ENGLISH NOTES Imperatives Eat your apple.

(grammar, communication, research and literature) Verb Tenses

•Simple
EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH Present She writes a novel.
NOUNS -names of people, place, thing Past She wrote a novel.
PRONOUNS -replace nouns Future She will write a novel.
VERBS -action words •Continuous (Progressive)
ADJECTIVES - describe nouns Present C. She is writing a novel.
Past C. She was writing a novel.
ADVERBS -describe verb, adjective or adverb
Future C. She will be writing a novel.
ARTICLES -the, a, an
•Perfect
PREPOSITION -relationship between words Present P. She has written a novel.
CONJUNCTIONS -connecting words Past P. She had written a novel.
INTERJECTIONS -exclamation Future P. She will have written a novel.
•Perfect Continuous
NOUN Present P.C. She has been writing a novel.
Types: Past P.C. She had been writing a novel.
•Common - names in general like girl, teacher. Future P.C. She will have been writing a novel.
•Proper - specific names like Marie.
•Concrete - exist physically like Cup. ADJECTIVE
•Compound - two or more word like Rainfall. Simple Clean Good
•Countable - having singular/plural form like bike--- Comparative Cleaner Better
>bikes. Superlative Cleanest Best
•Uncountable - substances, liquids & abstract.
•Abstract - no physical existence or emotion. ADVERB
• Collective - set or group like TEAM. Degrees of Comparison Quickly
Comparative More Quickly
Functions of noun: Superlative Most Quickly
-subjects •Manner How Quickly
-direct objects •Time When Later
-indirects objects •Place Where Here
-objects of preposition •Frequency How often Never
-predicate nominatives
-object complements Adverbial phrase He eats in his bed.
Adverbial clause He eats because he is hungry at night.
PRONOUN
•Interrogative Who, Where, Why PREPOSITIONS
•Possessive Mine, Yours, Our Place in, out, at, behind, under, on, up
•Reflexive Myself, Herself, Himself Time in, on, at
•Reciprocal each other, one another Movement from, to, on, by
•Demonstrative this, that, these, those
•Indefinite several, few, many, all CONJUNCTIONS
•Relative Whom, Whose, That Coordinating: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet
•Personal Correlative: both/&, either/or, neither/not
Number Singular(I) Plural(We) Subordinating: while, if, since, because, after
Person 1st (I) 2nd(You) 3rd(He)
Case Subject(We) Object(Us) INTERJECTIONS
Gender Masculine(He) Feminine(She) Neuter(It) Hey! Ouch! Wow! Help! Alas!

VERB SENTENCE
Intransitive No object - group of words that are out together to mean something.
Transitive Has object - has subject and verb.
Infinitive to + Verb Types:
Modal may/might/will 1. SIMPLE SENTENCE has only one clause and obe
Auxiliary helps main verb independent variable.
Voice of verb The cat is happy.
Active -subject performs action. 2. COMPOUND SENTENCE has two or more clauses.
I eat the apple. The dog is happy but the cat is sad.
Passive -subject received action. 3. COMPLEX SENTENCE has one clause with a relative
The apple was eaten by me. clause.
Moods of Verb The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy.
Declarative I eat an apple. 4. COMPLEX COMPOUND SENTENCE has many
Interrogative Do you eat apples? clauses, atleast one of which is a telative clause.
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The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy but the cat is - I have a big dog.
sad. • When using two or more adjectives together, the usual
Purposes: order is opinion--adj.+fact--adj.+noun.
•Declarative Sentence (declaration) - I saw a nice French table.
The dog is happy. • Treat collective nouns as singular or plural.
•Interrogative Sentence (question) - The committee are having sandwiches for lunch.
Are you happy? - My family likes going to the zoo.
•Exclamatory Sentence (exclamation) • The words its and it's are two different words with
The dog is the happiest dog I've ever seen! different meanings.
