Polyamide Fiber

Polyamide
Polyamides are polymers which contain recurring amide groups as integral parts of the polymer
backbone.
CO – N–
Amide Group
*Naturally occurring polyamides include the protein fibers e.g. silk and wool. Synthetic
polyamide fibers form one of the most important of all classes of textile fiber, which we know
today as nylon.

Two types of Polyamide Fiber

*Aromatic polyamide fiber
*Aliphatic polyamide fiber

Aromatic Polyamide
* A manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance
is a long chain synthetic polyamide in which at least 85 percent of the amide linkages
(-CO-NH-) are attached directly to two aromatic rings. Example-Aramid
*The first fiber of this class to be developed was Nomex from DuPont. This yarn is of only
medium tenacity, but is non-flammable and widely used for the production of fireproof clothing,
etc.

Aliphatic Polyamide
A manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance is a long chain synthetic polyamide
in which less than 85% of the amide linkages (–CO – NH–) are attached directly to two aliphatic
groups.
* Aliphatic polyamides with structural units derived predominantly from aliphatic monomers are
members of the generic class of nylons.
*The word nylon was introduced to signify the fineness of the filament i.e. a pound of nylon
could be converted to the length equal to the distance between New York (NY) and London
(LON).

Polyamide Composition
Straight-chain aliphatic nylons are commonly identified either as nylon X,Y or nylon Z, where X,
Y, and Z signify the number of carbon atoms in the respective monomeric units. The pair X,Y
refers to the AA---BB-type nylons, where the first number X is equal to the number of carbon
atoms in the diamine unit and the second number Y represents the number of carbon atoms in
the corresponding diacid unit. The number Z refers to the A---B-type nylons and is equal to the
number of carbon atoms in the amino acid unit.
Thus, nylon-6,10 is the polyamide produced from the 6 carbon hexamethylenediamine and the
10-carbon sebacic acid, whereas nylon-6 is obtained from the 6 carbon caprolactam and
nylon-11 from the 11-carbon aminoundecanoic acid.
The coding of nylons derived from ring structures usually includes either a single letter or a
combination of letters representing the ring containing the unit.
Nylon-6,T refers to a polyamide produced from hexamethylenediamine and terephthalic acid
Nylon-mXD,6 is derived from m-xylene diamine and adipic acid.

Nylon 66
*Nylon 66 types are synthesized from a diacid and diamine.For nylon 66,hexamethylenediamine
(H) and adipic acid (A) are reacted to form H-A salt. The salt is polymerized to produce nylon 66
in the following manner.
NH2 (CH2)6NH2 + HOOC (CH2)4 COOH
HexamethyleneDiamine Adipic Acid
↓
--CONH (CH2)6 NHCO (CH2)4CONH (CH2)6 NHCO (CH2)4 CO--
Nylon 66
Polyhexamethylene Adipamide
Conditions for Nylon 66 production
Hexamethylenediamine should be in the crystalline form with melting point of 40˚C and
boiling point of 204˚–205˚C.
Adipic acid is in the white crystalline form with an acid number of 368, with melting and boiling
point of 152˚ and 216˚C.
The color, iron and water content are also controlled. In the production process, the two
monomers of nylon 66 are taken in the molar ratio of 1: 1.

Nylon 6
Nylon 6 is a nylon Z type of polymer, where the Z represents the number of carbon atoms in the
monomer. Nylon 6 is typically produced from caprolactam in the following manner.

Condition for Nylon 6 production

The purity of the caprolactam is critically assessed for the production of nylon 6 polymer. The
specificities of the monomer are freezing point 69˚C; permanganate number 71; iron content as
0.5 ppm.
Caprolactam requires a catalyst, which converts small amounts of caprolactam to
ε-aminocaproic acid which helps in the polymerization process. The catalyst could be water,
where the control of reaction is easy.

Molecular weight of Nylon 6 in water

catalyst system
In a water catalyst system the critical parameters during reaction are temperature of
225˚–285˚C, amount of water 5–10% and stabilizer content of 1% and time of polymerization.

