Unit- 6 Metals and Alloys

Metal
 Metals are solid (except mercury), hard and ductile material that have been the essential
components of building prior to the strength.
 These have high densities and high melting point.
 The strong metallic bond among the metal atoms make them harder.
 Metals are inorganic elements with shinny appearance. For example silver, gold, aluminum,
etc.

Iron
It is one of the principal component of ferrous materials. In all the job ranging from manufacture of
primitive type of agriculture implements to advanced type of aircrafts, iron occupy a prominent position.
In the automotive, building and bridge construction , railways, light and heavy machinery , shipping &
transportation and in many other fields of engineering activity, iron has been used in different form
because of following reasons :
1) The wide abundance of iron ore in almost all parts of the world.
2) The economical extraction of iron ore from its ore.
3) The flexibility that can be induced in the mechanical properties of iron by combining it with
other metals and by heat treatment and such other methods.
Types of iron
1) Pig iron
 It is the most basic material from which other forms (wrought and cast iron ) are manufactured.
The common type of iron used in industry and construction.

Manufacturing of pig iron

 Pig iron is manufactured in the special furnace called blast furnace.
 The various steps involved in the manufacture of pig iron are as follows.

i) Selection of ores: Iron occurs in nature in combined form as oxide, sulphate , carbonate
and silicate etc. Such natural raw sources from which iron can be extracted
economically are called iron ores. Following are common iron ores: Hematite
(Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Siderite (FeCO3), Iron Pyrite (FeS3), Limonite
(2Fe2O3. 3H2O).
The selection of the suitable ore is controlled by two major factors: its occurrence in
a abundance at a suitable place and its quality (purity).
ii) Dressing of ores: The ore, as it is extracted from the earth , is in big lumps
containing many other useless minerals. The size of the ore must be reduced to that
within required limits and also the useless associations must be separated. The
combined process of reduction in size and removal of impurities is called ore
dressing .This is achieved by passing the ore through a series of crushers and
washing mills. The letter wash away clay and other impurities from the crushed ore.
 Blast furnace treatment
The blast furnace is a cylindrical, shell-like vessel made from steel , 15-30m high and
6-8 m in diameter and tapering towards the top .
Operations:
The blast furnace operation is a continuous process after it is started in the following
manner.

1) A blast of air is first created by blowing the engines. Thus blast passes through stoves at 500 -
6000 C and then is made to enter the furnace through the tuyers in lower region.
2) Meanwhile, a charge is kept ready at the top in the hopper. The charge consists of alternate
layers of cokes, ore and fluxes in pre-determined proportion.
3) When the hot blast has heated the furnace to a desired extend (this may take sometime), the
charge is introduced into the furnace by operating the hopper.
4) The hurt gases burn the fuel part of the charge thereby creating still higher temperature.
5) The hot molten ore gets reduced by reacting with carbon monoxide from the coke, iron (Fe ) is
produced in the molten form.
6) The molten iron and the impurities as slug collect in the lowermost region of the furnace where
from they are removed periodically.
7) New batches of charge are induces at the top.
Types of pig iron
1) Grey pig iron: It is distinguished by a typical grey colored surface of iron when broken fresh.
It is soft in character and carbon .It is produced when the raw materials are burnt at a very high
temperature. It is also called Foundry pig.
2) White Pig iron: The broken surface shows dull white appearance .This type contains sulphur
as the main impurities and hence considered inferior in grade .It is also called forge pig iron, as
it is hard and brittle.
3) Bessemer Pig iron: This type is practically free from sulphur and phosphorous. Therefore, it
is used for manufacture of steel in the Bessemer process.
Properties
1) It can be hardened but can’t be tempered.
2) Can’t be magnetized and welded.
3) Doesn’t rust.
4) Difficult to bend.
5) Neither ductile nor malleable
6) Melts easily and fuses 12000 C
7) High compressive strength but weak in tension.
Uses
Used in manufacturing of wrought, cast iron and mild steel