•Imperative Sentence (command) - Here is your coffee.
Give the dog a bone. - You're looking good.
Phrase -word or group of words that function as a single • The words there, their and they're are three different
unit in the syntax of a sentence. words with different meanings.
Clause -verb, its necessary grammatical arguments and - There was nobody at the part.
any adjuncts affecting them. - I saw their new car.
- verb along with its subject and their modifiers. - Do you think they're happy.
• The contraction he's can mean he is or he has.
SENTENCE PATTERNS - He's finished.
Independent clause- contains subject, verb and a complete - He is working.
thought. • The contraction he'd can mean he had or he would.
Dependent clause- contains subject, verb but no complete - He had eaten when I arrived.
thought. - He would eat more if possible.
1. Independent Clause • Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter.
The way people write has changed. - Is China in Asia?
2. Independent Clause; Independent Clause • Spell a proper adjectives with an initial capital letter.
The way people write has changed ; more people are - London is an English town.
writing than ever before. • Use a or an for countable nouns in general, the for
3. Independent Clause; Conjunctive Adverb , Independent specific countable nouns and all uncountable nouns.
Clause - He always saves some of the money that he earns.
The way people write has changed; in addition, more • Use a with words beginning with a consonant sound. Use
people are writing than ever before. an with words beginning with a vowel sound.
4. Independent Clause; Coordinating Conjunction, - a cat, a dog, an apple, an honorable noun
Independent Clause • Use many or few with countable nouns, use much or
The way people write has changed, and more people are little for uncountable nouns.
writing than ever before. - There is little traffic on the roads.
5. Independent, Nonrestrictive Modifier, Clause • To show possession use an apostrophe+s for singular.
Writing, which humans have done for thousands of years, • In general, use the active voice in preference to the
has changed. passive voice.
6. Independent, Restrictive Modifier, Clause
The writing that is done in the workplace has changed. PROPER SEQUENCE OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE
7. Subordinate Clause, Independent Clause 1. Articles
Because the way people write has changed, the way we 2. Opinion
teach writing has also changed. 3. Size
8. Independent Clause, Subordinate Clause 4. Age
The way people write has changed though many people 5. Shape
claim otherwise. 6. Color
7. Material
GRAMMAR RULES 8. Purpose
• A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a
period , question or exclamation mark. RESEARCH
- My dog is very clever! It is a systematic process of investigating and getting
• The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject--Verb-- information from a respondent.
Object. Proximity- area of responsibility.
- John loves Mary. Importance:
• Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object 1. It adds knowledge about educational issues.
is optional. 2. Helps inform policy.
- John teaches. 3. Builds researchers' skills
• The subject and verb must agree in number. Steps: ( to formulate a research)
- John & Mary work in London. 1. Identify the research problem
• When two singular subjects are connected by or use a - specify and justify a problem.
singular verb. 2. Reviewing the literature
- John or Mary is coming tonight. - locate the source or related studies.
• Adjectives usually before a noun. 3. Purpose of research
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-narrow the purpose & state it clearly. to be taken which helps future researchers to carry out
4. Collecting data their own studies.
- determine the method 9. Bibliography is the list source materials used or
- select the individuals consulted in making the research paper.
- design data collection Book: Name of author (Year of publication). Title of the
- obtain permission book. Edition. Name and place of publication company,
- gather information Page of book.
5. Analyzing and Interpreting data Online sources: Author (Date of publication). Title of an
- break down the data online periodical. Name and place of publication
- explaining the data company. Web address
- interpreting the data PROOF READ PROPOSAL BEFORE SUBMITTING:
6. Reporting & Evaluating Research • Grammar and spelling count
- determine the audience for the report >Point of view consistency
- write the report sensitively and accurately. - Noun and Pronoun (Person, Case & Number) agreement
>Verb tenses consistency
Types: -Subject, Object and Verb agreement
Quantitative - is type of research that utilizes numbers and •Format and conciseness are important
statistical analysis. >use 12 point fonts
- variables, desuctive, measure objective facts, highly >use easily legible fonts
structured research process, research is detached(outsider). >use generous margins
Qualitative- description, inductive, meaning is constructed, > use figures appropriately to make clarify points.
values are present, loosely structured research process, • Include references to the extant work of others.
research is immersed (insider).
