Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Electric Generation Systems Design Criteria: Company Specification
Electric Generation Systems Design Criteria: Company Specification
COMPANY SPECIFICATION
20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
INTRODUCTION
Rev. 0 Pages 41
November 2004
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 3 di 41
INDEX
1. OBJECT............................................................................................................................ 4
2. FOREWORD..................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 TERMINOLOGY FOR THE USERS ................................................................................. 4
9. INSTALLATION.............................................................................................................. 34
9.1 INSTALLATION IN SAFE AREA (NON CLASSIFIED AREA) ........................................ 34
9.2 INSTALLATION (CLASSIFIED AREA) ........................................................................... 34
10. STANDARDS.................................................................................................................. 35
1. OBJECT
This guide presents the various types of on-shore and off-shore electric generation systems
with functional details for a better pick-up decision of these systems, in order to satisfy the
various plant engineering necessities
2. FOREWORD
The following indications offer a general information support as the final solutions have to
be adapted to the technical and economical requests of a particular project. They represent
a synthesis of the traditional knowledge from the plant engineering field of the company
2.1 TERMINOLOGY
For a better understanding of this document and its annexes it is given the terminology
To define the various types of generation the following terminology has been used:
– Main generation systems: includes generation systems that supply parts of the
process and/or auxiliaries services, as electric motors for pumps and compressors,
lighting, HVAC, packages, cranes and hoists, workshops and storehouses, cathodic
protection systems, electric tracing etc.
For the E&P applications the main generation systems are different one from another
as follows: high level demand (on-shore or off-shore installations) or low level demand
(off-shore BEAF type installations or on-shore isolated wells).
The spare supply is necessary from the technical and operational point of view - the
continuous supply for air compressors, oil pumps of the rotating machines, lighting, air
conditioning and pressurization for cabins/electric stations/control rooms etc.)
Safety supply means guaranteed supply of the installations NECESSARY FOR THE
SAFETY OF PERSONNEL.
The system is made up of the source, the circuits and other components.
Typical users are: control system, ESD, Fire & Gas, emergency lighting of escape ways
and radio communications.
This type of supply requires specific standards to consider.
Usual consumers
In case of supply failure there are no consequences on the process.
Preferentials
In case of supply failure there are no particular damages but need some time
to restart the process.
Failures in the supply not lager than 15-20 s are allowed.
The main typical generation systems used in the E&P installations are:
In the E&P installation plans are normally used gas turbine generators or gas engine
generator while steam turbo generators are less employed.
For all the systems the electric generator is a three phased synchronous alternator that,
depending on the rated turns number, is connected to the prime mover shaft directly or
through a gear reduction unit. The gear reduction unit normally is put inside the gas or
steam turbine, excepting the high power units provided with two poles turbo-generators
(3000rpm)
For the gas engine generator groups the rated turns number is 1500 rpm, 1000 rpm or 750
rpm and the alternator is directly connected to the prime mover.
The rated power alternators up to 60-100 MVA are generally brushless type, the larger
ones being static excitation type. The alternators up to 1000÷1500 kVA are generally low
voltage (400V) , the lager ones being medium voltage type up to 20 kV.
For the brushless type alternators the primary excitation voltage is delivered by an
alternator with rotating armature that supplies a rotating diodes system put on the same
main alternator shaft. The voltage for the automatic voltage regulator system (AVR) can be
supplied either by an auxiliary generator with permanent magnets (PMG) put on the same
shaft as the main alternator, in this case we have a total autonomy system, or through a
dedicated transformer connected to the generator output, and in this case the system start-
up needs an auxiliary d.c. supply.
For the large alternators with static excitation the energy necessary for the excitation
system is delivered through a power transformer connected to the plant general services
bus bars. During the start-up period the general services station are supplied from an
external source and then, when generator reached at its rated operation, they are transfer
on the internal source.
The off-shore generation systems are designed for island operation and the on-shore
generation systems for both island and parallel with an external electric network.
The parallel operation whit external network, increases the electric system reliability, as the
external electric system can deliver the required energy in case of internal failure. Moreover
gives the possibility to the generators to work without load variations with the maximum
efficiency for the longest lifetime as the external system can cover the various internal
demands. In case of lower internal energy demand the surplus of energy can be sold
according to the contract.
Another important point is the effect on the environment of the emission combustion
products (CO2; SO2; NOx; ecc:).
This problem has to be considered from the beginning when selecting the generation
system with peculiar attention to the internal national laws according to the Kyoto Protocol
(for example the countries from the European Community decided to reduce the emissions
to less than 8% from the 1990 values).
To reach this aims the generation plants has to be provided where necessary with
appropriate control and treatment systems for the liquid/gas fuel and also discharge smoke,
such as desulphurization system, over combustion system (post burning system), dust
convey system ecc.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 6 di 41
The necessity for such systems depends on the fuel characteristics and on the combustion
control system of the prime motor and/or boilers (gas turbine, gas engine, combustion
chamber, ecc)
Another important point that can reduce the emissions level and increase the system
efficiency is the recovery of the high temperature gas turbine exhaust smoke to produce
steam, that can be used for steam turbine or heating.
