
and the steps to be taken to mitigate them need to
6. Fire. Several sources of combustion exist on a solar
be produced.
farm, the most common being electrical fire. Others
The following dangers are likely to exist on most solar include combustible materials, flammable liquids,
plants and must be considered when listing hazards and grass fires. Safe exit routes need to be identified
and identifying risks. The severity of any injuries and procedures fully communicated. All personnel
caused are exacerbated by the terrain on which solar need to be fully aware of what to do to avoid the risk
plants are built and their remoteness. of fire and how to act in the event of a fire.
1. Medical problems. It is critical that all personnel 7. Mud and water. Many solar farms have water
engaged in work on solar plants have considered travelling through them such as streams and rivers,
and communicated any pre-existing medical some have standing water, and some are floating
problems and any additional measures that may arrays. Mud is a very common risk particularly in
be required to deal with them. winter as low-grade farmland is often used for
solar farms. Mud and water present problems for
2. Slips, trips, and falls. The terrain, obstacles and
access as well as electrical danger.
equipment installed on a solar farm provide plenty
of opportunities for slips, trips and falls both at 8. Mechanical injury. Hand-tools, power tools,
ground level and whilst on structures or ladders; machinery, and mechanisms such as unsecured
and for roof-top or carport systems, fall-protection doors can present a risk of mechanical injury on site.
requirements to protect or maintain the habitat of the 2.2.1. End-of-life (EoL) management optimisation –
site. In any case, environmental requirements from solar PV O&M for circularity
building permits should be complied with. Maintenance
Based to the latest available (2019) figures reported on
services should comply with things such as the proper
the growth of solar PV installations, we can estimate
application of herbicides, pesticides, and poisons used
that about 1-1.2 million solar PV modules are installed
to control rodents. The use of solvents and heat-transfer
every day around the world. With this in mind and with
fluids should also be controlled. Cleaning agents (soap)
an estimated average annual failure rate of 0.2% in the
should be environmentally friendly (no chlorine bleach)
field, we may anticipate today ~8 million solar PV
and applied sparingly to avoid over-spray and run-off.
modules to fail every year, corresponding to a weight of
The SolarPower Europe Solar Sustainability Best 144 kt of potential annual solar PV waste from solar PV
Practice Benchmarke discusses how to make sure failures only. Adding also other solar PV waste sources
that biodiversity is increased on a solar PV power plant: and streams, such as the decommissioning of solar PV
modules due to end of service lifetime, repowering,
• Local best practices should be considered
insurance claims, etc., the cumulative solar PV waste is
• Decision frameworks and decision support tools expected to reach up to 8 Mt by 2030.
should be used
Reported field experiences show that, most solar PV
• Local experts should be consulted modules with diagnosed/classified failures that are
decommissioned, follow a linear EoL management
By doing this and after discussion of various
approach: they enter the waste stream and are either
management methods, a management plan should be
disposed as waste (the majority of the time) or
decided, which defines certain objectives concerning
recycled. Currently less than 10% of decommissioned
biodiversity and describes the activities by which to
modules are recycled. However, experts from the IEA
achieve them. Some typical measures are:
PVPS Task 13 and the CIRCUSOL project estimate that
• Categorically forbidding the use of herbicides 45%-65% of them, can be diverted from the
disposal/recycling path, towards repair and second life
• Reducing the frequency of vegetation cutting to solar PV (re-use) or, as aforementioned, revamping.
the necessary minimum (not all areas need the
same frequency) To ensure the technical-economical bankability of
solar PV re-use and second life solar PV, within the
• Cut vegetation in different phases to make sure O&M framework and the overall solar PV value chain,
that there are always untouched parts it is important to:
• Limit the number of sheep per hectare to avoid over- • Identify the addressable “target volume”, i.e., the
grazing (if sheep are part of the management plan) failed solar PV modules (or strings), the repair of
• Planting hedges with local species at the borders which is technically feasible, and the occurrence
of the plant or distribution of such failures.
• Creating piles of stones as microbiotopes for reptiles • Determine the post-repair efficiency and/or post-
revamping reliability of these modules.
• Arranging heaps of dead wood
• Integrate optimal sorting-repair-reuse and logistics
• Keeping specific surfaces vegetation-free procedures in the current solar PV O&M value chain,
• Removing cut grass in specific areas embracing circular economy business models.
These activities should be accompanied by regular On this basis, we identify certain future R&D pathways
surveys by local experts, to control evolution of and challenges to be addressed, to support the
biodiversity. They shall propose changes to the development, growth, and bankability of second life
management plan if this is necessary for achieving the solar PV and circular solar PV O&M business:
objectives. • Industrialisation and qualification of new solar PV
module designs-for-circularity: including “repair-
friendly” solar PV components, modular designs,
and deployment of repair technology solutions in
upscaled re-manufacturing lines.
• Identification and tracking solutions (e.g., RFID) at design qualification and type approval protocols,
solar PV components/modules/system level, to towards solar PV reuse-repurposing-recycling
facilitate reverse logistics, sorting/inventory of
• Synergies of solar PV Asset Owners and O&M service
solar PV and warehouse operations.
providers, with innovators in supply chain / reverse
• (Automated) detection, diagnostics, and logistics technologies, also leveraging AI/machine
classification (incl. recommendation) of repair or learning aided logistics, sorting, warehouse operations,
re-use operations in solar PV asset management inventory management for circular solar PV economy.
tools for solar PV plants.
• Standardisation/technical specifications for on-
site quality control and sorting, as well as off-site
3 For more information, see: www.lancaster.ac.uk/SPIES and
www.energyenvironment.co.uk.
© Lightsource BP
It is of critical importance that all O&M personnel have scheme both internally and externally which creates
the relevant qualifications to perform works in a safe, opportunities for qualifications and development.
responsible, and accountable manner. It is difficult to Whilst it is inevitable that some staff will choose to
define exactly the suitable employee profile to carry leave, it is unrealistic to imagine that any company can
out the work but, in general, it is not advisable to be always employ readily skilled and qualified staff.
rigid in the necessary requirements. The necessary
The creation of a training matrix as in Annex b enables
knowledge and experience can be gained through
a company to record skills, both formal and informal,
different career paths and by different engagements.
to identify gaps and to provide training to fill the gaps.
The solar industry benefits from a wide range of skills
As the industry grows, there is a rapid rate of
and experience. Team members with a range of
technological change as well as emergent best
electrical, mechanical, financial, business and
practices, which require a programme of continuous
communications skills are required to handle different
personal development to which both individuals and
tasks and all of them strengthen the positive impact
companies need to be committed.
of the service being provided.
The matrix goes beyond any educational background
As the solar industry scales up globally, it follows that
and focuses on the skills required universally by O&M
skills training will also need to be scaled up to meet the
service providers. Therefore, many of the
demand for qualified labour. It is therefore incumbent
skills/requirements may need to be adjustable to fit
on all employers in the industry to create a training
different practices and regulations across Europe.
Time, Intervention Time, Reaction Time, Resolution • Compliance with regulatory requirements,
Time) and equipment performance (e.g., Mean Time including from grid operators, regional and national
Between Failures). authorities for conditions of operation (refer to
section 4.4 Interface with local energy authorities
The Technical Asset Manager should report on:
& regulatory compliance).
• Spare Parts Management and, in particular on, spare
• Warranty management, warranty claims
parts stock levels, spare parts consumption, in
.performance with various component suppliers
particular solar PV modules on hand, spare parts
(refer to section 4.5 Warranty management).
under repair. With the emergence of Predictive
Maintenance, the Technical Asset Manager can also • Insurance claims management, providing lifecycle
report on the state of each individual equipment (see reporting on new claims raised, claims in progress and
Chapter 8. Spare Parts Management). claims settled (refer to section 4.6 Insurance claims).
• Power generation license agreements. The agreement between the Asset Owner and the
Technical Asset Manager should specify their
• Terms and conditions of corporate PPAs and
respective warranty management responsibilities and
stricter contractual obligations by the Owner.
set thresholds under which the Technical Asset
• Specific regulation for the site such as building Manager can act directly or seek the Asset Owner’s
permits, environmental permits, and regulations, consent. The Technical Asset Manager or the
which can involve certain requirements and the Operations team will then inform the Maintenance
need to cooperate with the local (or regional or team to perform warranty related works on site. Usually,
national) authorities. Examples include restrictions the warranty management scope is limited by Endemic
to the vegetation management and the disposal of Failures (see definition below in this section). Execution
green waste imposed by the environmental of warranty is often separately billable.
administration body or building permits restricting
For any warranty claims the formal procedure
working time on site or storage of utilities.
provided by the warranty provider should be followed.
• It is the O&M service provider’s responsibility to All communications and reports should be archived
ensure grid code compliance. See 5.6. Grid code for compliance and traceability reasons.
compliance. It is the responsibility of the AM to
Objectives of Warranty Management:
engage the District Network Operator in discussions
which will minimise outages and identify measures • Improve the efficiency of claims processes
to safe-guard export capabilities.
• Help to reduce the warranty period costs
• Other issues requiring formal compliance include
• Receive and collect all the warranty claims
reporting of safety plans and incidents,
historic/cultural resource protection, noise • Support the claims process
ordinances that may limit work at night, and any
• Negotiate more efficient claims procedures with
other regulations imposed by an authority having
manufacturers
jurisdiction.
• Study the behaviour of the installed equipment
As a minimum requirement the O&M agreement should
list all the relevant permits, regulations and contracts • Analyse the costs incurred during the warranty
that are the responsibility of Technical Asset Manager period
and specify that the Asset Owner makes relevant
Types of warranties on a solar PV power plant:
documents available to the Technical Asset Manager.
• Warranty of Good Execution of Works
As a best practice, all regulations, permits and
stipulations should be managed within a regulatory • Warranty of Equipment (Product Warranty)
and contractual compliance system that is consistent
• Performance Warranty
with the size and complexity of the solar PV power
plant. This system should set out: the requirements to
be met; the parameters for meeting them; and the 4.5.1. Warranty of good execution of works and
frequency of data gathering and assessment against equipment warranties
the requirements. This allows the Technical Asset
During the warranty period, anomalies can occur in the
Manager to track compliance requirements and report
facility, which the EPC service provider is liable for. The
back to the Asset Owner or the administration bodies,
anomalies must be resolved according to their nature
demonstrating a systematic approach to ensuring
and classification, in accordance with what is
compliance.
described in the following sections.
The anomalies or malfunctions that might occur
4.5. Warranty management
within the facility warranty period might be classified
The Technical Asset Manager can act as the Asset in the following way:
Owner’s representative for any warranty claims made
on manufacturers of solar PV power plant components.
replacing the 10,000 modules. However, increasing the • Inland insurance or marine insurance: coverage
power plant size by 500 modules to restore guaranteed against loss of equipment in shipping or outside
power might not be possible due to lack of rack space the property premises. Inland insurance is often
or electrical infrastructure. Also, expanding the system covered under property insurance policy.
“nameplate” capacity would generally trigger a new
• Worker compensation: coverage of costs for
interconnection agreement and permitting.
employee accidents.
Manufacturers also often have the option of paying a
cash-value equivalent to the lost capacity of under- • Professional liability insurance: coverage against
performing modules, but as the price of modules errors and omissions often required by board of
declines, this might be less than the original cost. Given directors.
the complications described above, this option is often
• Commercial vehicle insurance: coverage for
preferred by system Owners unless there is a required
owned, rented vehicles, and personal vehicles used
level of performance that must be maintained.
on company business.
• Warranty insurance: equipment warranty issued
4.6. Insurance claims
by manufacturer but backed up by an insurance
The agreement between the Technical Asset Manager company in the event that the manufacturing
and the Asset Owner should specify their insurance company goes out of business. Many insurance
management responsibilities. At the very least, the companies do not offer warranty insurance but
Technical Asset Manager will be expected to organise rather cover such risk under property insurance.
and coordinate site visits for insurance provider
• Business interruption insurance: coverage for lost
representatives, or technical and financial advisors in
revenue due to downtime caused by a covered
connection with information collection and damage
event. This can be important in PPAs where
qualification. They will also be responsible for drafting
revenue is essential for debt service and O&M
technical notes to support reimbursement claims. The
expenditures.
responsibility for coordinating insurance claims,
liaising with insurers, brokers, and loss adjusters, and • Energy production insurance: coverage for when
finding the most suitable insurance providers usually energy production is less than previously specified,
lies with the Commercial/Financial Asset Manager (for which can improve access to debt financing and
more information on this, see section 7.14. Suppliers reduce debt interest rate.
account management of the Asset Management Best
For any insurance claims the formal procedure
Practice Guidelines).
presented by the insurance provider should be
Types of insurance related to solar PV power plant followed. All communications and reports should be
O&M include: archived for compliance and traceability reasons. The
insurance company (claims adjuster) will need to have
• Property insurance, hazard insurance: coverage
access to the site to assess damage and to collect the
commensurate with the value of equipment and
information needed to process the claim.
other improvements to a property; may also cover
against other risks if included or unless excluded.
4.7. Contract management (operational contracts)
• Commercial general liability insurance: coverage
for all actions by Owner or contractors, written on Contract management encompasses both technical
an occurrence basis, including coverage for and commercial/financial aspects. This section looks
products, and completed operations, independent at contract management from a Technical Asset
contractors, premises and operations, personal Management point of view. For details on the
injury, broad form property damage, and blanket perspective of the Commercial/Financial Asset
contractual liability. Liability of a fire started by the Manager, see section 7.13. Contract management
solar PV system has increased required liability (financial contracts) of the Asset Management Best
coverage levels for solar PV systems. A liability Practice Guidelines.
policy should cover negligence claims,
settlements, and legal costs too.
solar PV power plant and the appropriate security as IEC TR 63292:2020 (active) and the IEC TS 63265
equipment, such as loudspeakers, spotlights and (undergoing the approval phase). One of the methods
fences, must also be adapted. As a best practice, the that allows this type of assessment is the Cost
Technical Asset Manager’s (or the O&M service Priority Number (CPN) methodology first developed
provider’s) environmental preservation activities in the H2020 project Solar Bankability. This
should go beyond legal obligations. methodology assesses the economic impact based
on factors such as performance reduction and
downtime, in the form of the metric CPN (Cost
4.10. Health & safety management
Priority Number), expressed in €/kWp/year. The
The Technical Asset Manager should ensure that the methodology helps to identify and classify technical
solar PV power plant and the relevant suppliers comply risks and their economic impact by assigning a cost
with health & safety (H&S) requirements. If necessary, metric that, based on collected statistics, supports
the Technical Asset Manager should hire an H&S preventive and corrective measures, which would
expert to ensure compliance. For more information, then lower the impact of failures on the availability
see Chapter 2. Health, Safety, Security, and and performance of a solar PV power plant.