COMMUNICATION
TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION "communicare" - to share
•Observation - act of conveying meanings from one entity or group to
•Interviewing another through the use of mutually understood signs and
•Focus groups semiotic rules.
•Document analysis Functions of Communication
•Regulating/Control
RESEARCH APPROACHES •Social Interaction
1. Case study •Motivation
2. Ethnography •Information
3. Phenomenology •Emotional expression
4. Historical The scientific study of communication can be divided into:
5. Action Research >Information Theory
-studies the quantification, storage and communication of
THESIS WRITING STEPS: information in general.
1. Create a passionate title and background contents. >Communication Studies
Title - defines what is the paper all about. It should be -which concerns human communication.
informative and included all the major key words on it. LANGUAGE- the method of human communication either
2. Abstract which around 100 to 150 words summarizes spoken or written consisting of the use of words in a
the research. It should be firm and clear about the research, structured and conventional way.
what the whole paper is going to talk about. DIALECT- particular form of a language which is pevuliar
3. Introduction the first step of analysis and predicts the to a spevigic region or social group.
tone and direction of the research paper. It helps readers to
understand the paper even they do not have any prior COMMUNICATION
domain knowledge. Based on parties:
4. Methodology helps the journal reviewer and readers to -External C.
understand the entire concept of the research. -Internal C.
5. Results and discussion (written in present tense) should Based on formality
interpret and explain your results, answer the research -Formal C.
question, justify the approach and critically evaluate the -Informal C.
study. Based on media
6. Make conclusion as the final summary of the results that -Written C.
have been managed to achieved through the research. -Verbal C.
7. Conduct saturated literature review resulting in Gaps, -Non-verbal C.
Concept and Theory. It places the research to define Others
existing data and information about the previous research - Mass C.
paper. - Personal C.
8. Recommendations should explain what needs to be - Interpersonal C.
done next and enumerate the possible steps that are needed
Elements of Communication Process
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• Communicator (encoder)
• Message (symbol verbal or non-verbal)
• Channel (transmission medium)
• Receiver (decoder)
• Feedback (response)
• Noise (interruption)
7 C's of Communication
1. Clear - clear & easily understandable message.
2. Correct - exact and correct message.
3. Complete - complete & relevant message.
4. Concrete - concrete w/ no misinterpretation message.
5.Concise - brief and precise message
6. Consideration - considers receiver's opinion, knowledge
and background.
7. Courteous - positive and focused at the audience.
Barriers of Communication
1. Encoding Barriers
2. Transmitting Barriers
3. Decoding Barriers
4. Responding Barriers
Overcoming the barriers of effective communication
• Connecting with the audience
• Summarizing what has been said
• Effective questions, Simple words
• Seeking participation
• Body language, Cultural sensitivity
• Checking for understanding
SPEAKING - act of making vocal sounds.
Voice Quality
Loudness -volume of voice or sounds.
Clarity -voice should be understood without any barrier.
Tone/Pitch -a peak or highest level.
Speed -rate of how fast the voice or sound.
LISTENING - ability to accurately receive and interpret
messages in the communication process.
Stages of Listening
>Hearing
>Focusing on the message not the person
>Comprehending & Interpreting
>Analyzing and Evaluating
>Responding
>Remembering
Types of Communication
• Verbal Communication -when people simply speak to
each other.
-Voice quality, Melody, Speech rate, Form of articulation
• Non - Verbal Communication - communicate with using
speech.