Molecular weight suitable for filament production

With appropriate molecular weights, it is possible to produce filaments through the melt
spinning process. Typically the average molecular weight used in the fiber production process is
8,000–20,000. Technical grade nylons are made from 24,000–26,000 number average
molecular weight polymers. These high molecular weight nylons are produced by solid
state polymerization from low molecular weight chips obtained through the melt
polycondensation process.
Difference between Nylon 6 and Nylon 66
Nylon 66 and nylon 6 differ from each other in various ways. The difference in the structural
composition in these two fibers are reflected to their physical as well as chemical behavior that
lead them to be used in different areas of application according to the requirements of a
particular end use.

*First of all, nylon 6 is only made from one kind of monomer, a monomer called caprolactam.
Nylon 66 is made from two monomers, adipic acid and hexamethylenediamine.
* The chemical structures of nylon 66 and nylon 6 are virtually identical. They differ only in the
arrangement of the carbonyl and NH groups between the hydrocarbon chains of the polymer.
* In nylon 66 their order is alternatively reversed and the order might be designated AB----BA
(A representing amine groups and B representing carboxyl groups).
*Nylon 6 does not have the same functional groups at each end of the monomer unit like nylon
66 and can be written as AB----AB structure.
*Nylon 66 fiber has a tighter molecular structure than nylon 6 due to higher level of hydrogen
bonding and maximum alignment between the molecular chains.
*Type nylon 6 does not have this level of internal bonding resulting in a more random and open
structure
Crystallinity
Nylon 66 is more crystalline than the nylon 6. This more crystalline structure of type nylon 66
helps the fiber to retain its shape better and gives the enhanced resilience properties. The
higher degree of crystallinity and tighter molecular structure of nylon 66 results, however, a poor
dye affinity than nylon 6 fibers.
Melting point
The melting point determines thermal resistance, safe ironing temperature and heat setting
temperature. Nylon 66 has a higher melting temperature (about 2500C) than nylon 6 (about
2150C) due to its molecular structure. The higher melting point of nylon 66 allows it to be used
in some particular cases, where the melting point of nylon 6 can not meet the requirements of
application.
Dye affinity and color fastness
*Nylon 6 has a greater affinity for certain dyestuffs than nylon 66.
*Dye together with acid dyes in the same dyebath, nylon 6 will dye to a shade several times
deeper than that attained by nylon 66.
*The dye diffusion rate for nylon 66 is not as fast as for nylon 6.
*Therefore it is more difficult to dye nylon 66.
*Two tone (multi tone) colorings may be obtained by dyeing fabrics constructed from both fibers.
*On the other hand, it is also difficult to strip out the color from type 66 because the dye more
closely combines with the fiber.
*Consequently, nylon 66 possesses better color fastness properties than nylon 6.

Polyester
*The word ester is the name given to salts formed from the reaction between an alcohol and an
acid. Esters are organic salts and polyester means many organic salts.
* Polyester is a man made, synthetic polymer, filament or staple fiber. The most common
polyester apparel filament or staple fiber is usually composed of polyethylene terephthalate
polymers. -C-OH + -COOH = -CO-OC- + H2OH

Polyester is a term often defined as “long-chain polymers chemically composed of at least 85%
by weight of an ester and a dihydric alcohol and a terephthalic acid”.
In other words, it means the linking of several esters within the fibers.
Reaction of alcohol with carboxylic acid results in the formation of esters.
Polyester also refers to the various polymers in which the backbones are formed by the
“esterification condensation of polyfunctional alcohols and acids”.
Raw materials for polyester fiber
The fiber-forming polyester may be obtained from dicarboxylic acids with diols.
Commercially, aromatic polyester is applied using ethylene glycol (EG) and dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT), or ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid (TPA) to produce
polyethylene terephthalate (PET).
Before 1970, polyester was exclusively produced on a commercial scale from ethylene glycol
and dimethyl terephthalate.
Production of ethylene glycol
Direct oxidation process
This process involves direct oxidation of ethylene to ethylene oxide according to the following
reaction. The reaction uses metal catalysts (e.g., silver oxide) and the reaction temperature is
approximately 250°C.