2. Cast iron
It is obtained from pig iron by re-melting pig iron with limestone and coke (solid carbonaceous material
derived from destructive of low ash and low –sulfur bituminous coal), moulding in desired shapes .It is
pure than pig iron, having carbon content 2-4.5%.
Types of cast iron
1) Grey cast iron: It contains 92% iron, 0.5% carbon and 2.3% silicon. Carbon is present in the
form of graphite flakes. It is less tensile strength and elasticity. It is used in making moulds,
machine frames, pipes.
2) White Cast iron: It is composed of 94% iron, 0.5% graphite carbon, 3.5% combined carbon
and other impurities. It has more tensile strength and high resistance to wear. It is also used in
railways brake blocks, inferior casting, etc.
3) Malleable cast iron:
 It is produced by heat treatment. i.e annealing the cast iron for longer period of time.
 The white cast iron is heated in an annealing oven for 60 hrs at a temperature of about 870 0C.
 Then, it is cooled slowly to the room temperature.
 It is soft, tough and easily machined.
 It is used in differential and steering gear, brake pedals, tractor springs, etc.

4) Alloy cast iron:

 Nickel as the predominating alloying. Constituent and others are added to cast iron in order
to produce alloy cast iron. It is the improved properties of cast iron.
 It is used to make crank, shaft etc.

3. Wrought Iron
It is the purest form of all iron which contain less than 0.5% of the impurities. The manufacture of
wrought iron from pig iron involves the following process.

1) Puddling process:
 The pig iron is heated in a small reverberatory furnace called puddling furnace.
 The furnace has a lining of iron oxide bricks.
 The heat is provided with the temperature about 1200 0C .
 The molten metal is oxidized on coming contact with iron oxide lining.
 For equal and complete oxidization of molten metal, the solution is stirred thoroughly the
puddling holes. Hence, the process is called puddling process.
 Carbon is removed off as carbon dioxide gas.
 The remaining molten charge containing some slag forms the wrought iron.

2) Aston process
 The pig iron is heated in the Bessemer converter in order to refine it.
 All the impurities are removed through the direct contact of heat to the molten material. Then,
the molten iron is cast into moulds.
 At the same time, the mixture of iron oxide and silica in a certain proportions are heated
separately in furnace.
  The moulds of iron is kept in the mixture and the slag is poured in it.
 The solidification of iron occurs and then the iron –slag ball is pressed in a pressing machines
where extra quality of slag is removed off.
 The material left is wrought iron.
 Aston process is much cheaper as compared to puddling process.
Properties:
 It is in fibrous appearance when broken.
 It is ductile and malleable.
 It can be welded.
Uses:
It is used in rivets, water and steam pipes, chains, etc.

Steel
 Steel is essentially a variety of iron containing 0.1-1.5% carbon in the form of cementite
(Iron Carbide, Fe3C).
 Besides carbon, many other metals also present in addition to iron , giving rise to a great
varieties of steel
If % of C > 1.5, behaves cast iron.
If % of C<0.1, behaves wrought iron.
 The best thing about steel is that it has the very high compressive strength of cast iron
and very high tensile strength of wrought iron. As such it is suited for all types of
situation as a structural material.
Composition of steel
Steel is alloy of iron about 0.1 -1.5% of Carbon.

Types of steel Carbon Content %

Dead mild steel <0.1

Mild steel 0.15-0.3

Medium Carbon steel 0.3-0.5

High Carbon steel 0.5-1.5

Types of steel
There are 4 types of steel on the basis of its carbon contents.
1) Dead mild steel (< 0.1% of carbon )
 It is used in galvanized plates and wires.
2) Mild steel (0.10% to 0.30% carbon)
 It is bright fibrous structure.
 It is tough and more elastic.
 Because of low carbon content, it can’t be hardend.
 It’s melting point is 15000 C
 It rusts easily and absorbs shocks.
3) Medium carbon steel (0.3% to 0.5% of carbon)
 It is stronger and harder than mild steel.
 It is less ductile, tough and malleable.
 It can be easily given a desired shape.
4) High carbon steel (0.5% to1.50% Carbon)
 It is fine granular in structure.
 It is the toughest of steels.
 It has better resistance to wear and tear, shocks and vibrations.
 It can be hardened easily.
 It rust rapidly.
Uses of steel
 It is used to make nuts, bolts, plates, girders and machinery components.
 For all structure works in bridges and building, making channels, girder, angle iron, etc.
 It is used to make wires, metals rope, machinery components, etc.
 It is used for making cutlery (Knife, fork, spoon) and edge tools (chisel).