1. Kinesics - body language, gestures
2. Proxemics - space
3. Haptics - touch
4. Oculesics - eye contact, gaze
5. Chronemics - time (waiting, pausing)
6. Olfactics - smell
7. Vocalics - tone, volume, speed of voice
8. Sound symbols - grunting
9. Silence- pausing, secrecy
10. Posture - position of the body, stance
11. Adornment -clothing, jewellery
12. Locomotion- walking, running
13. Physical rex'ns - blushing, pale
Formality
Formal communication channel results from the formal
organization structure.
A-->B-->C-->D-->E
Informal communication- informal contacts among people.
-grapevine
-comments, advices, suggestions, informal talks and
reactions.
PHONETICS - study of human sounds.
Types:
1. Articulatory -accdg. to production of sounds.
2. Acoustic -accdg. to transmission of sounds.
3. Auditive -accdg. to perception of sounds.
PHONOLOGY -classification of the sounds within the
system of a particular language or languages.
Categories:
>Phones -human sounds
>Phonemes -units which distinguish meaning in a
language.
>Allophones -non-distinctive units.
Division of sounds:
>Consonants
>Vowels (a,e,i,o,u)
>Diphthongs
PHONOTACTICS -deals with combinations of sounds
possible and where sounds can occur in a syllable.
Syllable -major structure for the organisation of sounds.
>on set - beginning
>rhyme -everything after the beginning
>nucleus -vowel or vowel like centre
>coda -right edge
PROSODY- concerned with features of words and
sentences above the level of individual sounds.
-stress, pitch, intonation
PHONETICS is the area of language that mainly look at
three things:
>Articulatory Phonetics - how we physically produce
sounds.
>Acoustic Phonetics -how we analyze the sound
transmission and patterns including the conditions in
which they are produced.
>Auditory Phonetics- how our ears, auditory system and
brain filler and process these sounds once they receive
them.
>Place of Articulation- identifying the place, location, spot
and mouth organs involved in the triggering and
production of speech sounds.
-Labial (b,p,m,w)
Alveolar (a,t,z,s,h)
Palatal (j,ch,zh,sh,y)
Velar (g,k,w)
Glottal
Dental (t)
>Manner of Articulation - describing the manner in which
these mouth organs trigger or produce speech sounds.
Stops & Affricates ( b, d, j, g, p t, ch, k)
Fricatives ,(z, s, zh, sh)
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Nasals (m, n) •Folktales - reflects the people's belief handed down from
Glides (w, y) generation to generation by word of mouth.
Types of Speech Context •Epilogue - conclusion or final part of non-dramatic
1. Intrapersonal - within yourself . literary work.
2. Interpersonal - between two or more people. •Genre -distinctive type of literary composition such as
>Dyad epic, tragedy, comedy and novel.
>Small group •Hieroglyphics -oldest form of Egyptian writing.
3. Public •Soliloquy -speech made by a person who reveals his
thoughts.
Types of Speech style •Allegory -narrative whose meaning is beneath the
•Intimate - private language within family or very closed surface.
group. •Cacophony-literary term which means harsh and
•Casual - language used between friends. discordant sounds introduced for poetic effect.
•Consultative - used in semi-formal communication.
•Formal - used in speaking to medium or large groups FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