Environment.
Monitoring data should be used in combination with
the information contained in maintenance tickets in
4.11. Technical Risk management order to calculate the parameters needed for the
determination of the CPN.4
For an effective technical risk management, the
Technical Asset Manager should accurately quantify For the correct and cost-effective determination of
appearing degradation modes and other performance the CPN, the information flow from monitored data,
impairing effects in operating solar PV power plants. ticketing platform and solar PV power plant metadata
Typical methods used in risk management are: Failure needs to be fully automated (key parameters must be
Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA), Failure Mode, extracted from digital documents or databases)
Effects & Criticality Analysis (FMECA), Fault Tree
Once the CPN metric is calculated for each event, it is
Analysis, Reliability Block Diagrams. Reliability
possible to use the metric to benchmark assets within
practices for technical risk management for the
a portfolio, to determine effective O&M strategies and
operation of photovoltaic power systems are
to further optimise them.
included in emerging standardisation activities, such
Operations concerns remote monitoring, supervision, Before assuming any maintenance and/or operational
control of the solar PV power plant, and technical activities, it is important to understand in-depth the
performance optimisation (refer to Chapter technical characteristics of the asset. There are two
4. Technical Asset Management). It also involves important aspects related to the management of this
subcontracting and coordination of maintenance information:
activities. Power plant operation used to be a more
• Information type and depth of detail / as-built
passive exercise in the past, but with increasing grid
documentation
integration efforts, more active and flexible operation
will be required by grid operators. Examples include • Management and control
ordered shutdowns, power curtailment, frequent
Moreover, for quality / risk management and effective
adjustment of settings such as power factor (source
operations management a good and clear
reactive power), frequency tolerances, and voltage
documentation of contract information, plant
tolerances. This section gives an overview of the
information, maintenance activities and asset
Operation tasks and requirements.
management are needed over its lifetime. This is what
The following figure provides an overview of the most is called here:
important tasks associated with power plant
• Record control (or records management)
operation.
Currently, there are different types of DMS available,
along with a series of standards (ISO), that can be
5.1. Documentation Management System (DMS)
implemented. This is an important requirement that
Solar PV power plant documentation is crucial for an would allow any relevant party to trace any changes
in-depth understanding of the design, configuration, during the lifetime of the plant’s operation and follow
and technical details of an asset. It is the Asset Owner’s up accordingly (e.g., when the O&M service provider
responsibility to provide those documents and, if not changes, or the teams change, or the plant is sold etc).
available, they should, as best practice, be recreated at
the Asset Owner’s cost.
DOCUMENTATION OPTIMISATION
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DMS) OF O&M
The DMS is an important requirement which allows To optimise O&M activities, reducing production losses
changes to be traced during the lifetime of plant’s and costs, the following information must be analysed:
operation. The important aspects to trace the PV
plant management information are:
• Response Time correlated to classification of events
Information • Components and manuals and root causes
• Plant location overview • Analysis of costs incurred for various interventions
• PV plant layout
• Electrical diagrams
• EH&S rules
POWER PLANT
Management control • Storage of documents CONTROLS
• Logbook of modification
• Access management
The Power Plant Controller is a control system that can
Record control • Alarms linked with manage several parameters, such as:
maintenance tasks
• O&M automatic logbook
• Unavailability documentation • Absolute Active Power Control
and recording • Power Factor Control
• Ramp Control
• Frequency Control
• Reactive Power Control
• Voltage Control
PLANT PERFORMANCE
MONITORING AND SUPERVISION
POWER GENERATION
The O&M service provider is responsible for monitoring
and supervision of PV plant performance. In the
FORECASTING
Fault Management there are different roles and
interaction levels:
The O&M service provider may provide forecasting
services, if required by the Asset Owner.
1st level support • Control Room
Forecast requirements are characterised by:
• Faults detecting
• Ticketing
• Coordination of actions
• Forecast horizon (typically below 48 hours)
• Site Technician
• Time resolution (typically 15 minutes to one hour)
• Analysis and fault
• Update frequency:
resolution on site
• Day-ahead forecasts
• Intraday forecasts
2nd level support • PV engineers • Combined forecasts
• Account managers
• Project managers The most common KPIs for forecast quality are:
3rd level support • Vendors’s experts • Root Mean Square Error (RMSE)
• Project managers • Mean Absolute Error (MAE)
• Accounting managers
The O&M service provider is responsible for the In the event that the design of a PV power plant needs
performance monitoring quality. The data, collected to be adjusted, the O&M service provider should be
for different time aggregation, should be analysed at involved from the beginning in the following phases:
the following level:
• Concept
Minimum • Portfolio level under control • Design works
requirement of the O&M • Execution
• Plant level
• Inverter level
SCADA/monitoring system needs to be updated after
every change.
Recommended • String level
• Documentation of inverter replacement date
• Inverter manufacturer and type
• Inverter serial number
• Intrusion systems
REPORTING AND TECHNICAL • Surveillance systems
• Processing alarms
ASSET MANAGEMENT • Site patrolling
The Operation team provides periodical report. For more An intrusion system may be formed by:
details see Chapter 4. Technical Asset Management.
• Simple fencing or barriers
• Intrusion detection
• Alerting system
• Remote closed-circuit television (CCTV) video monitoring
• Backup communication line (recommended)
5.1.1. Information type and depth of detail / as-built • Reason for modification and further
documentation information, e.g., link to the work orders and
service activities
The documentation set accompanying the solar PV
power plant should, as a best practice, contain the • Versioning control should be implemented as a
documents described in Annex c. The IEC 62446 best practice. People involved should be able to
standard also covers the minimum requirements for review past versions and be able to follow through
as-built documentation. the whole history of the document. The easiest
way to ensure this is through using an electronic
In general, for optimum service provision and as a best
document management system, which should be
practice, the O&M service provider should have access
considered a best practice.
to all possible documents (from the EPC phase). The
Site Operating Plan is the comprehensive document
prepared and provided by the plant EPC service 5.1.3. Record control
povider, which lays out a complete overview of its
A key point is that necessary data and documentation are
location, layout, electrical diagrams, components in
available for all parties in a shared environment and that
use and reference to their operating manuals, HSSE
alarms and maintenance can be documented in a
rules for the site and certain further topics. All detailed
seamless way. Critical to the Operations team is that the
drawings from the EPC service provider need to be
maintenance tasks are documented back to and linked
handed over to the O&M service provider and being
with the alarms which might have triggered the respective
stored safely for immediate access in case of solar PV
maintenance activity (work order management system
power plant issues or questions and clarifications with
log). Photographs from the site should complement the
regards to permits and regulation.
documentation (when applicable). Tickets (ticket
When storing documents, thought must be given to interventions) should be stored electronically and made
accessibility. As a minimum, project documentation available to all partners. The Asset Owner should also
should be available in a searchable PDF format to maintain ownership of these records for future references.
facilitate the identification of key information.
To improve future performance and predictive
Moreover, project drawings, such as the as-built
maintenance, it is crucial to keep a record of past and
design, should be editable in case they need
ongoing O&M data, work flows and alarms. This record
correcting, or change management processes mean
should seek to link these elements in a cost-effective
they need to be updated.
way, following an agreed naming convention. This will
improve accessibility and allow for easier tracing,
5.1.2. Management and control facilitating comprehensive lessons learned exercises,
and resulting in concrete future recommendations for
Regarding the document control, the following
the client. These analyses should also be recorded.
guidelines should be followed:
There should be proper documentation for
• Documents should be stored either electronically
curtailment periods as well as repair periods when the
or physically (depending on permits/regulations) in
plant is fully or partly unavailable. This will all be
a location with controlled access. Electronic copies
recorded by the monitoring system to measure the
should be made of all documents, and these
energy lost during maintenance activities. For this,
should be searchable and editable
having the correct reference values at hand is crucial.
• Only authorised people should be able to view or For important examples of input records that should
modify the documentation. A logbook of all the be included in the record control, see Annex d.
modifications should be kept. As a best practice,
As in the case of the as-built documentation, all
logbooks should at a minimum contain the
records, data and configuration of the monitoring tool,
following information:
and any sort of documentation and log that might be
• Name of person, who modified the document useful for proper service provision must be backed up
and available when required. This is also important
• Date of modification
when the O&M service provider changes.
PV engineer Vendor/
2nd Level
PV engineer
Expert
• If an incident requires special expertise or access, such as business plan data or real-time deviations
2nd Level engineers might need to contact experts between inverters on-site.
(in-house or from the vendor or a third party). This
In particular, the agreed KPIs should be calculated and
is known as 3rd level support. In some organisations
reported (see Chapter 10. Key Performance
the Project/Account Managers can cover both 2nd
Indicators). Special attention should be paid to the
and 3rd Level Support, based on their seniority and
fact that KPI calculations should take into
experience.
consideration the contractual parameters between
• When the fault is solved, the Operations Center O&M service provider and Asset Owner, to provide an
closes the ticket. accurate and useful calculation for evaluation and
eventually liquidated damages or bonuses.
Besides the data from the site, if a CCTV system is
available on-site, the O&M service provider should, as
a best practice, be able to access it for visual 5.3. Optimisation of O&M
supervision and also have access to local weather
An essential part of Operations is the analysis of all the
information.
information generated throughout O&M, such as
The O&M service provider is responsible for being the Response Time, and how this correlates to the various
main interface between the plant Owner, the grid classifications of events and root causes. Another vital
operator, and the regulator (if applicable) over the part of Operations is the analysis of costs incurred for
lifetime of the O&M contract regarding production various interventions, categorised into materials and
data. The Asset Owner should be able to contact the labour. Having such information helps to further
Operations team via a hotline during daytime, when optimise the asset by reducing production losses and
the system is expected to generate electricity. The the cost of O&M itself. For more information on
Operations team is also responsible for coordinating optimisation of O&M please refer to Chapter 6. Power
accordingly with the Maintenance service Plant Maintenance and Chapter 8. Spare Parts
provider/team. Management.
For more information on monitoring requirements,
see Chapter 9. Data and monitoring requirements. 5.4. Power plant controls
If applicable, the Operations team can be the point of
5.2.1. Performance analysis and improvement contact for the grid operator for plant controls. The
Operations team will control the plant remotely (if
The O&M service provider ensures that the
possible) or instruct the qualified maintenance
performance monitoring is done correctly.
personnel to operate breakers/controls on site. The
In general, the data should be analysed at the following O&M service provider is responsible for the remote
levels: plant controls or emergency shutdown of the plant (if
possible) and in accordance with the respective grid
1. Portfolio level (group of plants) under control of the
operator requirements (see also 5.6. Grid code
O&M service provider (minimum requirement)
compliance), regulations (see 4.4. Interface with local
2. Plant level (minimum requirement) energy authorities & regulatory compliance) and the
aggregator’s requirements. The plant control function
3. Inverter level (minimum requirement)
varies from country to country and in some cases
4. String level (as a recommendation) from region to region. The respective solar PV power
plant control document for the area details regulations
The analysis should show the required data on the
issued by the grid operator and (energy market)
levels listed above and for different time aggregation
regulator.
periods from the actual recording interval up to
monthly and quarterly levels. The Power Plant Controller itself is a control system
that can manage several parameters such as active
The analysis should also include the option for having
and reactive power and ramp control of solar PV
custom alarms based on client specific thresholds
power plants. The set points can normally be
grid operator themselves is steering the solar PV It is advisable that the O&M service provider lead these
power plant controller (with remote signals) or the sorts of change processes. The O&M service provider
Operations team is managing the plant controller is the trusted partner of the Asset Owner and should
under the direction of the grid operator. advise the Owner when they are making decisions on
changes to the plant. In the case of major changes, the
Owner should also consider informing lenders about
5.7. Management of change
the decision process and provide concepts, proposals,
If the design of a solar PV power plant needs to be calculations and updates.
adjusted after the Commercial Operation Date, the O&M
The fixed O&M fee does not usually cover change
service provider should, as a best practice, be involved
services. The Asset Owner and the O&M service
by the Asset Owner and the EPC service provider. They
provider should manage changes in a formalised way.
can even be a main contributor, if not the leader, of this
This procedure should include the following steps:
change process. Reasons for such changes can be
description of proposed change (including time plan,
motivated by non-compliance of the solar PV power
costs, consequences, and alternatives), authorisation
plant with the capacity predicted by the EPC service
of the change by the Asset Owner, realisation of the
provider, by regulation change (introduction of new solar
change, documentation by the O&M service provider
PV power plant controls regulations), by the
and acceptance.
unavailability of spare parts or components, or for an
upgrade to the solar PV power plant. These events can
trigger new design works, procurement and installation 5.8. Power plant security
of new equipment and adjustment of O&M procedures
It is important that the solar PV power plant, or key
and/or documentation. It may also impact certain
areas of it, are protected from unauthorised access.
performance commitments or warranties provided by
This serves the dual purpose of protecting the plant’s
the O&M service provider, which will need to be adjusted.
equipment and keeping members of the public safe.
The O&M service provider should be involved in Unauthorised access may be accidental with people
changes to the solar PV power plant from the wandering into the plant without realising the
beginning. Concepts, design works, and execution dangers, or it may be deliberate for the purposes of
need to be coordinated with ongoing O&M activities. theft or vandalism.