Required properties of EG for polyester production

Boiling point: 195–198°C.
Density: 1.110–1.112 (at 20°C).
OH number: greater than 1750.
Water content: less than 0.1%.
Ester interchange value: greater than 90.
Manufacturing of terephthalic acid and dimethyl terephthalate
Material from p-xylene
Conversion of p-xylene mainly occurs by oxidation. Terephthalic acid and dimethyl
terephthalate are produced from p-xylene according to the following formula:

Toluene material

In industrial practice, the polymerization processes of aromatic polyethylene terephthalate are

produced via a two step process.
The first step is esterification and preliminary condensation, while the second is
polycondensation or melt polymerization.
Esterification and preliminary condensation proceed in two paths:
a. Transesterification and preliminary condensation
b. Direct esterification and preliminary condensation.
In the first path, the DMT is transformed, with the assistance of one or more catalysts and EG at
temperatures ranging from 150 to 200°C, into BHET (bis-(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate) (also
called di glycol terephthalate, DGT) with the elimination of methanol.

The reaction condition of transesterification and preliminary

condensation are;
1/ Catalysts: metal oxides (PbO, MgO, Sb2O3, etc.), metal acetates (Co, Mn, Zn, etc.), or
mixtures of oxides and acetates metals (CH3COO)2CO-Sb2O3, (CH3COO)2CO-PbO, etc.).
2/Concentration of catalyst: 0.05% (to the amount of DMT).
3/Monomer ingredient for DMT: EG =1: (2-2.5) (mole ratio).
4/ Reaction temperature: falls in the range of 150–200°C (gradually increases).
5/ Reaction time: 3–6 hours.

Direct esterification and preliminary condensation

In the second path (direct esterification and preliminary condensation), terephthalic acid (TPA)
is converted, with EG and the aid of one or more catalysts at temperatures ranging from 250 to
280°C, into BHET with the elimination of water.
The reaction condition of direct esterification and preliminary condensation are;
Catalysts: metal oxides (Sb2O3, PbO, etc.).
The concentration of catalysts: should be less than 0.05% (to the amount of TPA).
Monomer ingredient for TPA: EG =1: (1.1–2) (mole ratio).
Reaction temperature: 250–290°C (increases gradually).
Reaction time: 3–6 hours.
Polycondensation
This step starts by the BHET produced by esterification and preliminary condensation. Then, by
condensation the intermolecular BHET releases EG and produces PET. The reaction is:
Reaction conditions of polycondensation
Catalysts: metal acetates (e.g., Co, Mn, Zn, Mg, Pb, Cd, etc.) or mixtures of oxides and acetate
metals; such as (CH3COO)2Mn +Sb2O3, (CH3COO)2Co +Sb2O3, etc.
The concentration of catalysts: 0.02–0.03% (to the amount of TPA or DMT).
The thermal stabilizer of PET: phosphor compounds.
The concentration of the thermal stabilizer of PET:
0.015–0.03% (to the amount of TPA or DMT).
Nitrogen under pressure is needed to place BHET into the condensation vessel.
Reaction temperature: 265–285°C (stable temperature).
Reaction pressure: below 1 mm/Hg.
Reaction time: 4–6 hours.

Characteristics of polyester
Polyester fabrics and fibers are extremely strong.
Polyester is very durable: resistant to most chemicals, stretching and shrinking, wrinkle
resistant, mildew and abrasion resistant.
Polyester is hydrophobic in nature and quick drying. It can be used for insulation by
manufacturing hollow fibers.
Polyester retains its shape and hence is good for making outdoor clothing for harsh climates.
It is easily washed and dried.
Rayon Fiber
Rayon fiber
Rayon is a manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose in which substituents have
replaced note more than 15 percent of the hydrogen of the hydroxyl groups.

