Middle Ages English Literature (Medieval):

1066-1485
Significant Historical Dates:

1066 Battle of Hastings: William the Conqueror, Duke of French Normandy, defeats last Anglo-Saxon
King, Harold II, establishing the feudal system in England.

1095: Pope Urban II declares first Crusade.

1170: Archbishop of Canterbury is murdered, showing conflict between church and monarch of England

1215: Declaration of Magna Carta, restricting power of the monarch; first step toward constitutional
government in England

1315-17: Great Famine in Northern Europe

1320: Dante completes The Divine Comedy

1337-1453: Hundred Years’ War between England and France

1347-51: Black Death (bubonic plaque), one of the largest pandemics in human history

1415: Henry V defeats the French at Agincourt

1439: In Germany, Gutenberg invents the printing press with movable type: begins a revolution in book
printing and spread of information

1476: William Caxton sets up printing shop in Westminster in England.

1485: Richard III is defeated in battle of Bosworth, ending reign of Plantagenet family and beginning
reign of Tudor monarchs.

1485: William Caxton prints Malory’s Morte D’Arthur, one of first books printed in England

English Literature from 1066-1485:

Full length portrait of Chaucer from Medieval book illustration, showing figure in brown robe and
headdress against white background.
 Portrait of Chaucer

Chaucer, Canterbury Tales, 1387-1400

Almost everyone familiar with Western literature has heard of The Canterbury Tales, and even read one
or more of them in school. One of the first major works written in English, Canterbury Tales tells the
story of 30 different people from all walks of medieval society who are going on a religious pilgrimage
together.

The “host,” the leader of the party, asks each person to tell different tales to help them all pass the time
on the road. The resulting stories, each told from the point of view of a different pilgrim, are sourced
from many different genres of Medieval literature; each is related with the unique “spin” or point of
view of each separate character, showing the personalities and values of each. This adds a layer of extra
interest to each separate story.

Chaucer seems to have intended for each character to relate two tales, but he never finished all of
them. Even so, there are plenty of wonderful tales to read, from the “Prologue,” which sweetly and
humorously describes each of the people in the traveling party, to tales of love, courage, or just plain
ribaldry.
Canterbury Cathedral, destination for Chaucer’s Pilgrim characters.
Who Were King Arthur and The Knights of the Round Table?

The Arthurian knights, who sat with King Arthur around a circular table, became the focal point of
fellowship between knights. Some of them are famous as heroes and champions of just cause. In theory,
they were brothers; however, jealousy, envy and hatred existed with the fellowship. There were
enemies within the Round Table as well as those who were not member of the fellowship. In the end, it
was adultery committed by one of its members, Lancelot, with Arthur’s queen, the enmity of Gawain,
and the betrayal of Mordred that finally brought about downfall of Arthur’s kingdom.

The fellowship of the Round Table was similar to those of the medieval military orders, Knights
Hospitallers (1113) and Knights Templar (1119), founded in the First Crusade. Each order had their own
set rules or customs; such as what colour or device they can have on their shields, surcoats, banner, etc.

According to Wace and Layamon

Geoffrey of Monmouth was usually seen as one of the first who brought the Arthurian world to life,
though there are scattered works, references and oral traditions from Wales and Brittany. Yet, in his
Historia regum Britanniae (“History of the Kings of Britain”, c. 1137), a number of essential elements
that make up the Arthurian world, didn’t appear in his work. The heroes, Lancelot and Perceval were no
where to be seen. There was also no Camelot, no Holy Grail, and more importantly, no Round Table.

It wasn’t until 1155, when an Anglo-Norman author from Jersey, named Wace, wrote down his Roman
de Brut in French, and introduced the Round Table into the Arthurian legend. However, Wace’s version
was different to what we popularly know today about the Round Table.

The knights were usually of noble birth: they were usually kings and princes, dukes, counts (or earls) and
barons. They formed the backbone of the army, since they were the only one who could afford
expensive armour and weapon, as well as the cost of training and maintaining the war-horse.

When the knights attend a festival or council at the king’s main hall, those who sat at the head of table,
usually have precedence over others. These knights would feel envy or jealousy to those of higher
ranking. Sometimes, the knights would cause a brawl, over who would take the seat at the head of
table.