Any changes should also be reflected in the plant
Together with the O&M service provider and the security
SCADA and monitoring systems. For data continuity
service provider, the Asset Owner must put in place a
and long-term analysis, the monitoring system should
Security Protocol in case an intrusion is detected.
be able to trace all changes of electrical devices. This
should include documentation of inverter replacement In most countries there are strict legal requirements for
date, manufacturer and type, and serial number in a security service providers. Therefore, solar PV power
structured way for further analysis (e.g., spare part plant security should be ensured by specialised security
management, Predictive Maintenance analysis). The service providers subcontracted by the O&M service
monitoring of replaced devices will also help the O&M provider. The security service provider will be
service provider verify that the new component is responsible for the proper functioning of all the security
correctly configured and is sending high quality data. equipment including intrusion and surveillance
Adjustments to the Site Operating Plan, the Annual systems. They are also responsible for processing
Maintenance Plan and the Annual Maintenance alarms from the security system by following the
Schedule need to be applied and the O&M service Security Protocol and the use of the surveillance
provider needs to familiarise the O&M staff with the systems installed on site. The security system provider
operating manuals of the new equipment. These types will be also responsible for any site patrolling or other
of changes will have an impact on Spare Parts relevant services. The security service provider should
Management and inventory (replacement). Depending also assume liability for the security services provided.
on the significance of the change, the O&M annual fee The O&M service provider will coordinate with the
might need to be adjusted. security service provider and may choose to act as an
intermediary with the Asset Owner.
This chapter is about the various responsibilities and contractual obligations (for more information on
tasks related to Maintenance. maintenance activities and the skills they require, see
Annex b of these Guidelines and Annex a of the Lifecycle
Maintenance is usually carried out on-site by
Quality Guidelines). The O&M contract should include
specialised technicians or subcontractors, in close
this scope of services and each task frequency.
coordination with the Operations team’s analyses. In
modern solar PV power plants, automation of It is the responsibility of the O&M service provider to
maintenance tasks is becoming more prevalent. prepare the task plan, according to the time intervals
However, this practice is still developing and is not in the contract.
widespread currently. The following figure provides an
The “Annual Maintenance Plan” (see Annex e or
overview of the four main types of power plant
download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
maintenance.
developed as an attachment of this report includes a
list of regular inspections per equipment (e.g., module,
6.1. Preventive maintenance inverter etc) and per unit of equipment (e.g., sensors,
fuses etc).
Preventive Maintenance activities are the core
element of the maintenance services to a solar PV An example of Preventive Maintenance is
power plant. It comprises regular visual and physical thermographic inspection which aims to identify
inspections, as well as verification activities. defective panels on a solar PV power plant. Indeed,
several categories of anomalies (hot spots, hot strips,
The maintenance of all key components is carried out
moisture ingress, soling, etc.) can occur, significantly
at predetermined intervals or at least according to
reducing the whole plant productivity. Relevant
prescribed OEM and O&M manuals. These are included
inspection procedures are performed either by
in a detailed Annual Maintenance Plan which provides
operators with handheld cameras or using remotely
an established time schedule with a specific number
piloted drones or piloted aircraft equipped with
of iterations for carrying out the maintenance.
dedicated thermal and optical payloads.
It must also maintain the equipment and component
Preventive Maintenance also includes ad-hoc
warranties in place and reduce the probability of failure
replacement of parts of inverters or sensors. In general,
or degradation. The activities must also be consistent
it is important to follow detailed Preventive
with respective legal issues such as national standards
Maintenance procedures, which are agreed upon in
for periodic inspection of certain electrical components.
the Annual Maintenance Plan.
It should be noted that the various maintenance
activities that an O&M service provider is expected to In cases where downtime is necessary to perform
carry out require personnel qualified to carry them out. Preventive Maintenance, its execution during the night
The O&M service provider must ensure that they have would be considered best practice as the overall
the appropriate range of skills available to fulfil their power generation is not affected.
Preventive Maintenance
Preventive Maintenance are the core elements of the maintenance services to a PV plant. It comprises regular
INCLUDED IN ALL O&M CONTRACTS
visual and physical inspections, as well as verification that all the key components of the solar plant are in good
working order. This maintenance is carried out at predetermined regular intervals according to prescribed OEM &
O&M manuals and are included in the “Annual Maintenance Plan”.
Corrective Maintenance
Corrective Maintenance corresponds to any activity performed to restore a PV plant system, equipment or
component to a functioning state, and occurs after a failure detection by remote monitoring or during an on-site
inspection. Corrective Maintenance includes Fault Diagnosis, Temporary Repair & Repair and can be divided into
3 levels of intervention: Intervention without the need of substitution, with the need of substitution and with the
need to intervene on the software of a device.
Predictive Maintenance
Predictive Maintenance is a condition-based intervention carried out following a forecast derived from the analysis
and evaluation of the significant parameters of the degradation of an item. The site must have “intelligent”
equipment and an appropriate monitoring software system, allowing the Operations team to perform regular
monitoring, supervision, forecast and performance data analysis of the main equipment of the PV plant
(transformer, inverter, combiner box and/or DC array).
Extraordinary Maintenance
Extraordinary Maintenance actions are necessary when major unpredictable events require substantial activities
to restore the previous plant conditions. These interventions are required for damages due to Force Majeure,
damages due to a theft or fire, endemic failures of the equipment, modifications required by regulatory changes
and equipment wear or deterioration due to design faults.
Additional Services
The O&M agreement can foresee services other than electrical and mechanical plant maintenance. Some of these
additional services are generally included in the scope of work and the O&M annual fixed fee and some are not.
Additional services include PV site maintenance activities such as panel cleaning and vegetation control,
general site maintenance tasks like waste disposal and maintenance of buildings and on-site measurements
such as I-V curve measurement on modules or thermal inspections.
6.2. Corrective maintenance 3rd level activities could be included in the O&M
agreement or billed separately to it, depending on the
Corrective Maintenance covers the activities
specific scope of work agreed between the parties.
performed by the Maintenance team to restore a solar
Generally, however, this intervention is excluded by the
PV power plant system, equipment or component to
contractual scope of work, especially when the device
a status where it can perform the required function.
manufacturers’ maintenance team or third-party
Corrective Maintenance takes place after a failure
licensed company needs to intervene.
detection either by remote monitoring and
supervision or during regular inspections and specific Interventions for reconditioning, renewal, and
measurement activities (see Annex e). technical updating, save for the cases where those
actions are directly included in the scope of the
Corrective Maintenance includes three activities:
contract, should be excluded from Corrective
1. Fault Diagnosis also called troubleshooting to Maintenance, and included in the Extraordinary
identify and locate the cause of the fault Maintenance (see 6.4. Extraordinary Maintenance).
2. Temporary Repair, to restore the required function The scope of Corrective Maintenance activities and its
of a faulty item for a limited time, until a full repair “border” or definition with respect to Preventive
is carried out Maintenance requires specific attention and it should
be properly defined in the Maintenance contract. For an
3. Full repair, to restore the required function
easier comprehension, an example is presented below:
permanently
• A cable termination tightening activity using a
In cases where the solar PV power plant or segments
torque device for correct fixation should be under
thereof need to be taken offline, Corrective
the Preventive Maintenance scope of works, but
Maintenance should be performed at night or during
depending on the quantity and/or frequency, it
periods of low irradiation as the overall power
could be considered a Corrective Maintenance
generation is not affected.
activity. The Annual Maintenance plan therefore
A key aspect of corrective maintenance is to be able states the extent of each planned activity.
to track failures to their root cause. This is most often
Usually, Corrective Maintenance work must be
a problematic manufacturer/model/serial number but
accomplished within the contractually agreed
may also be linked to installation errors or
minimum Response Times (see 10.4.3. Response Time
environmental conditions such as temperature inside
and 11.6. Response Time price adjustment).
enclosures. Corrective Maintenance processes should
also track the efficacy of responses to problems (what Contractual agreements can foresee that the included
fixes the problem reliably?). Corrective Maintenance will be capped on a per year
basis. Depending on whether the Asset Owner is a
Corrective Maintenance can be divided into three
purely financial investor or an energy producer (e.g.
levels of intervention (See Table 2) to restore the
utility or IPP) the requirements for coverage under the
functionality of a device, that could be included in the
Corrective Maintenance will vary.
O&M agreement or billed separately on hourly rates.
points in the past. This might be related to problems Extraordinary Maintenance interventions are required for:
in the air flow, filter obstructions, fans, or
• Damages that are a consequence of a Force
environmental changes (high temperature during
Majeure event.
summer). A decision was taken to monitor the
temperature of IGBTs (Insulated-Gate Bipolar • Damages resulting from theft or fire.
Transistors). An “air flow inspection” was performed,
• Serial defects or endemic failures on equipment,
prior to any emergency action being required, to
occurring suddenly and after months or years from
determine whether power loss was related to air flow.
plant start-up.
This type of activity is a condition-based inspection
performed after the detection of a change in a • Modifications required by regulatory changes.
significant parameter. It is also considered as a type of
In cases where the O&M service provider and the EPC
Predictive Maintenance. The final purpose is to
service provider are different entities, the following
identify if, for example, the ventilation systems will
occurrence should also be considered as
need some upgrade, replacement, or if there is any
Extraordinary Maintenance:
type of air flow obstruction or even if a filter
replacement or cleaning is required. • Major issues that the O&M service provider
becomes aware of during its ordinary activity.
Example 2
These could be defects or other problems that are
Predictive Maintenance for optimised hardware not a consequence of equipment wear or
replacement cycle relying on big data analytics or deterioration and can be reasonably considered to
artificial intelligence. For more information on this have been caused by design mistakes (e.g.,
innovation, see section 12.4. Predictive maintenance “hidden” defects that require re-engineering).
for optimised hardware replacement.
Although not necessarily maintenance interventions,
revamping and repowering can also be included in the
6.4. Extraordinary maintenance Extraordinary Maintenance list in the O&M agreement,
or at least managed with the same rules. For more
Extraordinary Maintenance actions are necessary
information on this, see Chapter 7. Revamping and
when major unpredictable events take place in the
repowering.
plant that require substantial activities and works to
restore the previous plant conditions (or any After the approval by the Asset Owner of the O&M
maintenance activity generally not covered or service provider’s proposal, activities may commence,
excluded from the O&M Contract). subject to availability of the required equipment and
special machinery (if required).
“Force Majeure” events affecting solar PV power plants
include high winds, flooding, hurricanes, tornados, hail, The potential loss of energy between the event
lightning, and any number of other severe weather occurrence and full repair is very difficult to determine
events. Extraordinary Maintenance associated with in the SPV financial model. However, many of the
severe weather include safety shutdown, inspection to above events can be reimbursed to the Asset Owner
document damage, electrical testing (integrity of circuits by the insurance company under any “All Risk
and grounding), remove/repair/replace decisions, and Insurance” coverage that is in place. Relevant
recommissioning confirming proper operation and conditions and requirements according to the
documenting changes made during repairs. insurance policies of the Asset Owner need to be
shared with the O&M service provider.
Generally, these activities are billed separately in the
O&M contract and are managed under a separate Best Practices of O&M agreements regarding
order. It is advisable that the O&M contract includes Extraordinary Maintenance activities include:
the rules agreed among the parties to prepare the
• General rules to quantify price and to elaborate a
quotation and to execute the works. Both a “lump sum
schedule to perform repair activities, and the right
turn-key” or a “cost-plus” method can be used for
such purposes.
5 For a definition of endemic failures and its repercussions in terms
ofwarranty, see section 4.5. Warranty management.
ADDITIONAL SERVICES
reduces H&S risks involved in manual inspections, path allows for precise and repeatable flights to be
such as prolonged field exposure in dangerous performed, increases the accuracy of results, and
working environments, and the hazards involved in ensures that the same parameters are used during
moving around the site, particularly on rooftop each subsequent aerial inspection.
installations. Aerial inspections can also pinpoint
With the advent of aerial inspections, resources
anomalies to precise locations, thus focusing and
required for data collection can be significantly
reducing the time required for repair work.
reduced. For instance, a 12MWp solar PV power plant
Please refer to the Aerial Thermography Checklist of can be inspected in a single day. Aerial IR
the Solar Best Practices Mark for a synthesis of the thermography must always be conducted following a
most important best practices and recommendation set of minimum technical requirements (described in
with respect to aerial thermography. 6 IEC TS 62446-3:2017). Otherwise, it is of little value for
effective plant maintenance. In that context, high-
quality IR images captured by an aerial platform and
Data acquisition
their proper post-processing allow for a detailed solar
In this stage a flyover is performed where raw infrared PV module failure analysis that could trigger
(IR) thermographic images and visual photos or videos conclusive maintenance decisions. Furthermore, field
are recorded. Depending on the solution, additional interventions can be optimised, and solar PV power
geolocation services and 3D modelling of the entire plant underperformance can be better understood
plant may be offered. Some other solutions provide and addressed (e.g., faulty modules that need to be
additional sensors to record weather variables (usually replaced can be identified with precision and high-
irradiance and ambient temperature) during the quality IR images can be used as proof in warranty
flyover. The drone is typically pre-programmed with a
flight path designed to cover the entirety of the solar
6 The best practice checklists of the Solar Best Practices Mark are
PV asset being inspected. The pre-programmed flight available at: www.solarbestpractices.com.
POST-PROCESSING DESCRIPTION
SUBTASK
Geolocation of PV Manual or automated location of the solar PV modules inspected. Layout recreation with
modules precise geolocation down to individual module ID or even to module’s serial number.
Thermal anomalies Manual or automated detection of thermal anomalies, where the exact position of each
detection and affected solar PV module is identified on the plant’s layout. Minimum requirements for this
classification analysis can be found in IEC TS 62446-3:2017.
Solar PV module Diagnosis and root-cause analysis of solar PV module failures. This is where the link between
failure analysis thermal anomaly and solar PV module failure is done (warning: not all the thermal anomalies
may be considered failures). Temperature differences should be projected to nominal
irradiance in accordance with IEC TS 62446-3:2017.
Data analytics Basic or advanced data treatment to describe the impact of failures in the solar PV power plant.
These can include egradation trends, failure distribution by harm degree and by module
manufacturer, etc. Some specialised data analytics platforms can generate power loss
assessments and financial impact statements by inputting PPA figures to help estimate the
financial impact of power loss from thermal anomalies.
Maintenance Actions needed to minimise yield losses, based on the seriousness of the defect. It can be seen
implementation plan as a list of recommendations that can be directly translated into preventive or corrective field
operations.