Types of regenerated cellulose fiber

Depending on the production methodology, type of solvent used and fiber properties, the
regenerated cellulose fiber or rayon fiber can be classified mainly in four groups. At present the
following methods are used to produce cellulose based man made fiber;
a. Viscose process – viscose fiber
b. Cuprammonium process – cupro fiber
c. Lyocell process – lyocell fiber
d. Acetate process – acetate fiber
Manufacturing process of viscose
The process of manufacturing viscose rayon consists of the following steps mentioned, in the
order that they are carried out:
Steeping: Cellulose pulp is immersed in 17-20% aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a
temperature in the range of 18 to 25 C in order to swell the cellulose fibers and to convert
cellulose to alkali cellulose.
(C6H10O5)n + nNaOH ---> (C6H9O4ONa)n + nH2O
Pressing: The swollen alkali cellulose mass is pressed to a wet weight equivalent of 2.5 to 3.0
times the original pulp weight to obtain an accurate ratio of alkali to cellulose.
Shredding: The pressed alkali cellulose is shredded mechanically to yield finely divided, fluffy
particles called "crumbs". This step provides increased surface area of the alkali cellulose,
thereby increasing its ability to react in the steps that follow.
Aging: The alkali cellulose is aged under controlled conditions of time and temperature
(between 18 and 300 concentration. C) in order to depolymerize the cellulose to the desired
degree of polymerization. In this step the average molecular weight of the original pulp is
reduced by a factor of two to three. Reduction of the cellulose is done to get a viscose solution
of right viscosity and cellulose concentration.
Xanthation: In this step the aged alkali cellulose crumbs are placed in vats and are allowed to
react with carbon disulphide under controlled temperature (20 to 30C) to form cellulose
xanthate.
(C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----> (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n
Side reactions that occur along with the conversion of alkali cellulose to cellulose xanthate are
responsible for the orange color of the xanthate crumb and also the resulting viscose solution.
The orange cellulose xanthate crumb is dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide at 15 to 20 C
under high-shear mixing conditions to obtain a viscous orange colored solution called "viscose",
which is the basis for the manufacturing process. The viscose solution is then filtered (to get out
the insoluble fiber material) and is deaerated.
Dissolving: The yellow crumb is dissolved in aqueous caustic solution. The large xanthate
substituents on the cellulose force the chains apart, reducing the interchain hydrogen bonds and
allowing water molecules to solvate and separate the chains, leading to solution of the
otherwise insoluble cellulose. Because of the blocks of un xanthated cellulose in the crystalline
regions, the yellow crumb is not completely soluble at this stage. Because the cellulose
xanthate solution (or more accurately, suspension) has a very high viscosity, it has been termed
"viscose".
Ripening: The viscose is allowed to stand for a period of time to "ripen". Two important
processes occur during ripening: Redistribution and loss of xanthate groups. The reversible
xanthation reaction allows some of the xanthate groups to revert to cellulosic hydroxyls and free
CS2. This free CS2 can then escape or react with other hydroxyl on other portions of the
cellulose chain. In this way, the ordered, or crystalline, regions are gradually broken down and a
more complete solution is achieved. The CS2 that is lost reduces the solubility of the cellulose
and facilitates regeneration of the cellulose after it is formed into a filament.
(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O ---> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH
Filtering: The viscose is filtered to remove undissolved materials that might disrupt the spinning
process or cause defects in the rayon filament.
Degassing: Bubbles of air entrapped in the viscose must be removed prior to extrusion or they
would cause voids, or weak spots, in the fine rayon filaments.
Spinning - (Wet Spinning): Production of Viscose Rayon Filament: The viscous solution is
metered through a spinneret into a spin bath containing sulphuric acid (necessary to acidify the
sodium cellulose xanthate), sodium sulfate (necessary to impart a high salt content to the bath
which is useful in rapid coagulation of viscose), and zinc sulfate (exchange with sodium
xanthate to form zinc xanthate, to cross link the cellulose molecules). Once the cellulose
xanthate is neutralized and acidified, rapid coagulation of the rayon filaments occurs which is
followed by simultaneous stretching and decomposition of cellulose xanthate to regenerated
cellulose. Stretching and decomposition are vital for getting the desired tenacity and other
properties of rayon. Slow regeneration of cellulose and stretching of rayon will lead to greater
areas of crystallinity within the fiber, as is done with high-tenacity rayons.