(strangers, professional or older person). 1. Synecdoche
•Frozen - used generally in a very formal setting. 2. Simile
3.Personification
Types of speech act 4. Oxymoron
1. Locution (Utterance) - uttering certain sentences with 5. Metonomy
certain meaning. 6. Metaphor
2. Illocution (Intention) - speaker intend to constitute a 7. Irony
certain act of praise or criticism. 8. Hyperbole
3. Perlocution (Response) - act of bringing certain change 9. Euphemism
or making the listeners or audience believe into something. 10. Ellipsis
11. Asyndeton
Types of Communicative Strategy 12. Apostrophe
1. Nomination - to open a new topic.
2. Restriction - limiting or following a specific instruction. Poem -artistic quality that appeals to or stirs the
3. Turn-taking - a chance to all speakers to speak. imagination, in any medium.
4. Topic-control - to avoid unnecessary information and
topic change. Classification of Poem
5. Topic-shifting - movement of conversation with 1. Ballad
effective transition 2. Black verse
6. Repair - addressing the problems in a conversation 3. Dramatic monologue
7.Termination - close-initiating expression that ends a 4. Elegy
topic. 5. Epic
6. Eulogy
Types of Speeches 7. Free verse
A. According to purpose 8. Haiku
•Expository Speech - to give information. 9. Idyll
•Persuasive Speech - to convince the listener. 10. Lyrics
•Entertainment Speech 11. Narrative
B. According to delivery 12. Ode
•Reading from manuscript - reading a manuscript while 13. Sonnet
delivering the speech. 14. Tanka
•Memorized Speech - you should memorized the content
of your speech. Freed from manuscript or notes. Elements of a Short Story
•Impromptu Speech - little or no preparation at all. 1. Plot- The arrangement of incidents or events in a story.
•Extemporaneous Speech - literally making up the words •Exposition
of your speech as you were delivering your speech •Conflict
C. Principles of Speech Writing Types:
•Choosing the topic a. Internal man vs himself
•Analyzing the audience b. External man vs man
•Sourcing the information -man vs nature
•Outlining and organizing the speech contents -man vs society
D. Principles of Speech delivery -man vs unknown
-man vs supernatural
LITERATURE -man vs time
It is a body of all written works (nations, people, group or •Rising Action
culture) •Climax
•Folklore - traditionally derived and orally transmitted •Falling Action
literature. •Resolution
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2. Character
a. Flat Character
b. Round or Dynamic Character
c. Stereotyped Character
•Protagonist -main character
•Antagonist -opponent
3. Setting -where &when story takes place.
4. Atmosphere -mood or tone of the story.
5. Style -the ways the author expresses himself and
conveys his ideas and central purpose.
𝗘𝗡𝗚𝗟𝗜𝗦𝗛 𝗚𝗥𝗔𝗠𝗠𝗔𝗥
1. 𝗖𝗢𝗨𝗟𝗗, 𝗦𝗛𝗢𝗨𝗟𝗗, 𝗪𝗢𝗨𝗟𝗗
Could, Should, and Would are Auxiliary verbs. Past tense
sila ng Can, Shall and Will respectively. Ano yan e,
Posible vs Kailangan vs Gusto.
➪ 𝗖𝗢𝗨𝗟𝗗 - past tense of Can. Tagalog: Maaari
*Ginagamit ang Could sa pagsasaad ng posibilidad.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-That could be Ned's diary. (Maaaring diary ni Ned iyon.)
*Ginagamit din sa pagrerequest.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-Could you pass me the rice. (Maaari mo bang ipasa ang
kanin sa akin.)
➪ 𝗦𝗛𝗢𝗨𝗟𝗗 - past tense of Shall. Tagalog: Dapat
*Used to express something that is probable.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-He should be here by now. (Dapat ay naririto na sya.)
*To ask if you need to do something.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-Should we turn left? (Dapat ba tayong lumiko sa kaliwa)
-Shouldn't you be getting dressed? (Hindi ba dapat ay
nagbibihis ka na?)
*To show obligation, give opinion, or give
recommendation.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-You should change your child's diaper first. (Dapat ay
palitan mo muna ng lampin ang anak mo)
-We should go to the clinic tomorrow. (Dapat na tayong
pumunta sa clinic bukas)
-You should try this wine. (Dapat mong subukan ang wine
na ito)
➪ 𝗪𝗢𝗨𝗟𝗗 - past tense of will. Tagalog: Ibig/Nais
*To ask
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-What would you do? (Ano ang ibig mong gawin?)