To resolve these problems, Arthur resorted to having his table constructed in a rounded shape. The
ingenuity of this design, make all the knights equal, regardless if he was a king or a minor baron. No one
would have precedence over others.
The knights in Arthur’s company became known as the “Knights of the Round Table”. These knights
were heroes, renowned for their strength and courage, and for their skill in combat and warfare. They
swore to protect the king and the kingdom.

Layamon, the English author of Brut (c. 1200), who wrote the adaptation of Wace’s work, further
elaborate the origin of the Round Table.

So the Round Table actually began in a more basic tradition, that of political expenditure. There was no
magical or mystical ingredient that would appeared later in this century or early next century.

Note that at this time, there was still no Grail to be sought, nor were there heroes such as Perceval or
Galahad.

Boron and the Vulgate Cycle

When the Grail romance became more firmly rooted in the Arthurian legend, the Round Table became
directly linked or indirectly with the Grail. The table did not become just furniture to seat Arthur’s
knights, nor was it to solve a problem of precedence between knights.

Though, the French writer Chretien de Troyes was the first to write about the Grail and the hero
Perceval (in c. 1180, titled Conte du Grail), the Round Table was not linked to the Grail at all. It wasn’t
until around 1200 that Robert de Boron, a French poet, wrote his trilogy that the Round Table became
more entwined with the Grail.

According to Boron and the Vulgate Cycle (1227-1235), the Round Table was devised and created by
Merlin, during the reign of Uther Pendragon, father of Arthur.

Merlin used the tables of the Last Supper and of Joseph of Arimathea, as models for the Round Table
(See the Origin of the Holy Grail, about Joseph of Arimathea and the Grail Table). The Queste del Saint
Graal says that Merlin made the table round, because he wanted it to symbolise the roundness of the
Earth.

However, when Uther died, the Round Table was passed on to King Leodegan (Leodegraunce) of
Camelide (Camelerd), one of his allies and the father of Guinevere. When Arthur married Guinevere,
Leodegan gave the Round Table to Arthur as a wedding gift, along with one hundred knights of
Leodegan.
Since the Round Table could seat 150 knights, it was Merlin who help Arthur to chose the last fifty
knights. Each seat (sieges) would have the name of knight magically written on the back of the seat, in
letters of gold. One seat, however, remained unoccupied until the Grail knight appeared. The
Archbishop of Canterbury blessed the members who sat around the Round Table.

Though, most writers say that the Round Table could seat 150 knights, the number can vary, depending
on whose works you were reading. In Perlesvaus (Le Haut Livre du Graal) and Li chevaliers as deus
espees (The Knight of Two Swords), there were 366 knights.

This seat was known as the Siege Perilous.

Siege Perilous

As the legend evolved and the tales of the Grail became more firmly rooted in the Arthurian legend (in
the 13th-14th century), there was only one seat left vacate, that was the seat that no other knights
could sit upon: the “Siege Perilous“.

Like the table of Joseph of Arimathea (Grail Table), only one of the seats was left vacated. The Siege
Perilous was reserved for the true Grail knight, and would remained unoccupied until the Grail hero
appeared. Anyone who sat on it would be killed. Not even, Joseph of Arimathea, his brother-in-law,
Bron, and Alain le Gros, Bron’s son, could sit on the Perilous Seat of the Grail Table. While Perceval was
meant to sit on this perilous seat.

Please note that the Grail Table, which was the table built by Joseph of Arimathea, and the table
designed by Merlin, were two different table. The Grail Table was represented the table of spirituality,
while the Round Table was for the secular fellowship of Arthurian knights. The Round Table was very
much the symbol of Arthur’s power as was his sword Excalibur and his castle abode Camelot.

According to most of the legend, the Grail knight was Perceval, whom the seat was reserved for, until
the Vulgate Cycle was composed in 1230. Galahad would take up Perceval’s role as the new Grail knight.

The true Grail hero must be knight with the purest heart, who was not only chaste, but also a virgin
without sins. That knight was Galahad (Perceval according to Boron), the son of Lancelot, the only knight
allowed understanding of the mystery of the Holy Grail.

Round Table of Many Colours

The military orders had began during the First Crusade, where the Crusaders attempt to establish
hospitals for those serving in the Holy Land (Palestine). They were intended to care for the sick pilgrims
and the wounded knights whom fought the Muslims. The first two orders were established on the Holy
Land. The Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem were commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (1113)
and the Order of the Temple of Solomon became simply known as the Templars (1119). The two orders
were later recognised by the internationally and by the Pope.