Reporting Report created manually or automatically. In ideal circumstances the report should be tailored
to the customer’s needs and requirements. It contains a summary of the findings and
additionally, depending on the provider, it could contain some calculations of estimated power
losses and the resulting financial implications. These reports can be used for a variety of cases
from insurance/warranty claims, preventative and corrective maintenance/repair of the solar
PV asset, to reporting for various stakeholders throughout the value chain.
While reports can still come in the form of pdf or other documents, increasingly the best
practice is for reports to be housed within a cloud-based platform, where the information can
be accessed from a variety of portals, devices and formats (e.g. on client side as well as O&M
and AM), and the data can be easily manipulated into various report formats.
These cloud-based platforms also allow for the results of previous inspections to be easily compared
with new ones to note measurements such as year-to-year power degradation. Some platforms now
offer benchmarking of the inspected site’s performance, not only against its historical performance,
but also against other solar PV sites in the same portfolio, and against a global data set.
Grazing • Costs (dependent on grazer • They will not eat everything e.g.,
Use of Grazers (typically sheep) availability) thistle and woody plants
managed by an on-site shepherd • Good local community engagement • Quality dependent on farming
for vegetation control. Grazers are and can enhance social license to partners
typically transported to site operate • Costs can be high if supply of
periodically for vegetation • Erosion control through ground grazers is low
management fertilization
• Soil carbon sequestration
Chemical • Costs • Can cause significant erosion
Herbicide use for large area • Speed • Runoff concerns can cause
vegetation control • Coverage - it is easy to get large and environmental damage
consistent coverage on site • Permitting required and not legally
allowed in some locations
• Can hurt community relations and
reduce social license to operate
Passive vegetation control through • Low operating costs • Higher project capital costs
system design • Potential for enhanced community • Increased system design costs for
Designing systems with high engagement specifying appropriate local
ground clearance and seeding with • Potential for additional project vegetation
low growth natural vegetation or revenue streams
natural pollinators
© greentech
Revamping Repowering
Involves replacement of components (mainly inverters Involves replacement of components (mainly inverters
and modules), but without substantially changing the and modules), with causes a substantial change to the
plant's nominal power. plant's nominal power.
© Shutterstock
• Aging solar assets: By the end of 2021, we expect more than 900 GWp of PV capacity installed worldwide. The fleet of
modules and inverters is getting older which leads to an increased failure rate, higher degradation and expiring warranties.
• Unavailability of spare parts and support: Many manufacturers of modules and inverters have left the market. This
complicates the supply of spare parts or repair solutions and may leave an exchange of components as the only alternative.
• Technological Improvements: The technological advancement of modules and inverters has been significant. Thus,
exchanging components can lead to an improved performance and availability. As further benefits, new components
offer higher design flexibility and advanced features at reduced maintenance costs. Another example is installing a battery
storage system on an existing plant.
• Decreasing prices: The prices for PV components have decreased substantially. This trend helps to create an
economically feasible re-investment case.
• Additional benefits: A repowering project usually includes additional benefits, such as new warranty terms and
compliance with the latest regulations. Furthermore, it brings the opportunity to correct potential planning mistakes
from the initial construction.
• If the new module is heavier and has a larger surface • It is likely that the new module type will have
area the structural impacts on the mounting system different connectors. Therefore, the string cable
or the building need to be checked and aligned. connector needs to be replaced accordingly.
• The new modules need to be integrated into the • The dimensioning of existing cables and fuses
grounding system as before. needs to be checked and verified to ensure it is
suitable for the new DC-layout.
7.2.2. Electrical installation
7.2.3. Further considerations
• Depending on the rated power and the electrical
characteristics of the new module type a new string • A module repowering might contain various
design can be inevitable. The maximum DC power, regulatory aspects, which will vary from country to
voltage and current need to be in-line with the country. The regulatory body should be contacted
inverter requirements. well in advance to clarify aspects such as:
• A mix of different electrical characteristics at one • Maximum power to be installed
inverter or at least one MPP tracker should be
• Requirements for proving the faults of modules
avoided. Alternatively, bypass diodes can be
integrated as protection in case of failures such as • Registration of new modules
reverse current.
• Disposal of old modules
• Module repowering should be considered as a relevant potential spare parts. Additionally, it can be practical
interference into the electrical system. All affected to exchange more inverters than technically required
strings should be tested and documented according to store those as potential exchange devices for
to IEC 60364-7-712:2017, IEC 60364-6:2016 and IEC future defects of the old inverter type.
62446-1:2016 after the repowering project.
• Exchange of same or different power class:
• The new string layout should be optimised towards Exchanging inverters with the same power class is
shading or DC / AC ratio. Furthermore, an in-depth easier for the DC and AC integration. However,
check of the mounting structures, cables and replacing multiple devices through one with a larger
connectors should be performed. power class can increase the system efficiency and
reduce the component costs as well as future
• If only some of the modules are being exchanged
maintenance costs.
and power measurements of the old type of
modules are being performed, it is recommended When an inverter repowering is planned, several
to install the old modules according to their factors need to be considered:
remaining power. This means all modules in one
string or connected to one MPP tracker should have
Mechanical installation
similar power to reduce mismatching losses.
• If the new inverters have different dimensions or
• Depending on the status of the old modules (and
weight, a suitable solution for the installation or
the regulatory requirements), they can be either
mounting of the inverter needs to be prepared. The
sold to the secondary market or should be disposed
same applies for proper cabling if DC or AC
or recycled by a professional provider.
connections are changed.
• The manufacturer of the new device might have
7.3. Inverter repowering
different requirements for the mounting with
As with all electronic devices, inverters have a limited regards to fixings, distance to other components or
lifetime. With increasing age and wear, the likelihood to the roof, ventilation, etc. All requirements need
of failures and breakdowns increases. If the warranty to be checked and implemented.
of a device has expired, a technically and economically
• The new inverters need to be integrated into the
suitable solution needs to be identified. Some
grounding system according to the standards and
manufacturers or service providers offer repair and
the manufacturers specifications.
spare parts services. With new components it might
even be possible to increase the efficiency of an older
inverter (e.g., by replacing an old control board with a Electrical installation
new device with better performance characteristics,
• The integration of the DC side to the new inverters
such as Maximum Power Point (MPP) tracking). If an
needs to follow the DC input requirements of the
identical replacement inverter, repair services or spare
new inverter. The string length and the number of
parts are not available, using a new component
connected strings may need to be adjusted to suit
becomes inevitable. There are different strategies for
the technical parameters of maximum current and
inverter repowering which should be evaluated on a
voltage as well as ideal operational conditions. In
case-by-case basis:
case larger inverters are installed, additional DC
• Partial or complete exchange: If only some of the combiner boxes might be required, and different, or
inverters are affected, a partial exchange of the additional fuses may need to be integrated.
inverter fleet of the solar PV system can be an option.
• If different inverter sizes are installed, the
This potentially reduces the overall costs, but it can
integration to the AC side needs to be re-
also increase the complexity regarding the electrical
engineered. This includes the cable diameters,
design or the implementation of two different
protection devices (fuses) and connectors.
inverter types into one communication concept on-
site. If the repowering does not affect all inverters on- • In all cases the applicable electrotechnical rules and
site, it is advisable to store the old devices as regulations need to be followed.
© sarawuth wannasathit
It is important to differentiate between Consumables so. Some Asset Owners require O&M service providers
and Spare Parts. to be fully responsible for the cost of all spare parts
within the O&M fee, however, the more cost-effective
Consumables are items which are intended to be
approach is to agree a set of Included Spare Parts and
depleted or worn out relatively quickly and then
Excluded Spare Parts. Similarly, a financial limit for
replaced. They are necessary for the regular operation
Included Spare Parts can be negotiated.
of the solar PV power plant and O&M service providers
should always have consumables on stock and Included Spare Parts are those which the O&M service
maintenance crews should carry consumables with provider is to be responsible for within the O&M fee.
them, together with the relevant tools. Excluded Spare Parts are those which the Asset Owner
is responsible for the cost of replenishing and do not
Spare Parts are all the items (materials and equipment
fall within the O&M service provider’s O&M fee. This is
such as modules or inverters) listed on the Spare Parts
a flexible approach allowing the Asset Owner and O&M
List, not in use or incorporated in the solar PV power
service provider to agree which spare parts fall into
plant, intended to replace similar items in the solar PV
which category. It enables both parties to have a level
power plant.
of cost certainty whilst balancing this with the Asset
Spare Parts Management is an inherent and Owner's appetite for risk. The contract should contain
substantial part of O&M that should ensure that spare provisions on who is liable in the event that a spare
parts are available in a timely manner for Corrective part is unavailable. The various parties are responsible
Maintenance to minimise the downtime of (part of) a for their replenishment and bear the associated
solar PV power plant. to the following considerations production loss.
have to be made in Spare Parts Management:
Ownership of spares is often with the Asset Owner
• Ownership and responsibility of insurance from delivery to site or placement in the spares stock.
In the case of excluded spare parts, ownership
• Stocking level
transfers to the Asset Owner from the date that the
• Location of storage O&M service provider receives payment for the same.
a. Proximity to the plant Maintenance, storage, and replenishment are the
responsibility of the O&M service provider. Besides
b. Security
ownership matters, it is very important to make sure,
c. Environmental conditions upon mutual agreement, that one of the parties
undertakes the responsibility of insuring the spares: as
Although it is best practice for the O&M service provider
a recommendation spare parts stored on-site should
to be responsible for replenishing the spare parts stock,
be insured by the Asset Owner and spare parts stored
it is not necessarily responsible for the full cost of doing
off-site should be insured by the O&M service provider.
For a new solar PV power plant, the initial spare parts • Frequency of failure
for two years from COD are procured by the Asset
• Impact of failure
Owner, or the EPC service provider on behalf of the
Asset Owner. However, it is best practice for the EPC • Cost of Spare Part
and O&M service providers to have agreed upon the
• Degradation over time
list. The O&M service provider should, as a best
practice, recommend additional spares that they • Possibility of consignment stock with the
deem them necessary to meet the contractual manufacturer
obligations (e.g. availability guarantees).
• Equipment reliability
Generally, it is not economically feasible to stock spare
• Replenishment time
parts for every possible failure in the plant. Therefore,
the O&M service provider together with the Asset • Management risk
Owner should define the stocking level of specific
However, for any given utility scale solar solar PV
spare parts that make economic sense (Cost-Benefit
system there are certain spare parts that could be
Analysis). For example, if a specific part in a solar solar
considered as essential to have – no matter the cost.
PV power plant has a frequency of failure at least of
once every year or more and the loss of revenues due Table 6 on the following page summarises a minimum
to such failure is greater than the spare part cost, it is list. This list is not exhaustive and system
important to have such a spare part kept available. requirements and technology developments can lead
This can also apply for parts with a long replenishment to this list being updated following discussion with
period. Similarly, one must consider the management manufacturers, amongst others.
risk that a fault can cause. For example, if a
Regarding the storage and warehousing, this should be
component of a SCADA system stops working, there
done in locations where the spare parts cannot be
is no resultant power loss. However, there is a risk of
damaged (e.g., by humidity or high temperature
not being able to detect future power loss if this part
variations) and are easily identifiable as being owned
is not replaced. Some very large O&M service
by the Asset Owner. Additionally, the storage sites
providers now propose using the spare parts in their
should have appropriate security measures.
different warehouses in place of, or in addition to the
Asset Owner’s spares stock. Since they operate many The decision to have either an on-site or an off-site
sites, they limit the shortage of unusual spare parts by warehouse facility or just an agreement with the
maintaining a small stock. suppliers to provide the spare parts, depends on many
factors, including the kind of part, the commercial
Regarding the stocking level, due to the very different
agreement, and the facilitation of the service provision.
configurations and sizes of solar solar PV power plants,
If the spare parts owned by the Asset Owner are stored
it is very difficult to define a hard number for stocking
off-site, such spares should be stored separately and
specific spare parts, however 0.2% of total module
be clearly identified as the property of the Asset Owner.
quantity is often found in commercial contracts.
If the O&M service provider exchanges spare parts, an
Furthermore, the regional portfolio of the O&M service
agreement should be drawn up with the supplier that
provider might also influence this and, as mentioned
ensures the warranty is not voided.
above, the determination of spare items and quantity
is also driven by the O&M service provider’s While proximity to the plant is a parameter that needs
contractual commitments and guarantees. To define to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, security and
the stocking levels of Spare Parts and Consumables, environmental conditions are very important as they
the following parameters should be taken into could lead to a loss of property either through thefts
consideration: or damage.
1 Fuses for all equipment (e.g., inverters, combiner boxes etc) and fuse kits
2 Modules
3 Inverter spares (e.g., power stacks, circuit breakers, contactor, switches, controller board etc)
4 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
5 Voltage terminations (MV)
6 Power Plant controller spares
7 SCADA and data communication spares
8 Transformer and switchgear spares
9 Weather station sensors
10 Motors and gearboxes for trackers and tracker control board
11 Harnesses and cables
12 Screws and other supplies and tools
13 Specified module connectors (male and female should be from the same manufacturer)
14 Structures components
15 Security equipment (e.g., cameras)
In general, monitoring systems should allow follow-up All components and different aspects of technical
on the energy flows within a solar PV system. In data management and monitoring platforms are
principle, it reports on the parameters that determine described in the following paragraphs. Reference
the energy conversion chain. These parameters, along should also be made to the Monitoring Checklist of the
with the most important energy measures in terms of Solar Best Practices Mark for a synthesis of the most
yields and losses, are illustrated in Figure 6. These important best practices and recommendation with
yields and losses are always normalised to installed respect to these points.7
solar PV power at standard test conditions in kilowatt-
peak (kWp) for ease of performance comparison.
FIGURE 6 ENERGY FLOW IN A GRID-CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM WITH PARAMETERS, YIELDS AND LOSSES8
Gpoa
PV array Vdc Inverter Vac Grid
Idc Iac
Pdc Pac
Tamb, Tmod, Sw
Yr Ya Yf
Reference Yield Array Yield System Yield
Lc Ls
Array capture System
losses losses
PR
© SOLARPOWER EUROPE 2020
7 The best practice checklists of the Solar Best Practices Mark are 8 The figure is redesigned and based on a figure produced by 3E and
available at: www.solarbestpractices.com published in (Woyte et al. 2014).