It is obvious that the solar and wind generation systems, discussed later in chapter 4, could
be the best solution for the emissions’ problem, but the energy produced this way is just a
small part of the necessary, used only for special requirements.
GAS
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR GENERATOR
AIR DISCHARGE
The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is partially used by the air compressor and
the remaining shaft energy, usually through a gear reduction unit, for the electric generator.
Generally the air compressor, turbine and generator (including the gear reduction unit) are
put on the same shaft defining an one-shaft structure.
As information only, have to be cited the two-shaft structures, that are rarely used for
electric power generation but for mechanical-drive and/or propulsive applications, where
large speed variations are requested on the final charge.
In a two-shaft structure on the first shaft are put together the air compressor and the high
pressure module of the turbine. The discharge gas from the high pressure turbine module
expands in the low pressure turbine module, that stands on the same shaft with the
generator (see fig. 2).
GAS
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
LOAD
AIR
DISCHARGE
– Heavy – Duty
Are industrial applications, simpler, heavier, cheaper, low maintenance, higher lifetime
and lower level of the maximum temperature.
– Aero derivative
Are the terrestrial application of the aeronautical gas turbine model, more advanced
from a technological point of view, smaller outline dimensions, less heavy, more
efficient but demand a more accurate maintenance. Are used where low space and low
weight are requested (i.e. off-shore applications).
The gas turbine power range available on the market is large enough, from hundreds of kW
(400 – 500 kW) up to 300 MW; the last ones are generally used associated to the steam
turbines for the combined cycle power plants.
For lower power range there are the micro-turbines discussed in chapter 4.4.
For the gas turbine start-up, an auxiliary motor is required on the compressor-turbine shaft,
to bring them to the ignition speed. The start-up motor is usually asynchronous, low or
medium voltage depending on the rated power, and requires an adequate auxiliary supply.
Sometimes, when the electric auxiliary supply is not available, as prime motor can be used
a Diesel engine or a gas microturbine.
Generally for the main power generation system gas turbines are used when the rated
power is equal or lager than 1500 – 2000 kW.
The gas turbine rated power depends a lot on the atmospheric conditions and mostly on the
temperature. The shaft power delivered lowers with the atmospheric temperature
increasing.
As an example the gas turbine power, defined generally for ISO conditions (15 Celsius
degrees at sea level) is reduced by 20 % at 40 Celsius degrees.
In the figure and table below are showed the variations of power and other miscellaneous
characteristics of the gas turbine versus the atmospheric temperature variations (-40°C ÷
40°C).
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
%P 70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-4 0 -3 0 -2 0 -1 0 0 10 20 30 40
°C
o
Ambient Temperature C -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Nominal Output Power kW 30546 31186 31570 31605 30572 28161 25750 23429 21172
Fuel Type: Natural gas
Nominal Fuel Flow kg/h 5897 6056 6171 6225 6081 5701 5330 4983 4654
Nominal Heat Rate kJ / kWh 9481 9537 9600 9673 9769 9941 10165 10444 10795
PT Speed RPM 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800 4800
o
PT Exit Temp C 392,6 422,7 450,1 474,6 490,6 498,7 507,9 518,2 529,3
PT Exit Flow kg/s 108,77 106,58 104,39 102,02 98,56 93,32 88 82,73 77,43
Exhaust Nitrogen % %Vol 76,03 75,9 75,79 75,64 75,47 75,22 74,74 73,9 72,5
Exhaust Oxygen %Vol %Vol 15,088 14,801 14,548 14,328 14,22 14,219 14,156 13,988 13,666
Ex Carbon Dioxide %Vol %Vol 2,713 2,8418 2,9534 3,0452 3,0763 3,0423 3,0093 2,9801 2,9531
Ex Water Vapour %Vol %Vol 5,26 5,542 5,804 6,077 6,327 6,618 7,197 8,245 10,008
Exhaust Argon %Vol %Vol 0,9093 0,9078 0,9064 0,9047 0,9026 0,8996 0,8939 0,8838 0,8671
Exhaust Neon %Vol %Vol 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0029 0,0028 0,0028
Exhaust Mol Weight MW 28,631 28,612 28,593 28,572 28,547 28,512 28,446 28,329 28,133
The gas turbines are provided with a greasing system, with chilling circuits that require
generally an external air-cooler, and oil pumps that have to stay active even after the
turbine stop (emergency stop); there are emergency pumps, d.c. supplied from batteries.
For the turbine auxiliaries supply, generally the supplier delivers a dedicated MCC.
The efficiency of the gas turbine depends on the type, environment conditions,
maintenance factors etc. As a medium value goes from 25 % for small ones to 35-38% for
large ones.
The turbine overall efficiency can be improved using discharge gas heat for the steam
production, required by other steam turbines (combined cycle) or by other various heating
necessities.
Steam turbines become convenient for processes that require steam or use high
temperature heat coming from discharge smoke, delivered by process ovens or gas
turbines, in order to produce steam with the recovery boiler (HRGS = Heat Recovering
Steam Generator)
The steam turbines transform thermal potential energy from high temperature-high
pressure steam into mechanical energy.