Other orders were established, sometimes by rulers. In Germany, the best known order was Teutonic
Order (1189-1525). The Teutonic Knights were established during the Third Crusade, but left the Holy
Land in 1291, so these knights moved to Hungary, and later invaded and occupied Prussia. In England,
during the Hundred Years’ War, Edward III had established the Order of the Garter, in 1348. Around the
same time, Philip VI established a rival order to the Garter, known as Chevalier d’Etoil.

These order wear a particular types of surcoats, shield. The Templar wore white surcoat with a red
cross, while the knight of the Teutonic Order wore white surcoat with a black cross. Some of orders have
a particular motto or war cry.

Unlike these medieval military orders, Arthur had never established such rules and heraldic designs
upon his knights. Each wore knight wore what armour, surcoat or shield they choose. Some knights
wore design upon their shields or surcoats where they could be recognised. Often a knight would wear
one of the colours, the most common being white, black, red, green and blue.

In Conte du Graal and other tales about Perceval, Perceval was usually seen as the Red Knight, because
the untrained youth had killed a Red Knight that had spilled wine on Queen Guinevere. In the episode of
Sir Gareth, in Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (1469), Gawain’s brother was the White Knight.

The great hero Lancelot wore any armour and shield he was given, due to the fact that he like to travel
incognito, so no one would recognise him. Especially when he was on an adventure or participating in
the tournament. In the Prose Lancelot (Vulgate Cycle, c. 1227) Lancelot started out being knighted as a
White Knight, where the Lady of the Lake provided his armour and weapon, but he changed his armour
many times, so he was also the Red Knight, Green Knight and then Black Knight. This would often cause
trouble for him.

Shields sometimes have depictions of animals, sometimes of the crown or sword. Other times, the shield
had only one colour or sometimes they had a stripe or two. As I had said, there were no constraint or
rule in the Arthurian legend. According to the 9th century historian Nennius, Arthur carried a shield with
image of the Virgin Mary into battle.
Despite, the lack of uniformity within the fellowship, Arthur and his knights did have a war cry, which
they would yell out – “Clarence!“.

Imperfect Dreams

Merlin was a prophet and sorcerer, who could pierce the past and look into the future. Merlin foresaw
the quest for the grail. Merlin, who was the son of a demon and pious virgin nun, Merlin became the
champion of causes Arthur and the Knight of the Round Table. Merlin saw that the reign of Arthur was
the best potential of creating a perfect world.

Merlin used the table of the Last Supper and table of Joseph of Arimathea as the models for the Round
Table. The Round Table therefore became a link to the Grail.

The Round Table had further symbolic and mystical meanings. Merlin created the table to resemble the
roundness of the world. Merlin dreamed of making a perfect world when he created the Round Table.
The Round Table became the symbols of courage and chivalry.

The table was more than a dowry of Guinevere. In a way, Guinevere symbolised the kingdom of Logres
(Britain). Arthur, who was Logres king, was not only wedded to Guinevere; he became wedded to the
land. This link between the rulers who were wedded the land was common themes in Celtic myths.

Though, the Round Table represented the world, it was an imperfect world, because the knights were
flawed (except for Galahad, who was spiritually perfect). The knights were imperfect and had human
failings.

The results of the Quest, when the Grail vanished from the world, it also meant the withdrawal of God’s
grace from Logres. Though the enchantment on Logres was broken and the Maimed King healed, the
salvation did not come to the Brotherhood of the Round Table. Instead they were punished for their
failings and their sins.
One of the most notable failings of the Round Table was that Lancelot, the greatest knight in the world,
was in love with Queen Guinevere. Lancelot and Guinevere had committed adultery, thereby stained the
honour of the Round Table. Arthur’s war against Lancelot had split the Round Table into two factions,
and left him terribly weakened when Mordred betrayed him.

Another failing was Mordred, who also belonged to the Round Table, and was born as the result of
incest, between Arthur and his half-sister Morgawse. Mordred would allow his own lust for power and
his father’s wife (Guinevere), to seize the kingdom during Arthur’s absence.

Another factor that brought an end to the Round Table, was Arthur’s pride. Despite warning in his
dream by Gawain, his refusal to asked Lancelot to aid him in the war against Mordred, hastened his own
doom.

Their sins would bring about the downfall of the Round Table and end the imperfect dreams of Arthur
and Merlin.