Moreover, renewable plants, and solar plants, are often • Modelling each solar PV asset using all available
situated in remote environments, and sometimes in information regarding the actual set up and devices
harsh places. As such, equipment and systems are (type of devices, installation/replacement date,
subject to difficult conditions and are often subject to modules-string-inverter system layout, modules
data quality issues. inclination, orientation, type of installation etc.).
The data quality issues that equipment may face may • Visualising aggregated data in the highest possible
be categorised as follow: granularity (1 to 15 min is a best practice for most
of the indicators).
• False negative values
• Visualising data in standard and specific diagrams.
• Outliers
• Computing and visualising dashboards and views of
• Spikes
KPIs. For the list of indicators to be computed, see
• Data gaps Chapter 10. Key Performanace Indicators.
Computational inputs might be selectable by the user.
• Junk values
• Validating data quality (e.g., through calculation of
These data quality issues can provoke situations that
data availability).
vary extremely depending on the plant, type of
measurement, or systems in place. As such, it is very • Detecting malfunctions as well as long term
difficult to implement an overall and systematic data degradations with customisable alarms.
quality strategy for renewable Asset Owners as each
• Handling alerts from field devices like dataloggers
case is unique.
or inverters.
The data quality issues mentioned above are obvious
• Calculating typical KPIs (such as PR and Availability)
and may impact many KPIs which are calculated on
with the possibility to adapt parameters.
this basis. More challenging to identify, are slight and
progressive data deviations overtime. • Providing consistent and easy to use aggregated
KPIs for customisable reports for single plants and
Biased KPIs lead to unnecessary operations costs
portfolios.
(unrequired on-site intervention) and performances
losses, as defects may remain undetected. • Making data available via a standardised interface
for use in other systems.
As a best practice, the monitoring solution and system
should be capable of filtering these values in the most The monitoring portal should fulfil the following
automated and personalised way to cater for each minimum requirements:
specific case.
• Accessibility level of at least 99% across the year.
Most effective techniques for data validation are
• Interface and/or apps dedicated to use cases (on-
based on the analysis of data over relatively long
site service, investor etc).
timespans (i.e., daily data validation), with a granularity
between 1 and 15 minutes. • Customisable user Access Level.
• Graphs of irradiation, energy production,
9.3. Monitoring (web) portal performance, and yield.
The main purposes of the monitoring portal are: • Downloadable tables with all the registered figures.
• Reading any type of raw data coming from any type • Alarms register.
of data logger or other solar PV platforms with no
As best practice, the following features will also be
preference on brands or models.
included in the Monitoring Portal:
• Creating a long-term archive for all raw data
• Configurable User Interface to adjust the views
provided by the asset.
depending on the target group (e.g., O&M service
provider, EPC service provider, Investor, Asset Manager).
API may face data quality issues and limits – data granularity, data
depth, availability, correctness, how current it is, completeness –
depending on the provider’s terms conditions (Service-Level
Agreement/SLAs) and technical abilities.
or Wi-Fi communication is preferred. Satellite monitoring portal of the inverter manufacturer), the
connection is the least preferred communication SLA can no longer be guaranteed. The automatic
type. An additional back-up system is best practice. firmware updates of the data logger should be
Any subscription should allow for the data quantity disabled. Firmware updates are subject to a change
required and should foresee the amount (e.g., Closed- management procedure with the monitoring service.
Circuit Television (CCTV) or not)granularity of the data.
All communication cables must be shielded. Physical
For solar PV power plants larger than 1MW it is advised distances between (DC or AC) power cables and
to have a WAN connection and as an alternative to an communication cables should be ensured, and
industrial router, that allows for mobile or satellite communication cables should be shielded from direct
communication back-up in case the WAN connection sunlight. Furthermore, cables with different polarities
fails. A system with a reset capability in case of loss of must be clearly distinguishable (label or colour) for
internet connection is recommended. A direct avoiding polarity connection errors.
connection to a monitoring server with an SLA
Pros and cons of different types of monitoring
guarantees continuous data access. If data passes via
connections can be seen in Table 8 on the following page.
alternative monitoring servers without an SLA, (e.g.,
9.8. Data ownership and privacy provider (but the monitoring system hardware remains
the property of the Asset Owner as part of the installation):
The data from the monitoring system and data
loggers, even if hosted in the cloud, should always be • If the O&M service provider is the monitoring
owned by and accessible to the Asset Owner (or SPV). service provider, they have full responsibility for
Stakeholders such as the O&M service provider and protecting and maintaining the data, and ensuring
the Asset Manager need the data to perform their the proper functioning of the monitoring system
duties and should be granted access. In addition to
• Where there is a third-party monitoring service
this, auditors working in the due diligence phases of a
provider, responsibility for protecting and
project should also have access. It is important to have
maintaining the data resides with them. The O&M
at least two access levels (read-only, full access).
service provider should endeavours to make sure
The monitoring system hardware can be provided by the performance monitoring is correct and takes the
O&M service provider or a third-party monitoring service best practices mentioned in the previous
paragraphs into consideration. The O&M service • Each solar PV power plant should have different
provider’s ability to properly maintain and use the passwords.
monitoring system should be evaluated. If
• Keep your documentation up to date to be sure
necessary, the O&M service provider should be
that no device has been forgotten.
appropriately trained to use the monitoring system.
Data use by third-party monitoring providers should • Use different roles to the extent possible (e.g.,
be extremely limited, i.e., for correcting bugs and read only user, administration access).
developing additional functions to their systems.
• Use professional (industrial grade) hardware;
only this hardware provides the security and
9.9. Cybersecurity administration functions your plant needs to
be secure.
As solar PV power plants have inverters and power
plant controllers (and monitoring systems) that are • Implement vulnerability management (i.e.,
connected to the internet to enable surveillance and identifying and fixing or mitigating vulnerabilities,
remote instructions by operators, there are significant especially in software and firmware):
cybersecurity risks.
• Improve insecure software configurations.
Cybersecurity comprises technologies, processes and
• The firmware and software of devices should be
controls that are designed to protect systems,
kept up to date.
networks, and data from cyber-attacks. Effective cyber
security reduces the risk of cyber-attacks and protects • Use anti-virus software if possible and keep it up
organisations and individuals from the unauthorised to date.
exploitation of systems, networks, and technologies.10
• Avoid wireless access if it is not necessary.
Cybersecurity is a vast area and multiple measures are
• Audit your network with the help of external
possible. The following hints may help as a starting point:
experts (penetration tests).
• Keep it simple: If possible, reduce the type of
• Keep your company safe:
network devices to a minimum.
• Do not store passwords in plain text format, use
• As a recommendation, traffic of the network
password manager (e.g., 1Password, Keepass etc.).
devices may be monitored to detect abnormally
high use of bandwidth. • Train your employees on IT security awareness.
• Secure physical access to the network devices and • Do not share access from all plants to all
implement a secure password policy. Avoid the use employees. Give access only to those who need
of standard passwords and change all factory it. This way damage can be limited if an individual
setting passwords. employee is hacked.
• Control access from Internet via strict firewall rules: • Management of leaving and moving employees;
change passwords of plants which are overseen
• Port forwarding should not be used because this
by an employee who has left the company or
is a big security gap. Only router ports that are
moved to another department.
necessary should be opened.
It is therefore best practice that installations undertake
• Reduce remote access to the necessary use cases.
a cyber security analysis, starting from a risk
• The use of VPNs (Virtual Private Networks – a assessment (including analysis at the level of the
secure connection built up from the inside of the system architecture) and implement a cybersecurity
private network) is necessary. management system (CSMS) that incorporates a plan-
do-check-act cycle. The CSMS should start from a
• VPN access to the site from outside is a
cybersecurity policy, and definition of formal
minimum requirement.
cybersecurity roles and responsibilities, and proceed to
• A VPN server or VPN service which works
without requiring a public IP on-site is preferred. 10 Definition: https://www.itgovernance.co.uk/what-is-cybersecurity.
The temperature sensor should be attached to the are subject to local phenomena and installation-
middle of the backside of the module in the middle specific results. Data from an independent weather-
of the array table, in the centre of a cell, away from station is less subject to this, while being also more
the junction box with appropriate and stable stable and robust with respect to long-term drift. They
thermally conductive glue (Woyte et al. 2013). The can therefore be used to evaluate the quality, and
installation should be in accordance with eventually replace, the on-site measurement.
manufacturer guidelines (e.g., respecting cabling
Therefore, for both performance assessment and
instructions towards the data logger).
detailed analysis purposes, automated, local
Varying solar PV module temperature in a plant is meteorological data is recommended. However, for
mainly due to different wind exposure. Therefore, in performance assessment the most important
large plants more sensors will be required across the measurement remains the in-plane irradiation (see 10.
site because module temperature should be measured Key Performance Indicators).
at different representative positions (e.g., for modules
Solar resource data derived from satellite image
in the centre of the plant and for modules at edge
processing is available from several services at a
locations where temperature variation is expected).
nominal per-site and per time-segment (such as one
The granularity of module temperature data should be week) fee. The measurement error in satellite data
at least 15 minutes to perform a correct PR calculation. might be greater than that of an on-site instrument
but is often more reliable than a mis-aligned,
inadequate or dirty on-site pyranometer, and less
9.10.3. Local meteorological data
susceptible to soiling or tampering.
It is best practice to measure ambient temperature,
wind speed, rain fall and other site relevant
9.10.4. String measurements
meteorological measurement with the installation of
a local meteorological station in accordance with the Individual string current measurements may be
manufacturers’ guidelines. Ambient temperature is deployed when not supported by the inverters. String
measured with a shielded thermometer, such as a level monitoring allows for more precise trouble-
PT100. The shield protects the sensor from radiative shooting procedures than at inverter level. Depending
heat transfer. Wind speed is measured with an on the module technology used in a plant, strings can
anemometer, at 10m above ground level. be combined (in harnesses) which can help reduce
operation costs.
Wind and ambient temperature data are normally not
required for calculating PR unless this is a contractual To detect problems quickly and to increase plant
requirement/agreement (e.g., according to specific uptime, installing string monitoring equipment is
recommendations such as those from the National recommended. This will constantly measure the
Renewable Energy Laboratory in the USA). However, current of every string and register those
they are required when the solar PV power plant is measurements in intervals of up to at 15 minutes. To
modelled in operation or retrospectively. reduce costs, the current sensor can be used to
measure more than one string. However, no more than
Additionally, whenever the module temperature
two strings should be measured in parallel.
measurements are not available or not suitable, wind
speed and ambient temperature coupled with
installation specifications can be used to retrieve a 9.10.5. Inverter measurements
good estimation of module temperature. In this case,
Inverters have a large set of variables that are
15 minutes granularity of measurement is still the
constantly measured by their hardware, and that can
best practice.
be registered and investigated from the monitoring
For plants larger than10 MWp, having automated system. The data sent from the inverter to the
collection of hourly meteorological data (ambient monitoring system should be in cumulative values to
temperature, wind speed, snow coverage, rainfall) allow the monitoring of the overall electricity
from independent sources is recommended. The generation of the inverter, even in case of outages of
reason for this is that on-site meteorological stations the monitoring system.
High volume approaches to EL testing such as using The advantages of the measurement technique that
drones are being offered by some niche service it is non-destructive, fast, and quantitative (the
providers. See Chapter 12 for further information. measurement signal is proportional to the underlying
electric current). A disadvantage of using magnetic
fields is that the distance to the sample must be in the
9.11.4. Magnetic Field Imaging (MFI)
millimeter range to produce high quality imaging
Magnetic field imaging (MFI) is a new and innovative results. The measurement cannot resolve
method for quantitatively analysing flowing electric microscopic structures (< 100 µm), yet.
currents non-destructively, and without contact.
The underlying physics are very simple: every electric 9.11.6. Soiling measurements
current generates a magnetic field. A magnetic field
The operational efficiency of modules is affected by
sensor creates an image of this by being moved over the
soiling accumulation. Soiling limits the effective
current-carrying component. Strength and direction of
irradiance and, therefore, the output of the solar PV
the electric current can be inferred from this.
module. Measuring soiling I recommended as it can help
Current-carrying components such as solar cells, optimise cleaning schedules and thus revenues. Several
modules or batteries have a characteristic current methodologies exist for soiling monitoring, the most
distribution. If components have defects that basic being human inspections. A widely used soiling
influence the electrical current distribution measurement method is using ground-based soiling
significantly, the resulting magnetic field also changes. reference modules consisting of a module that remains
These changes can be detected by MFI and thus soiled, a cleaned reference cell, an automatic washing
traced back to the defects. station and measurement electronics. There are several
variations using different principles to measure the
The fields of application are manifold. In solar PV, defects
effect of soiling. Digital solutions for soiling monitoring
relevant for the operation of solar modules can be
that are currently under development include the
detected reliably (Lauch et al, 2018; Patzold et al, 2019).
analysis of satellite imagery with remote sensing
These are, for example, broken connectors or ribbons
techniques, machine intelligence algorithms and
(see Figure 7), missing solder joints or defective bypass
statistical methods. Possible soiling analyses include
diodes in the junction boxes of the modules.
taking a swab of the soil to an analytical laboratory to
determine its nature (diesel soot; pollen; organic soil;
inorganic dust) and the appropriate cleaning solution.
Broken ribbon marked position Magnetic field measurement Magnetic field measurement (3D)
© Shutterstock
This section deals with Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), The O&M service provider (or the Technical Asset
which provide the Asset Owner with a quick reference on Manager) is generally responsible for the calculation
the performance of the solar PV power plant. The KPIs in of the KPIs and reporting to the Asset Owner, see
this chapter are divided into the following categories:: section 4.1. Technical reporting.
• Solar PV power plant KPIs, which directly reflect the It is important to underline that the O&M service
performance of a solar PV power plant. They are provider is not responsible for providing contractual
quantitative indicators. guarantees for all the KPIs listed in this chapter. For
more information on suggested contractually
• O&M service provider KPIs, which reflect the
guaranteed KPIs, see 10.4. O&M service providers KPIs
performance of the service provided by the O&M
and price adjustments. When there are warranties in
service provider. O&M service provider KPIs are
place it is strongly advised that the party liable for the
both quantitative and qualitative indicators.
warranties is not the only one calculating the KPIs.