The dilute sulphuric acid decomposes the xanthate and regenerates cellulose by the process of
wet spinning. The outer portion of the xanthate is decomposed in the acid bath, forming a
cellulose skin on the fiber. Sodium and zinc sulfates control the rate of decomposition (of
cellulose xanthate to cellulose) and fiber formation.
(C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + (n/2)H2SO4 --> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + (n/2)Na2SO4
Drawing: The rayon filaments are stretched while the cellulose chains are still relatively mobile.
This causes the chains to stretch out and orient along the fiber axis. As the chains become
more parallel, interchain hydrogen bonds form, giving the filaments the properties necessary for
use as textile fibers.
Washing: The freshly regenerated rayon contains many salts and other water soluble
impurities which need to be removed. Several different washing techniques may be used.
Cutting: If the rayon is to be used as staple (i.e., discrete lengths of fiber), the group of
filaments (termed "tow") is passed through a rotary cutter to provide a fiber which can be
processed in much the same way as cotton
TYPES OF RAYON Rayon fibers are engineered to possess a range of properties to meet the
demands for a wide variety of end uses. Some of the important types of fibers are briefly
described.
High wet modulus rayon: These fibers have exceptionally high wet modulus of about 1 g/den
and are used as parachute cords and other industrial uses. Fortisan fibers made by Celanese
(saponified acetate) have also been used for the same purpose.
Polynosic rayon: These fibers have a very high degree of orientation, achieved as a result of
very high stretching (up to 300 %) during processing. They have a unique fibrillar structure, high
dry and wet strength, low elongation (8 to 11 %), relatively low water retention and very high wet
modulus.
Specialty of rayon fiber
Flame retardant fibers: Flame retardnce is achieved by the adhesion of the correct flame-
retardant chemical to viscose.
Examples of additives are alkyl, aryl and halogenated alkyl or aryl phosphates, phosphazenes,
phosphonates and polyphosphonates. Flame retardant rayons have the additives distributed
uniformly through the interior of the concentrates at the surface of the fiber. fiber and this
property is advantageous over flame retardant cotton fibers where the flame retardant
concentrates at the surface of the fiber.
Super absorbent rayons: This is being produced in order to obtain higher water retention
capacity (although regular rayon retains as much as 100 % of its weight). These fibers are used
in surgical nonwovens. These fibers are obtained by including water- holding polymers (such as
sodium polyacrylate or sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) in the viscose prior to spinning, to get a
water retention capacity in the range of 150 to 200 % of its weight.
Micro denier fibers: rayon fibers with deniers below 1.0 are now being developed and
introduced into the market. These can be used to substantially improve fabric strength and
absorbent properties.
PROPERTIES OF RAYON
Variations during spinning of viscose or during drawing of filaments provide a wide variety of
fibers with a wide variety of properties. These include:
Fibers with thickness of 1.7 to 5.0dtex, particularly those between 1.7 and 3.3dtex, dominate
large scale production.
Tenacity ranges between 2.0 to 2.6 g/den when dry and 1.0 to 1.5 g/den when wet.
Wet strength of the fiber is of importance during its manufacturing and also in subsequent
usage. Modifications in the production process have led to the problem of low wet strength
being overcome.
Dry and wet tenacities extend over a range depending on the degree of polymerization and
crystallinity. The higher the crystallinity and orientation of rayon, the lower is the drop in tenacity
upon wetting.
Percentage elongation-at-break seems to vary from 10 to 30 % dry and 15 to 40 % wet.
Elongation-at-break is seen to decrease with an increase in the degree of crystallinity and
orientation of rayon.
Properties of NMMO
The NMMO is a highly polar compound with the N–O group having the dipole moment that can
form hydrogen bonds with the hydroxyl groups of cellulose. Consequently the aqueous solutions
of NMMO dissolve the cellulose.
NMMO can be produced from morpholine (1-oxa-4 azacyclohexane). Morpholine (M) is a
colorless liquid having a boiling point of 129–1300C. The compound is a weak organic base and
can be synthesized from ammonia and ethylene oxide.
The oxidation of N-methylmorpholine (NMM) is accomplished by using a 35% excess of H2O2
and carrying out the reaction at 67–720C for 4–5 h.
Advantages of NMMO technology
The NMMO process has a short production cycle. The dissolution and the spinning process is
usually done within 5 h. Currently, full continuous dissolution of cellulose is implemented in the
Lyocell process.
The NMMO process is eco-friendly. No toxic gasses or by-products are formed. The recovery of
NMMO can be as high as 99.5%.
NMMO process can be utilized to obtain highly concentrated cellulose solutions (25–35%).
NMMO fibers can be spun at a relatively high spinning speed in the range of 150–300 m/min.
NMMO technology allows regenerated cellulose fibers to be modified by spinning fibers from
the solutions containing cellulose and some other polymers including cellulose acetate,
cellulose derivatives, polyvinyl alcohol, and some other natural polymers.
NMMO technology can be utilized to make cellulose membranes and films