Alloy Steel
The group of certain metals reacting among themselves gives the unique characteristics
is called alloy.
Likewise, the alloy steels are the result of addition of suitable amount of nickel,
chromium, vanadium, tungsten, etc. to carbon steel.
Due to this, some special character is imparted to the steel.
 Nearly all alloy steel heat treatment in order to bring out their best properties.

Types of alloy steel

1) High alloy steel:
 High-alloy steels are defined by a high percentage of alloying elements.
 The most common high-alloy steel is stainless steel, which contains at least 12 percent
chromium.
 Stainless steel is generally split into three basic types: martensitic, ferritic, and austenitic.

2) Low alloy steel

 Low-alloy steels have a much lower percentage of alloying elements, usually 1 to 5 percent.
 These steels have very different strengths and uses depending on the chosen alloy.

Heat treatment process of steel

 The process of heating the steel and again cooling it to the solid state is called heat treatment
process of steel.
 The prime objective of heat treatment is to provide the specific properties of the steel. The
functions of heat treatment of steel can be summarized as follows:
1) To ensure the desired properties like hardness, malleability, elasticity, etc.
2) To remove the voids, if present, during the manufacture of steel.
3) To improve machinabaility and working of steel

Methods of heat treatment

1) Annealing
 The process of heating the steel to red hot (800 0C -10000C) and the allowed to cool slowly is
called annealing.
 The cooling agent used are sand, ash and other heat insulators.
 This process makes steel more malleable and elastic.
 It also reduces the internal stress.

2) Quenching ( hardening )
 The process of heating the steel to red hot and cooled suddenly by dripping in cold bath of water
is called quenching.
 This process gives hardness and brittleness to the steel.

3) Tempering
 This process is done in order to reduce the brittleness of the quenched steel.
 During this process, the quenched steel is once again annealed.
 Some of the hardness and strength is lost and ductility and toughness is gained.

4) Normalizing
 In this process of heating the steel to 1000 C and allowing to cool in the air.
  Normalized steel are harder and tougher but possess less ductility.

5) Case hardening/ Surface hardening

 In this process, only the surface (about 1.5mm ) of steel is hardened.

Different forms of rolled steel section

Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in rolling mills .Using sections having larger
module of section in proportion to their cross sectional area are preferred. Steel sections are usually
designated by their cross- sectional shapes.
Following are the different form of rolled steel section:
a) T-section
b) Angle section
c) I – section
d) Tube section
e) Flats section
f) Channel section
g) Bars section

Reinforcing steel (TOR and TMT)

 Concrete is strong in compression and weak in tension but steel is strong in both compression
and tension hence, steel is provided in concrete to increase its strength is called the reinforcing
steel.
 Steel reinforcement is available in the forms of bars of specified diameters with different
chemical composition and surface characteristics plain and deformed.
 The commonly used types of steel reinforcement are :
1) Mild steel (plain bars )-Fe 250
2) High yield strength deformed (HYSD ) bars –Fe450
3) TMT- Thermo mechanically treated bars –Fe 500,550.

Difference between TOR and TMT

TOR TMT

TOR is a brand name of Toristeg steel Thermo-mechanically treated bars

corporation of Luxemburg.

TOR refers to cold treated bars TMT refers to hot treated bars.

Low strength than TMT High strength than TOR

Twisting operation while making hence No twisting operation hence, no residual
there is reduced residual stress in it, stress.

Less ductile than TMT More ductile than TOR

Old types of reinforcing steel-Fe 415 Latest type of reinforcing –Fe 500

a) Stainless steel
Stainless steel is the alloy steel containing more than 12% of the chromium alloyed
with the iron. Chromium forms a dense and tough layer of oxide around the metal
surface and is highly resistive to corrosion. Stainless steel is basically subcategorized
into three groups:
a) First group of stainless steel
 Contains less than 14% of chromium
 Also contains less than 0.4% carbon with traces of copper, tungsten, nickel etc.
 This group of stainless steel can be hardened, welded, machined and are satisfactory
corrosion resistant.
 They are used to prepare steam values turbine, surgical instruments, scissors, knife,
gears, shafts, ball bearing, spring etc.
b) Second group of stainless steel
 It consists of 14-20% of chromium and 0.45% of carbon.
 They are more brittle and difficult to heat treatment.
 They can be forged, welded, machined and rolled.
 They are also used in chemical and food plants.
c) Third group of stainless steel
 It contains at least 24% of combined chromium and nickel. This steel has excellent
resistance against corrosion and improve tensile strength.
 This steel is very tough and can be welded, forged and rolled, machining of this steel is
difficult.
 These steels are used in chemical plants, tanks ,cooking utensils , preparing pump shaft,
screw , nut , bolt etc