• Solar PV power plant/O&M service provider KPIs,
which reflect solar PV power plant performance
and O&M service quality at the same time.
obtainable under standard conditions, with no losses, • Irradiance is the power of the sunlight at a specific moment per unit
of area, usually expressed in Watt per square meter (W/m2).
over a certain period i. It is useful to compare the
Reference Yield with the final system yield (see • Irradiation is the power of the sunlight integrated over a period of
time (e.g., an hour, a day or a year). In other words, irradiation is the
section 10.3.3. Performance Ratio). energy per unit of area, calculated as the sum of irradiances over a
period of time. It is commonly expressed in kilowatt-hour per
square meter (kWh/m2).
13 The temperature-corrected PR calculation is not consistently applied. same with as the high PR values and the use of an average value of
Therefore, this note clarifies in brief the best practice for calculating PR using the PR does not take into account the different weight that PR may
the formulas provided above. There are 2 methods to apply the formula: have over the day. This can artificially increase the PR by up to a
couple of percentage points.
• In the time-weighted method, PR is weighted over a period by the
time interval. An example would be if the SCADA system provides • In the irradiance-weighted method, irradiance as a sum counts higher
data in 1 min / 5min / 10 min average values. PR is then calculated for irradiance values as more impactful on the total PR for any given
that 1 min / 5min / 10 min period and the resulting PR values are then period. This eliminates the weighting effect and provides a more
averaged. This method will generally yield higher PR values in the accurate PR. Therefore, all relevant measured parameters should be
morning, while production is low and lower PR values mid-day, but summed above and below the line over the calculation period before
with high energy production. Therefore, low PR value are given the any division and calculation of PR is performed.
FIGURE 9 VARIOUS PERIODS OF TIME FOR THE CALCULATION OF THE TECHNICAL AVAILABILITY
Ttotal
Tuseful T(irr<MIT)
Tdown
Technical Availability should be measured also at would not allow for any agreed exclusions in the
inverter level. Individual inverters’ Technical Availability availability. To calculate the technical tracker
At k should be weighted according to their respective availability, the following formula can be used:
installed DC power Pk. In this case, the Technical
Availability of the total solar PV power plant At total with a
total installed DC power of P0 can be defined as follows: Technical tracker availability is
calculated as:
T –T
Technical Availability weighted by individual At tracker = t useful t down × 100
Tt useful
inverters’ installed DC power:
Where:
Pk A t tracker = Technical Tracker Availability (%)
At total ∑
= 100 × (At k ×
P0
) Tt down = Period when the tracker is down (h)
Tt useful = Period when the tracker is functional (h)
Where:
A t total = Technical Availability of the plant (%)
A t k = Technical Availability of the inverter k
Pk = Installed DC power of the inverter k
10.3.9. Tracking performance availability
P0 = Plant Peak DC power (nominal power) (kWp)
Response time
10.4.6. O&M service provider experience 10.4.8. Preventive vs corrective maintenance ratio
Experience of the O&M service provider with solar PV This metric measures the reactive nature of the plant
power plants in a particular country, region, grid maintenance work. Asset Owners and AMs prefer a
environment and/or with solar PV power plants higher proportion of Preventive maintenance than
equipped with certain technology or size can play an Corrective Maintenance. This indicator is based on the
important role. This is relevant for the selection of the actual hours technicians spend on jobs. The actual
O&M service provider and can be tracked by the hours are measured regardless of the originally
Owner over time (track record). estimated hours of the planners.
When the O&M service provider has control over the
10.4.7. Schedule attainment equipment, the O&M service provider decides when
to take certain actions to preserve equipment. When
Schedule Attainment (or Schedule Compliance) is the
the equipment has control over the O&M service
ability of the O&M service provider to execute the
provider, the equipment drives the efforts of
Preventive Maintenance schedule within the required
maintenance. A more reactive plant environment has
timeframes (typically across a period of a week or
more circumstances of the equipment experiencing
month).
problems and causing the O&M service provider to
O&M service providers who adhere to the schedule break the weekly schedule. A more proactive one
ensure accomplishing as much preventive experiences few circumstances of sudden equipment
maintenance and other timely corrective work as problems interrupting scheduled work.
possible. Schedule Attainment provides a measure of
Best practice requires that the ratio of Preventive vs
accountability.
Corrective Maintenance is 80/20.
Low Schedule Attainment can provide key warning
signs to the Asset Owner regarding the O&M service
10.5. Solar PV power plant/O&M service provider KPIs
provider:
10.5.1. Contractual availability
• That preventive maintenance is not done which will
lead to equipment failures over time. Contractual Availability is Technical Availability with
certain contractually agreed exclusion factors (see
• The O&M service provider might not have sufficient
below) applied in the calculation; It is used as a basis
numbers of qualified technical staff to
for evaluating the general Contractual Availability
performance maintenance.
guarantees provided by the O&M service provider and
• The O&M service provider systems such as the included in the O&M Contract. A best practice is a
management of stores and spares, procurement Minimum Guaranteed Contractual Availability of 98%
processes are not effective. over a year. (For more details on Availability guarantee
provided by the O&M service provider, see section
• There may be high levels of corrective maintenance
11.5. Availability guarantee).
work – which could be due to unsolved technical
issues.
Ttotal
Tuseful T(irr<MIT)
Tdown
Texcluded
© SOLARPOWER EUROPE 2020
14 The Tdown represents the whole downtime, before the exclusions are
applied. Therefore, Texcluded is a part of Tdown in the diagram. In practice
you often first see that a plant is down (= measurement of Tdown) and
only in the course of troubleshooting one gets the information whether
you can exclude part of the downtime.
The Asset Owner and the O&M service provider should • Downtimes caused by Serial Defects on Plant
agree on certain failure situations that are not included components.
(exclusion factors) in the calculation of Contractual
• Depending on the O&M contract, time spent waiting
Availability. Evidence should be provided by the O&M
for some spare parts to arrive can be excluded from
service provider for any exclusion factor and the
the calculation of Contractual Availability. However,
reason for excluding the event must not be due to an
this is not considered a best practice.
O&M service provider fault. Some good examples for
exclusion factors are:
10.5.2. Contractual tracker availability
• Force majeure.
Like Contractual Availability, Contractual Tracker
• Snow and ice on the solar PV modules.
Availability also makes allowance for pre-defined
• Damage to the solar PV power plant (including the exclusions, like maintenance, panel cleaning, etc. A
cables up to the feed-in point) by the customer or third similar formula is used to the technical availability with
parties who are not sub-contractors of O&M service provision made for any predefined contractual
provider, including, but not limited to, vandalism. exclusions (see above). The formula can be seen below.
• Disconnection or reduction of energy generation by
the customer or as a result of an order issued to the Contractual tracker availability is
customer by a court or public authority.
calculated as:
• Operational disruption by grid disconnections or T –T +T
Ac tracker = t useful t down t excluded × 100
disruptions caused by the grid operator. Tt useful
Where:
• Disconnections or power regulation by the grid
A t tracker = Technical Tracker Availability (%)
operator or their control devices. Tt down = Period when the tracker is down (h)
Tt useful = Period when the tracker is functional (h)
• Downtimes resulting from failures of the inverter or Tt excluded = Part of Tt down to be excluded because of presence of an
MV voltage components (for example, transformer, exclusion factor (see above) (h)
switchgear), if this requires.
• Technical support of the manufacturer and/or,
10.5.3. Energy-based availability
• Logistical support (for example supply of spare
Energy-based Availability takes into consideration that
parts) by the manufacturer.
an hour in a period of high irradiance is more valuable
• Outages of the communication system due to an than in a period of low irradiance. Therefore, its
external issue that is beyond the O&M service calculation uses energy (and lost energy), instead of
provider’s responsibility. Any failure time only time, for its basis:
begins to run when the O&M service provider
receives the error message. If the data connection
to the site was not available, failure time shall only Energy-based Availability is defined as:
begin after reestablishment of the link. Ei
Ae i = × 100
• Delays of approval by the customer to conduct Ei + Eloss i
Where:
necessary works. Ae(i) = Energy-based Availability for the period i (%)
Eloss(i) = Calculated lost energy in the period i (kWh)
• Downtimes for implementation of measures to E(i) = Plant energy production or Plant energy metered in the period i (kWh)
improve the solar PV power plant, if this is agreed
between the parties.
• Downtimes caused by the fact that the customer Generally, the Energy Based Availability is used within the
has commissioned third parties with the O&M Contract in the Availability guarantee chapter and
implementation of technical work on the solar PV the exclusion factors defined for Contractual Availability
power plant. tend to apply for Energy-based Availability too.
TABLE 9 OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS AND THEIR PURPOSES
TABLE 9 OVERVIEW OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF KEY PERFORMANCE INDICATORS AND THEIR PURPOSES -
continued
This section contains a set of considerations for the can include administrative, operational, and Preventive
contractual framework of O&M services for the utility Maintenance tasks. A “cost plus” element can then be
scale segment, and more specifically, systems above added for Corrective Maintenance or additional services.
1 MWp. A complement to the technical specifications The “cost plus” element requires, labour rates, equipment
detailed in the previous chapters, the contractual markup, overheads and profits to be negotiated in the
framework described in this chapter is considered contract and added to the actual equipment costs
best practice. incurred in correcting unexpected problems.
We recommend using the O&M template contract
developed as part of the Open Solar Contracts suite of 11.1. Contractual Risk Allocation
template contracts. Formerly known as the Global
The O&M contract is a project agreement between the
Solar Energy Standardisation Initiative (SESI) this is a
Asset Owner and the O&M service provider for the
joint effort of the Terrawatt Initiative and the
purpose of managing, operating, and maintaining the
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).
solar PV power plant. The O&M contract, together with
SolarPower Europe contributed to the drafting of the
the EPC contract, is a key document in any project
template O&M contract. There are a total of six
finance transaction. Its provisions should stem
templates in a suite of contracts, designed to be used
financial risks associated with the failure of the O&M
as a package to streamline the procurement of solar
service provider to keep the solar PV power plant
projects and make it simpler to aggregate projects
operating properly. In general, an O&M contract should
using standard terms. Aside from the O&M contract,
nminimise financial risks through appropriate
the other templates include:
operational risk allocation. Financial risks posed to the
• Implementation Agreement Asset Owner from operational failures inlcude (i)
• Power Purchase Agreement shortage of actual revenues in comparison with
expected ones - displayed in the base case, (ii) inability
• Finance Facility Agreement term sheet of the Asset Owner to meet their debt service
• Supply Agreement obligations to the lenders, (iii) Asset Owner’s liabilities
under other agreements with third-parties, including
• Installation Agreement
any PPA; and ultimately, (iv) the risk of depreciation of
• Asset Management Agreement the project assets.
Copies of each contract and explanatory guidance can As for the EPC contracts, the Asset Owner may choose
be found at the Open Solar Contracts website: between entering into a fully wrapped O&M
www.opensolarcontracts.org. agreement, which provides the lenders with a single
recourse party for fulfilment of all obligations and
A common contractual framework for solar PV O&M is
responsibilities in relation to the O&M of the Plant.
the “fixed price” model for a specified scope of work that
Another option is to have several agreements that,
together, cover the O&M of the plant. If some of the • Reporting on incidents
O&M services are allocated to third-parties under
• Ensuring regulatory compliance
different agreements, the Asset Owner should clearly
define the obligations and responsibilities of each • Legal requirements for solar PV power plant
contractual party to ensure the absence of risk operation
allocation "gaps". • PPAs and Interconnection Agreements
A balance between the lenders’ demands and the • Power generation licence agreements
Asset Owner’s interests can be struck by aligning key
• Building permits and environmental permits
clauses in the contract regarding timing, cost and
quality of the works, and market standards. In this • Warranty management
regard, the main drivers are: • Insurance claims
• A detailed list of Ordinary and Extraordinary • Contract management
services to be performed by the O&M service
provider, both before and after commercial
operation of the project. To prevent confusion over Power Plant Operations
risk allocation the operator’s obligations may be
defined as general performance requirements and • Plant documentation management
closely linked to performance results. • Plant supervision
• Availability or Performance Guarantees: in a power • Performance monitoring and documentation
project, performance requirements typically
include availability, output, outages, emissions, and • Performance analysis and improvement
other performance-related standards. Penalties for • Issue detection/diagnostics
non-fulfilment of the performance obligations
should also be included. At their most severe, this • Service dispatch/supervision
can mean termination of the O&M contract. These • Security monitoring interface (optional)
performance guarantees are usually supported by
Bonus Schemes and backed-up by Liquidated • Plant operation
Damages (LDs).
• Plant controls
• Spare Parts warranties: management and availability
• Power Generation Forecasting (optional)
of spare parts is a key aspect of minimising the
impact of both scheduled and unscheduled outages • Grid operator interface, grid code compliance
on the project's revenue stream.
• Maintenance scheduling
• O&M service provider’s limited liability in respect of
• Management of change (optional)
consequential loss, loss of revenue, loss of profit
and other financial losses. • Reporting to Technical Asset Manager (in case O&M
service provider is not the Technical Asset
Manager)
11.2. Scope of the O&M contract
Services to be provided by the O&M service provider Power plant Maintenance
include:
• Solar PV power plant Maintenance
TAM (either O&M service provider or AM)
• Preventive Maintenance (which is referred to in
• Reporting to Asset Owner (referred to in the Open the Open Solar Contracts as "Scheduled
Solar Contracts templates as "Monitoring Services", Maintenance")
although the detail is to be determined by the
parties) • Corrective Maintenance in accordance with
agreed Response Time guarantees (some types
• Reporting on solar PV power plant performance of maintenance activities may be beyond the
scope of the contract, for more information, see
• Reporting on O&M performance
section 6.2. Corrective Maintenance)
TABLE 10 EXAMPLES FOR ADDITIONAL MAINTENANCE SERVICES AND GENERAL MARKET TRENDS
accept it or request modification, (iii) a final approval. Availability guarantees and Response Time price
Pre-agreed tariffs for personnel, machinery renting adjustments protects Asset Owners from poor
etc. could be agreed and a specific table could be performance on the part of O&M service providers.
attached as Contract Annex. This is provided for in the Availability is the KPI that best reflects an O&M service
Open Solar Contract O&M template, with reference to provider’s service. Thanks to the Response Time price
"Standard Rates", which can be pre-agreed for adjustment, the O&M service provider has to
Additional services.
intervene within a pre-agreed timeframe (dependant
on the fault) when events that effect plant
Spare Parts Management performance are not covered by the Availability
(See also Chapter 8. Spare Parts Management) guarantee. Moreover, the O&M service provider is
obliged to intervene during incidents that do not
• Spare parts maintenance effect performance, referring to good industry
• Spare parts replenishment practices in general. A further upside is that it makes
the transition to a new O&M service provider much
• Spare parts storage (optional)
smoother and allows Lenders and Owners to pick a
For more information on the specific items in the service provider based solely on of quality of services.
above list, please view the respective sections and Availability guarantees and Response Time price
chapters of the present Guidelines. adjustments avoid burdensome change management
processes resulting from the need to recalculate the
11.3. O&M contract fee guaranteed PRon the event of a plant handover.
As a best practice, O&M services should be provided PR warranties are no longer standard in the
on a fixed fee plus escalation basis. See section 11.11 independent/third-party O&M market. However, it is
in this Chapter which discusses how spare parts possible to set a PR target that, if not fulfilled, can trigger
management may impact on the contract fee. a joint analysis between the Asset Owner and the O&M
service provider, to identify causes and agree on possible
corrective actions, including revamping projects.