*To make a request
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-I would like to speak to your manager. (Nais kong
makausap ang inyong manager)
*For hypothetical situations
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-If I have a lot of money I would build a mansion. (Kung
mayroon akong maraming pera, nais kong magtayo ng
mansyon.)
*To ask for a preference
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-Would you like a cup of coffee or tea? (Nais nyo po ba ng
kape o tyaa?)
2. 𝗛𝗔𝗗 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗡, 𝗛𝗔𝗦 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗡, 𝗛𝗔𝗩𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗡
Same sa HAS, HAVE, HAD. Has and Have is Present.
Had is Past Tense. So, dagdagan ng BEEN. Been is an
indication of a Perfect Tense. So, HAS BEEN & HAVE
BEEN are both in a PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. HAD
BEEN is in PAST PERFECT TENSE.
➪ 𝗛𝗔𝗦 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗡 - used in he, she, it, who, and singular
nouns/pronouns. In present perfect tense.
➪ 𝗛𝗔𝗩𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗡 - used in I, you, we, they, and plural
nouns/pronouns. In present perfect tense.
*Ang HAS BEEN at HAVE BEEN ay parehong present
perfect tense. Ginagamit ito sa pagdedescribe ng action na
nangyari recently na relevant parin hanggang ngayon o
nangyayari parin hanggang ngayon.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-She has been to the US many times.
-I have been dreaming about you lately.
➪ 𝗛𝗔𝗗 𝗕𝗘𝗘𝗡 - used in both singular & plural
nouns/pronouns. In past perfect tense.
*Ang HAD BEEN ay ginagamit kapagnagdedescribe ng
action na nangyari in the past na nangyari bago ang isa
pang pangyayari o nangyari in the past at naresolba o
natapos/nagbago.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-They had been living in Paris before they moved here.
3. 𝗖𝗔𝗡'𝗧 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗖𝗔𝗡𝗡𝗢𝗧
Pareho lang po sila. Contraction o mas pinaiksing version
lang ang Can't. Parang Don't at Do not.
4. 𝗪𝗛𝗘𝗥𝗘, 𝗪𝗘𝗥𝗘, 𝗪𝗘'𝗥𝗘
➪ 𝗪𝗵𝗲𝗿𝗲 refers to a location, or direction.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-Where is the restroom? (Nasaan ang palikuran?
➪ 𝗪𝗲𝗿𝗲 ay plural past tense form. Kumbaga past tense
sya ng "ARE"
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-I thought they were going to swim? (Akala ko ba ay
lalangoy sila?)
➪ 𝗪𝗲'𝗿𝗲 ay contraction ng WE ARE o WE WERE.
𝗘𝘅𝗮𝗺𝗽𝗹𝗲:
-We're going to Japan tomorrow. (Kami ay pupunta sa
Japan bukas)
FIGURE OF SPEECH
1) SYNECDOCHE - an association of some important part
with the whole it represents. Example: The face who
launched a thousand ships.
2) SIMILE - an indirect association. Example: She is like a
flower.
3) PERSONIFICATION - giving human attributes to an
inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)
Example: The sun is looking down on me.
4) OXYMORON - a self-contrasting statement. Example:
Loud silence
5) METONYMY - an association wherein the name of
something is substituted by something that represents it.
Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate.
6) METAPHOR - a direct comparison.
Example: You are the sunshine of my life.
7) IRONY - the contrast between what was expected and
what actually happened.
Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break.
8.) HYPERBOLE - an exaggeration.
Example: Cry me a river.
9) EUPHEMISM - creating a positive connotation out of
something negative.
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Example: Comfort women (prostitute)
10) ELLIPSIS - omission of words in a sentence.
Example: She walked away and so the world turns....
11) ASYNDETON - not putting any connectors
(conjunctions or prepositions).
Example: No retreat, no surrender
12) APOSTROPHE - a direct address to an abstract things
or a person who passed away.
Example: Love, please come and take me!