Properties of lyocell fiber

1 Much higher dry and wet strength
2. Much higher dry and wet Young’s modulus
3. Higher knot- and loop-strength The strength of lyocell fibers in the wet state is significantly
higher than that of other celluloses, losing only 15% from the dry state.
Also of significance is the very high modulus of the fibers, much higher than for the other fibers
shown.
A high initial wet modulus gives lyocell fibers very low potential shrinkage in the wet state.

Ester Cellulose Fiber

Textile fibers which are composed of ester cellulose are called acetate fibers.
There are two types: acetate and triacetate.
The term acetate is derived from acet and ate.
The former comes from acetic acid (the acid of vinegar), whilst the latter denotes a chemical
salt.
Acetate means a salt of acetic acid. To make acetate fibers, cellulose is treated to form cellulose
acetate; that is, the cellulose salt of acetic acid.
In organic chemistry, a salt is known as ester. As a result acetate fibers are at times referred to
as cellulose ester or ester cellulose fibers.

Two Types of Acetate Fiber

Acetate – a man made, natural polymer based secondary cellulose acetate filament or staple
fiber.
Triacetate – a man made, natural polymer based primary cellulose acetate filament or staple
fiber.
Acetate & Triacetate
Acetate and triacetate are mistakenly referred to as the same fiber; although they are similar,
their chemical compounds differ. Triacetate is known as a generic description or primary acetate
containing no hydroxyl group. Acetate fiber is known as modified or secondary acetate having
two or more hydroxyl groups.
The Federal Trade Commission definition for acetate fiber is "A manufactured fiber in which the
fiber-forming substance is cellulose acetate. Where not less than 92 percent of the hydroxyl
groups are acetylated, the term triacetate may be used as a generic description of the fiber."

Acetate & triacetate Process

Basic Principles
Cellulose triacetate is obtained by esterification of cellulose with acetic anhydride.
The anhydroglucose unit contains three -OH sites for acetylation. Therefore, the maximum
degree of acetylation of cellulose is a triacetate; however, the acetylation does not quite reach
the maximum of three units per glucose unit.
The extent to which the hydroxyl groups are substituted is called the degree of substitution (DS).
For cellulose acetate, also called secondary cellulose acetate or cellulose diacetate, the DS is
about 2.4.

The overall reaction in the conversion of cellulose to cellulose triacetate is:

Where Cell is the anhydroglucose ring (without -OH groups) and Ac is an abbreviation for
acetyl, -COCH3. The above equation shows that 3 mol of acetic anhydride reacts with 1 mol of
cellulose to give 1 mol of cellulose triacetate and 3 mol of acetic acid.
Where Cell is the anhydroglucose ring (without -OH groups) and Ac is an abbreviation for
acetyl, -COCH3. The above equation shows that 3 mol of acetic anhydride react with 1 mol of
cellulose to give 1 mol of cellulose triacetate and 3 mol of acetic acid.

The above equation shows the formation of a diacetate. Actually, the DS is higher at 2.4, which
means that less than one acetyl group per anhydroglucose unit is hydrolyzed on an average, or
three acetyl groups are hydrolyzed for every five anhydroglucose units.

Fiber properties
Hand: soft, smooth, dry, crisp, resilient
Comfort: breathes, wicks, dries quickly, no static cling
Drape: linings move with the body linings conform to the garment
Color: deep brilliant shades with atmospheric dyeing meet colorfastness requirements
Luster: high luster
 Performance: colorfast to perspiration staining, colorfast to dry cleaning, air and vapor
permeable
Tenacity: weak fiber with breaking tenacity of 1.2 to 1.4 g/d; rapidly loses strength when wet;
must be dry cleaned
Abrasion: poor resistance
Heat retention: poor thermal retention; no allergenic potential (hypoallergenic)
Dyeability: (two methods) cross-dyeing method where yarns of one fiber and those of another
fiber are woven into a fabric in a desired pattern; solution-dyeing method provides excellent
color fastness under the effects of sunlight, perspiration, air contaminants and washing.