11.4. Contractual guarantees and price adjustments
Although some O&M service providers still provide PR 11.5. Availability guarantee
guarantees, recent developments, including the
recommendations of the Open Solar Contracts A best practice is a Minimum Guaranteed Contractual
initiative, show that eliminating PR guarantees and Availability of 98% over a year at least at inverter level.
only using Availability guarantees and Response Time In certain jurisdictions, such as in Mexico, where
price adjustments has several advantages. labour legislation and the requirements of the network
operator stipulate the presence of full-time technical
PR is to a large extent a result of equipment choice, staff on-site, a Minimum Guaranteed Availability of
design and construction, over which a (third-party) 99% can be provided. This should be reflected in the
O&M service provider has little influence, beyond O&M agreement’s price.
vegetation control and module cleaning. Moreover,
removing PR as an O&M service provider KPI makes For contractual KPI reasons, Availability should be
power plant handover between EPC and O&M service calculated at inverter level, on an annual basis. For more
providers or between O&M service providers simpler. information on this, see section 10.5.1. Contractual
Generally, the PR warranties are applied on projects availability.
where the O&M and EPC service providers are the The Availability achieved by the O&M service provider
same company (or an affiliate). Here the O&M service is translated into Bonus Schemes and LDs. For more
provider carries forward the risk of the technology information on this, see section 11.7. Bonus schemes
made by its sister company. and liquidated damages.
In case an equipment replacement is needed, the The Availability guarantees provided by the O&M
O&M service provider should commit to doing this service provider can be translated into Bonus
within 8 business hours from the end of the Response Schemes and LDs. The Bonus Scheme concept is
Time, if the spare part is included in the portfolio of referred to in the Open Solar Contract O&M template
minimum spare parts list. If the spare part is not as the "Availability Bonus". These ensure that the Asset
included in the minimum spare parts list, the O&M Owner is compensated for losses due to lower-than-
service provider should commit to ordering the spare guaranteed Availability and that the O&M service
part within 8 business hours from the end of the provider is motivated to improve their service to
Response Time and to carrying out the replacement achieve higher Availability. Higher Availability usually
as soon as possible. leads to higher power generation and an increase of
revenues for the Owner. Hence, the Bonus Scheme
In case the fault cannot be fixed by the O&M service
agreements lead to a win-win situation for both
provider and the equipment supplier's intervention is
parties and ensures that the O&M service provider is
required, the following actions are necessary:
highly motivated. The Open Solar Contracts O&M
• If the intervention requires spare parts beneath the template provides for a list of "Excusable Events".
O&M cost responsibility (see section 11.11 Spare
TABLE 11 EXAMPLES FOR FAULT CLASSES AND CORRESPONDING MINIMUM RESPONSE TIMES
Fault class 1 The entire plant is off, 100% power loss. 4 daytime hours
Fault class 2 More than 30% power loss or more than 300 kWp down. 24 hours
Fault class 3 0%-30% power loss 36 hours
NOTE: Fault classes and the corresponding Response Time guarantees APPLIED even if the duration of the respective power loss is
less than the corresponding Response Time guarantee, provided that the power loss may occur again.
Since the O&M service provider’s responsibility are the 11.9. O&M service providers’ qualification
O&M works for the solar PV asset, they should be
The O&M service provider must have the means, skills
exempted from other influencing factors like force
and capabilities to operate and maintain the plant in
majeure events, grid operator activities to reduce the
accordance with the contractual obligations.
plant output, grid instability, or offline periods, and any
Experience and professionalism, H&S capabilities,
related LDs. (See exclusion factors in section 10.5.1.
skilled teams, and access to spare parts are criteria for
Contractual availability.)
the selection of the O&M service provider. As O&M
An example for Availability Bonus Schemes and LDs services are a combination of remote operations
can be found below: services and local maintenance activities, the Asset
Owner should make sure that both components are
• Bonus Schemes: if the measured availability
exceeds the Minimum Guaranteed Availability, the well managed and interfaces between the two are well
additional revenue will be divided between the defined. This is especially important should the O&M
Asset Owner and the O&M service provider per service provider subcontract any aspect of the work,
previously agreed shares. In this case additional as each entity will need to be held accountable for the
revenue should be calculated against the expected overall O&M performance.
annual revenue in the base case scenario. Targets
for overall plant production constitute minimum
thresholds for bonuses. 11.10. Responsibility and accountability
• Liquidated Damages: if the Minimum Guaranteed The responsibility of the O&M service provider is
Availability is less than the measured availability, all usually defined in the Scope of work, which forms a
the revenue lost due to the availability shortfall should part of the O&M contract. In the Open Solar Contract
be reimbursed to the Asset Owner by the O&M O&M template, this is set out in the O&M Services
service provider. In this case revenue lost should be Schedule. A detailed description of the O&M scope
calculated against the expected annual revenue in items ensure clarity on what the O&M service provider
the base case scenario. This is usually invoiced by the will do during the term of the contract. In addition to
Asset Owner to the O&M service provider. the Scope of work, the Annual Maintenance Plan
• Bonuses can be offset against LDs and vice versa. (AMP) and Annual Maintenance Schedule (AMS)
(please refer to attachment “Annual Maintenance
• The amount of yearly LDs should be capped at
Plan”) outline the granularity and frequency of
100% of the O&M annual fee. Reaching this cap
(predominantly) Preventive Maintenance works. The
usually results in termination rights for the Asset
Owner and the O&M service provider. In the Open execution of the activities should be regularly reported
Solar Contracts O&M template, the right is only to the Asset Owner– this forms the minimum
given to the Asset Owner. requirements. Best practice in reporting is to compare
the executed activities with the AMP and AMS, and
outlines deviations and reasoning.
11.8. Service standards
Corrective Maintenance activities performed in cases
The O&M service provider must act in accordance of component failure or energy generation shortfall,
with all laws, authorisations, good industry practice, are controlled by performance commitments signed
planning consents, manufacturer's warranties and by the O&M service provider. In the Open Solar
operating manuals, and to the standard of a Contracts O&M template, these are set out as
reasonable and prudent operator. Compliance with "Corrective Maintenance Services".
adequate H&S standards, is also a critical requirement
and expectation within the standard of the services. Moreover, the Availability Guarantee and Response
Time price adjustment explained in section 11.4.
The Asset Owner should be entitled to instruct a third- Contractual Guarantees and price adjustments of the
party to provide any services that the O&M service present chapter also represent a level of
provider cannot at the O&M service provider’s cost. accountability for the O&M service provider.
This entitlement should only be triggered if the O&M
service provider fails to follow a corrective
maintenance programme.
Optimisation
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12.4. Predictive Maintenance for optimised hardware analyses to predict future asset failures. This can be
replacement used to optimise planning of maintenance and related
resource allocation.
Purpose and description
Big data analytics can bring added value at any stage of
Preventive Maintenance occurs periodically according
O&M objectives: analysis from observation of collected
to contractually agreed schedules and based on
information, fault detection, fault diagnosis, and
expert knowledge. In addition, Preventive Maintenance
optimisation through recommendations issued from
may be scheduled when the operator identifies an
the advanced monitoring system. Today different
unexpected deviation in performance through the
approaches are proposed. Whereas classic Artificial
monitoring system. Different maintenance
Intelligence (AI) proposes an advanced diagnostic
optimisation models are employed to find the optimal
through knowledge-based models, unsupervised and
cost to benefit balance between maintenance
supervised learning methods offer different
interventions. These models count on the probability
approaches (e.g., neural networks) using statistics.
of failure of each component of the solar PV system
and the impact of that failure on the entire system. For The advantages of these Predictive Maintenance
example, the actual lifetime of solar PV inverters under optimisation models are that they lower the cost of
different operating conditions is still uncertain. In maintenance by scheduling it more effectively. The
practice, inverters will not fail in a predictable way, diagnostic element of the models also helps to
after a certain period of time, as usually modelled in reduce plant downtime. However, the methods are
business plans. Moreover, failure-based maintenance sensitive to device models and brands, making them
i.e., replacing inverters as they fail may not be the most hard to generalise.
efficient solution.
A good predictive monitoring system could help with State of play
assessing the optimal hardware replacement cycle by
Today, no model has been proven to be completely
modelling the uncertainty in the time-to-failure with
reliable. Big-data analysis allows easy recognition of a
a known probability distribution function.
fault and, in some cases, provides a clear diagnosis
Maintenance optimisation models use the output of
and recommendations on the short-term actions to
root cause analyses and remaining useful lifetime
take to avoid probable upcoming issues. The trend is
Year?
4.0%
Replacement rate (4%)
0.0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Year
to model the behaviour of the entire system and to Corresponding software applications combined with
plan optimal maintenance and hardware replacement smart glasses enable users to interact visually and
programs in the medium to long term. This will of acoustically to support works on site. The field
course reduce the overall risk of a solar PV project and engineer using the smart glasses is connected to a
hence increase investment attractiveness. supervising (desktop) user who will be able to guide
them through working steps, using the desktop
version of the respective software. The smart glasses
12.5. Augmented Reality, Smart Glasses
user is connected to the supervisory user via an
Purpose and Description integrated headset. Visually, conditions on site are
recorded by an integrated camera. The recordings are
Virtual or augmented reality refers to digital elements
then displayed live for the supervisory user who can
of interactions using cameras on e.g. smartphones,
add explanatory diagrams, screenshots, comments,
tablets, or special devices such as smart glasses.
etc. These additions are then displayed on the lens of
Specifically, virtual reality is a computer-generated
the smart glasses. This ensures secure working in line
simulation of a three-dimensional environment that
with common H&S requirements (hands free) while
can be interacted with by a person using special
the field engineer is guided through working
electronic equipment. Augmented reality refers to an
procedures. Furthermore, holograms can be used to
enhanced version of the real world achieved through
enable access to animated maintenance instructions.
using digital elements. For the sake of simplification,
the term augmented reality is used in the following
referring to the use of smart glasses in O&M. State of play
O&M service providers and their operations teams face Smart glasses and corresponding software solutions
the recurring challenge of working with a considerable are becoming more popular in the O&M segment.
variety of hardware and software from different Decreasing price levels for O&M services require
manufacturers at various sites (at sometimes remote improved service/cost efficiency. Augmented reality
locations). This heterogeneity requires broad can support O&M service providers‘ operations by
knowledge, skill transfer, and good cross-departmental easing skills and information transfer and ad hoc
communication. New technologies based on solutions which can positively affect service
augmented reality can support O&M service providers efficiency.
with these challenges by easing the collaboration
between offices and field engineers.
level (i.e., 10-30 solar PV modules combined). As monitoring data becomes more actionable, leveraging
a result, several underperformance issues – the diagnostic capacity and accuracy of image data
especially at solar PV array, module, and with high spatial granularity; ii) the solar PV imagery
submodule level – may remain undetected or data gain a temporal and quantitative dimension, being
unidentified. coupled and correlated with real-time monitoring data
and power gain/loss analytics.
Currently, root cause analysis at higher granularity is
carried out through various aerial imaging inspection Other innovation pathways towards solar PV
techniques, some of which are described earlier in the monitoring-image data fusion solutions can include
chapter). Although these methods have impressive their interfacing with solar PV digital twins, for example,
time-efficiency and spatial resolution of aerial or the integration of BIM and GIS data, and the
imagery data analytics (inspection rates of several replacement of (aerial) IR image data by hyperspectral
MW/hour; detection down to submodule/cell level), or multispectral image data of solar PV power plants.
there are also considerable drawbacks:
• Practically inexistent temporal granularity: Aerial State of play
imagery inspections/scans of solar PV power
Several commercial solutions of advanced solar PV
plants are carried out per-schedule (e.g., bi-
monitoring exist, offering software-driven
annually), rather than as part of preventive
quantification and classification of string/inverter-
maintenance. This means they can, at best, only
level failures, data analytics for soiling rates and
offer a qualitative “instant picture” of the
performance degradation, and weather and energy
condition of a solar PV power plant and its
flow analytics. On the other hand, turnkey commercial
components.
aerial-IR imagery services offer AI-based data
• Decoupled from solar PV monitoring: There is no analytics, fault diagnostics and reporting, as well as
real-time communication or correlation with recommendations for corrective maintenance
crucial solar PV monitoring data (inverter actions. Yet, in practice, solar PV monitoring platforms
outputs, PR, weather data, etc.), preventing are decoupled from IR imagery diagnostics and not
precise determination of the causes of optimally aligned in today's solar PV O&M.
underperformance and power losses with image
Concepts towards aggregation and fusion of solar PV
data (fault) signatures.
monitoring and inspection/imagery data are under
From this perspective, enabling fusion (and development and being patented, in ongoing
interoperability) between heterogeneous solar PV international R&D projects. The aim is to gain validation
monitoring and imagery data/sensors, will be a key by 2024. Over the last 5 years, there have been efforts
functionality and differentiator for next generation and patented methodologies that couple solar PV
“integrated” solar PV monitoring solutions. Indeed, this monitoring and/or IR imaging data with physics-based
concept offers key advantages: i) solar PV performance solar PV yield simulations and loss analytics.