b) Tool Steel
 Tool steel is a specific type of high quality steel made specifically for the production of
tools and components.
 Tool steel is formulated to with stand high pressure and abrasive materials .It contains
0.5-2.5% of carbon.
 The four major alloying elements in tool steel that form carbides are: tungsten,
chromium, vanadium and molybdenum.
 There are six group of tools steels: water hardening, cold work, shock resisting, high
speed , hot work and special purpose.
 Tools steel have properties of hardness, toughness, wear resistance and red hardness.
c) Brass (Pital)
It include a group of copper zinc alloy in which properties of zinc range between 5 to
14% .The brass are stronger and more ductile compound with pure copper. Brass are
further divided into ordinary (plain) and special brasses according to zinc content and
presence of third element.
Properties:
a) Strong, hard and ductile
b) Can be welded
c) Can be hot or cold worked etc.
Uses:
Plumbing accessories, grill work, making thermal component, marine construction
work and various hardware etc.

d) Aluminium
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust but it’s always found in
combined state due to its more reactivity. The main ore of aluminium is bauxite.
Properties:
 It is white in colour and shows bright luster when break.
 It is ductile and malleable.
 It has less specific gravity than most of the metals.
 It is highly resistive towards corrosion due to the layer of Al2O3 covering its surface.
 It has high thermal and electrical conductivity.
 It should be protected from electrolysis because of its electropositive nature.
 It forms alloys with Fe, Cu, Zn and other metals.
Uses:
It is used as doors and windows, frame, furniture, body of airplane, electric cables,
kitchenware, etc.

e) Duralumin
It is an important alloy of aluminium with copper and small amount of magnesium,
manganese, silicon and iron.
Properties:
 It has high strength compared to metal aluminium.
 Its most important property is age hardening i.e becoming harder and harder with time.
 It is highly resistant to corrosion.
 It has high tensile strength.
 Specific gravity =2.8
 Melting Point =6500 C
Uses:
 Supper duralumin is used in aircraft industry.
 Wire and sheets are drawn from duralumin.
 It may be lubricated into different structural shapes to be used for construction.

Corrosion of metal and its properties

 The phenomenon of corrosion of metals may be defined as “Spontaneous chemical
reactions between the metal surface and the environment leading to formation of such
compounds that are stable in that particular environment .The compounds so formed
may be removed from place of their formation creating a metal composition or
structure, or both, different from the original one thereby changing its properties.”
 From engineering point of view, this process is undesirable .The changes produced
during corrosion may be considerable harmful in the service life of the metal.
 Corrosion is global phenomenon. Despite all the preventive measures, the corrosion
process destroy metals worth millions of rupees every year.
Corrosive environment:
a) Atmospheric corrosion
b) Underwater corrosion
c) Chemical corrosion
d) Industrial gases corrosion

Prevention of corrosion
Metals may be saved from destruction by corrosion by adopting following methods:
a) Selection of metal:
All metals are not stable in all environment .So, consideration should be given
while selecting for particular use. The selection of metal becomes useful by:
 Analyzing the exact nature of the environment in which use of metal is warranted or
desired.
 Obtaining information about behaviours of different metals in that particular
environment.
 Selecting the one which will give the best performance.
b) Reducing corrosiveness of environment:
 Poor drainage of rain water may be responsible for accelerated corrosion of pipe.
 Sometimes corrosive nature of an environment can also be corrected .Some corrosion
reducing chemicals called inhibitors may be added to boiler feed water. This will
increase life of boiler.
 Similarly, suitable treatment may be given to municipal water supply which is after
corrosive to pipes carrying the water.
c) Application of protective coating:
 Metals are often coated with either an inorganic or an organic material with a view of
protecting from corrosion.
 Sometimes coating are given for decorative purpose only.
d) Methods of giving protective coating
1) Dipping
2) Electroplating
3) Spraying
4) Cementing
5) Cladding
6) Anodizing