This chapter is to assist in the application of established C&I rooftop solar systems frequently occur in what is
utility-scale best practices, detailed in the previous known as a “distributed generation” setup. Distributed
chapters of the document, to rooftop solar projects. It also generation refers to energy-generating technologies,
highlights where rooftop solar projects are distinctively including solar solar PV, that are sited either on or nearby
different from utility-scale projects, and where they may the premises that are consuming that energy generated.
require specific O&M best practices that may not be Sometimes distributed generation energy systems are
present or applicable for utility-scale projects. part of a microgrid that offers a degree of crucial power
independence from the main grid in cases such as mains
A rooftop solar PV system has its electricity-
electricity outages during extreme climate events. C&I
generating solar panels mounted on the rooftop of a
distributed generation is being paired increasingly with
residential or commercial building or structure. On
on-site energy storage solutions to enhance energy
residential buildings they have typically a power of
independence and efficiency for the site.
about 5 to 20 kWp, while those mounted on
commercial buildings often reach 100 kWp to 1 MWp. Due to the relatively significant size of C&I rooftop
Large rooves can house industrial scale solar PV systems (500kWp-10 MWp), the best practices
systems in the range of 1-10 MWp. Since O&M highlighted elsewhere in these Guidelines should be
organisation depends on size and structure of the applied to these installations. However, their location
asset we distinguish between:: on rooves and their situation in commercial/industrial
environments require additional guidelines to address
• C&I (commercial and industrial) rooftop solar and,
these factors.
• Huge portfolios of residential systems
Regarding H&S considerations for C&I rooftop solar, the
(distributed solar portfolios).
necessary precautions outlined in Chapter 2. Health,
Safety, Security, and Environment should be taken into
13.1. C&I Rooftop Solar account, but need to be complemented to address the
dangers associated with working at height (see for
C&I rooftop solar systems are designed and installed
example Best practice guidelines for working at height
for commercial or industrial applications. They are
in New Zealand, HSA Guide to the Safety, Health and
either built, owned, and operated by an IPP who then
Welfare at Work or IACS Guidelines for Working at
sells electricity to a company or institution via a PPA,
Height). These additional precautions include:
or ownership is transferred to a company or institution
by an IPP which continues to operate the installation. • Presence of permanent guardrails or other forms
In addition, a growing trend observed internationally in of edge protection
energy-intensive built-up urban areas with high-rise
• Presence of maintenance corridors
residential, commercial, or mixed-use blocks, is for
rooftop solar systems that either feed into the grid or • Use of mobile elevating work platforms, forklift
are set up as distributed generation. platforms, etc.
Onsite Pyranometer High* High For more information, see section 9.10.1. Irradiance
measurements. Public pyranometers may be used if available.
Module level sensor High High
Satellite Data Medium-High** None For more information, see section 9.10.1. Irradiance measurements.
Cell Sensors Medium Low
Local Comparison Medium-Low None The established baseline must be verified.
Historic Data Low None Monthly variation may be +/-20%.
* Pyranometers and cell sensors need periodical cleaning and recalibration to keep the highest level of accuracy. If this cannot be sustained, a good satellite irradiation data set is preferable.
** Satellite data accuracy depends on type of source. However, the best references have a granularity of 3x3 km² and do not include local shades. It is also worth noting that real-time satellite data provision
comes at a cost. Another alternative is comparing the performance of neighbouring systems
TABLE 13 INCIDENTS COVERED BY O&M SERVICE AGREEMENTS FOR DISTRIBUTES SOLAR SYSTEMS
Inverter alarms Minimum Alarms generated by the inverter should be acknowledged at least daily.
requirement The personnel responsible for maintenance should take necessary actions
within 2 days for smaller C&I installations. Faults in larger installations with
central inverters need to be dealt with quicker.
Monitoring Failure Minimum Remote diagnosis of monitoring failure should be completed within 2 days for
requirement smaller C&I installations. Faults in larger installations with central inverters need
to be dealt with quicker. As monitoring failure is often caused by inverter
failures or DC issues, this diagnosis must be done quickly to determine if the
failure is limited to monitoring or if yield production is impacted.
O&M service provider should have good guidelines and troubleshooting
guides that allow the Owner to self-diagnose and resolve.
Resolution of monitoring failure without yield losses: Within 2 days for smaller
C&I installations. Faults in larger installations with central inverters need to be
dealt with quicker.
Inverter failure Minimum As soon as inverter failure is indicated by inverter alarms or monitoring failure
requirement a replacement or repair should be done within 1 day.
System Level Best Practice Duration and frequency of reporting should be according to the expected
Performance accuracy and availability of live irradiation data.
Alerts Best Practice is a monthly comparison, and annually as a minimum.
Module- String/ Recommended For commercial projects with more than one inverter, reporting should be at the
Inverter Level inverter level as a minimum.
Alerts String or MPPT level reporting to enable string failure alerts, is recommended
where possible.
Module cleaning Minimum The expectation for module cleaning planning should be based on the site,
(and pyranometers requirement installation type, size, and environmental conditions.
or sensor cells if Actual planning of module cleaning can be adjusted based on the performance
present) (EPI) of the system over time.
Normally C&I solar PV systems are situated next to Homeowners that own the installations on their
other third-party activities. This can entail extra homes have paid for the installation themselves and
considerations that need to be made: usually have a bilateral net- metering agreement with
the local utility for the energy produced.
• The risk assessment should analyse dangers
arising from proximity to third parties and plan In the case of third parties that have paid for the
countermeasures. installation themselves, they usually undertake the
maintenance as well. The financial model depends on
• O&M service providers should propose a
the bilateral agreement between themselves and the
“stakeholder training” for people working next to
rooftop owners. Common practices include leasing
the installation.
the rooftop area and taking advantage of all the
• Dangerous areas should be marked in a way that generated power, or selling the power produced at a
is also understood by third-party personnel. discounted price to the rooftop owner.
Table 13 on the previous page summarizes incident Apart from the general aspects of rooftop solar
handling for C&I rooftop solar PV systems. systems, main challenges of large distributed solar
portfolios are:
13.1.3. Spare Parts Management • The multitude of assets: portfolios of 10,000+
installations are common.
If economically feasible, the O&M service provider
should have basic spare parts in stock. Failing this, care • The variety of conditions (for example, shading,
should be taken to select component manufacturers inclination, orientation, etc.).
which can provide local service and fast replacement
• The variety of equipment used: multiple inverter
of faulty goods in Europe.
brands (including monitoring systems) and panels.
The inverter is the most important spare part as
• The common presence of stakeholders who are
energy production and most monitoring processes
not solar professionals.
rely on it.
• Getting access to the house for maintenance
activities requires making appointments with the
13.2. Distributed Residential Solar Portfolios
tenants.
Distributed solar portfolios refer to portfolios
comprising multiple, small assets installed on
13.2.1. Operations
residential rooftops.
Since physical site inspections and callouts at multiple
Ownership of assets varies from country to country
sites mean higher costs, it is economically cheaper to
and is based on the bilateral agreement between the
invest into monitoring hardware (temperature /
constructor/ operator and the roof owner. Generally,
irradiance) on top of inverter monitoring, and
there are three kinds of owners:
implement automatic root cause analyses, where this
1. Homeowners that own the installations on their is possible. Therefore, monitoring equipment
homes accounts for a greater percentage of the total
investment.
2. Third-party companies that own the installations
and usually lease the rooftop or sell the electricity For large portfolios of small installations extra
produced to the owner of the rooftop at a monitoring hardware might be too expensive.
discounted price from the one offered by utilities Automated analysis methodologies comparing
one neighbouring installations can be used in combination
with irradiation data coming from meteorological
3. Local councils or private and social housing
stations and satellites, or theoretical clear-sky
associations that have equipped their properties
irradiation data.
with solar panels
assets. This should include a minimum yearly Corrective Maintenance of large residential portfolios
inspection, and cleaning and maintenance based on relies heavily on a good monitoring system. Besides
the environmental conditions. This will ensure the detecting and communicating alarms it should be able
continuous safe operation of the asset and minimise to detect decreasing performance trends.
H&S risks to building users. It will also maximise the
Once an anomaly is detected, a trade-off will be made
energy production capability of their asset throughout
between speed of intervention and financial loss.
its lifetime.
Often it is cheaper to group interventions in a certain
Preventive Maintenance of large residential portfolios geographical area. A limiting factor is also the access
is often limited to cleaning as part of a maintenance to the house. Appointments must be made with the
contract. Cleaning should be condition-based, rather occupants, which can take time.
than conform to a regular schedule. This can be
To avoid the cost of sending an intervention team on-
combined with visual inspection of the cabling and
site, tenants are often requested to perform certain
cleaning of inverter ventilators.
actions such as removing dust from ventilators and
It needs to be clarified to homeowners or tenants that resetting an installation (switch off/on). O&M service
they should not clean the panels themselves using providers should propose training for these tasks.
high pressure systems. This would void the warranty.
More advanced residential monitoring systems
In areas with a high density of residential solar PV calculate trends in decreasing performance and
installations, collective drone inspection should be increasing inverter temperature. Both parameters
considered. In a short period, thermographic data of predict an upcoming failure.
lots of installations can be collected.
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Sonnleitner d, K. Knoebl, R. Ebner, G. Ujvari, Chr. Hirschl,
Planned
name Surname Function
First
Comms
Data &
Electrician
Trainee
Electrician
Trainee
Electrician
Trainee
Electrician
Trainee
supervisor
Electrician/
supervisor
Electrician/
supervisor
Electrician/
supervisor
Electrician/
Administration
Administration
Administration
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Engineer
Electrical
Managerial/
Not required
Health & Safety
Company’s Services introduction
Manual Handling
Required
Display Screen Equipment
Risk Assessment
Update required
Certification of Occupational Health & Safety
HV Substation Access
Managing Contractors
mental
Environ-
Certificate of Environmental
Management and Assessment
Other relevant training course and/or
certificate of Environmental Management
Metering
Certain Monitoring tool training Monitoring &
Meter accreditation and calibration
Power Electronics
Other skills
C. Documentation set accompanying the solar PV power plant . (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
9 Cables • Datasheets
• Type & Routine test reports
10 LV & MV • Single Line Diagram “Protection relays
Switchgear • Switchgear wiring diagrams settings” and
• Equipment datasheets and manuals “Switching
• Factory Acceptance Test report procedure” are
• Type Test Reports considerations for
• Routine Test Reports the MV Switchgear
• Dimensional drawings
• Warranties & Certificates
• Protection relays settings
• Switching procedure (according to national regulations)
11 HV Switchgear • Single Line Diagram
• Steel structures assembly drawings
• HV Switchyard general arrangement drawing
• HV Equipment Datasheets and Manuals (CTs, VTs, Circuit Breakers,
Disconnectors, Surge Arresters, Post Insulators)
• Protection & Metering Single Line Diagram
• HV Equipment Type & Routine Test Reports
• Interlock study
• Switching procedure (according to national regulations)
• Warranties & Certificates
12 UPS & • Installation & O&M Manual
Batteries • Commissioning report
• Warranties & Certificates
• Datasheets
• Dimensional Drawings
13 Mounting • Mechanical Assembly Drawings
Structure • Warranties & Certificates
14 Trackers • Mechanical Assembly Drawings
• Electrical Schematic Diagrams
• Block diagram
• Equipment Certificates, Manuals and Datasheets (Motors, Encoders)
• PLC list of inputs and outputs (I/O) by type (Digital, Analog or Bus)
• Commissioning reports
• Warranties & Certificates
15 Security, • Security system layout/general arrangement drawing
Anti-intrusion • Security system block diagram
and Alarm • Alarm system schematic diagram
System • Equipment manuals and datasheets
• Access to security credentials (e.g., passwords, instructions, keys etc)
• Warranties & Certificates
16 Monitoring/ • Installation & O&M manual I/O list includes e.g.,
SCADA system • List of inputs by type (Digital, Analog or Bus) sensor readings that
• Electrical Schematic diagram are collected by
• Block diagram (including network addresses) data loggers.
• Equipment datasheets
17 Plant Controls • Power Plant Control System description
• Control Room (if applicable)
• Plant Controls instructions
• Breaker Control functionality (remote / on-site) and instructions
• List of inputs and outputs
18 Communication • Installation and O&M manual
system • System internal communication
• External Communication to monitoring system or Operations Centre
• IP network plan
• Bus network plans
D. Important examples of input records in the record control. (Download it from www.solarpowereurope.org)
RECORD CONTROL
7 Corrective Corrective Associated Alarms (with date), Event Status EN 13306 - Maintenance.
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance terminology
event
8 Corrective Corrective Date and Time of Corrective Maintenance Creation EN 13306 - Maintenance.
Maintenance Maintenance (or Work Order), Date and Time status change Maintenance terminology
event log (pending, open, recovered, close), End date and
time of the intervention, Start date and time of the
intervention, Technicians and Responsible Names
and Function
9 Corrective Intervention Affected Power and Affected Production,
Maintenance equipment/ Equipment Code / Name
Element name
10 Inventory Warehouse Inventory Stock Count and Movement, Equipment
Management management Code / Name
RECORD CONTROL
- String inverters
Check labelling and identification Minimum requirement Y R
The abbreviations describe the importance and frequency of the maintenance tasks related to each component of the solar plant:
The utility maintenance plan is conceived for a 3-5 MW site (land-locked site far from seashore). The distributed maintenance
Check oil level (if applicable) and max. temperature Minimum requirement Y T
111
112
EQUIPMENT TASK IMPORTANCE FREQUENCY EXTENT
Functional verification Y T
Emergency generator Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
(if applicable) c
General maintenance (Y) T
Lights and electric sockets Integrity check & cleaning Minimum requirement Y T
HVAC (if applicable) Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Fire detection central (if applicable Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
and local requirements
Check correct operation (Y) T
Mechanical lubrication SA T
113
114
EQUIPMENT TASK IMPORTANCE FREQUENCY EXTENT
Weather station d Integrity check & cleaning According to manufacturer’s recommendations (Y) T
Specific maintenance Y T