The main steam turbine parts are:
– The distributor, that transforms the potential energy into kinetic energy.
– The rotor that transform the kinetic energy and the remaining of the thermal potential
energy into mechanical energy, used by the shaft to transmit the movement to the
generator, through the gear reduction unit.
Considering the mechanical characteristics and the various ways to transform energy, the
turbines can be classified as follows:
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 10 di 41
The necessity to use low pressure steam for other internal services determine the following
turbines functional classification:
– Condensation turbines
All the high pressure steam is transformed into mechanical energy. The discharge
steam from the turbine is cooled inside the condenser and the water resulted brought
back to the boiler using supply water pumps.
The steam turbine power range is quite large going from few tenths of kW up to 1000 MW.
The steam turbines also are provided with auxiliaries, lubrification circuit with cooler
system, shaft turning motor, rotor lifting pumps for start-up and stop of the large units, etc.
that usually ask an emergency auxiliary supply from power generation groups and/or safety
supply from batteries and/or UPS.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 11 di 41
Based on same power the gas engine is cheaper than equivalent gas turbine. As above
stated the gas engine generators are used up to 2000 kW, for the lager sizes being
preferred the turbo gas one. This pick-up strategy is based mainly on the good reliability
and the practical experience growth in this range of size.
It has also to be considered the necessary frequency of maintenance for the power
generation groups, that is much higher for the gas engine than for the turbines, as the later
requires more low powered units.
The fuel consumption depends on the functional load percentage, gas specific calorific
power, atmospheric characteristics, maintenance level, ecc.
In the best conditions it can be considered a gas requirement of 10.5 ÷ 11.5 MJ/kWh for an
efficiency of about 31 ÷ 34 %.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 12 di 41
The other main generation types, that are discussed later, are usually used to supply low
power installations in areas without permanent operational personnel, such as off-shore
platforms, where usually are active only the control and signaling systems for the navigation
aids (BEAF platform) and the cathodic protection stations that use current injection
alongside the oil pipeline. In this range are included the wind and solar generation systems,
and those with low maintenance requirements (closed cycle turbines, thermocouples) and
gas micro turbines.
The considered types are the following:
– Photovoltaic panels
– Wind turbine generators
– Closed cycle steam turbine
– Gas micro turbines
– TEG thermocouples
In particular among the above mentioned generation systems for the E&P installations are
mostly used the Photovoltaic Panels and the closed cycle steam turbines, the other ones
having low application.
This power generation types can be integrated by other generation systems to cover the
power demand during main supply system’s failure. Generally is considered an emergency
Diesel generator that can be used also during difficult atmospheric conditions (thick clouds
for photovoltaic systems and no wind for wind generators).
To improve the availability one can consider an integrated solution of wind and photovoltaic
generation as the possibility to have no wind and no cloud at the same time is quite low.
Only partially the sun energy becomes electric energy. The conversion efficiency for the
photovoltaic commercial cells is generally around 10-14 %. For very special cases only the
efficiency reaches 20 %.
That means that for each kW of sun energy one can get 100-140 W electric energy only.
The d.c. current depends not only on the cells area but on the sun, variable with the time of
the day, season and atmospheric conditions (temperature, intensity, light composition). For
the stand-alone installations one needs a battery to charge the extra energy from the day
time in order to use it by night or on cloudy weather.
As a rule the batteries are dimensioned to cover 6-7 days at the rated charge. This period is
considered enough to pass possible cloudy weather or to repair faulty photovoltaic panels.
As a result the photovoltaic panels have to cover not only the average load but also to
charge and maintain the batteries. The batteries function is also to cover the eventual extra
charge without the necessity to over sizing the photovoltaic panels
DIESEL
G EMERG.
PHOTOVOLTAIC
PANELS
RECTIFIER
AC MAINTENANCE LOADS
DC DC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
DC
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
Another important part for the photovoltaic panels is the area. As information only, one has
to consider that for 1kWp(peak) is necessary an area of about 12-20 m2.
The generation system power range depends a lot on the available area but generally is
available for small or medium-small sizes. As an example on the off-shore platforms just
because of the lack of space the size is up to 12 kWp. On-shore where the available space
is larger the limit power is higher.
The electric equipment of the photovoltaic systems requires low maintenance, but to
maintain efficient the whole, frequent panel cleaning is required. Special care for the
electrolyte of the battery with its frequent charge-discharge regime. The batteries are of the
low maintenance-no ventilation dryfit type. The medium lifetime for the batteries with a
frequent charge-discharge regime reduces to 6-8 years from the 15 years guaranteed by
the manufactuers for a normal regime. During the photovoltaic panel medium lifetime, of 20
years, there are to be considered three times the replacement of the battery.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 14 di 41
The wind turbine generators use the wind force upon a blade system put on the same shaft
with the electric generator. From the construction point of view there are two types of
generators:
-with vertical shaft rotor
-with horizontal shaft rotor, parallel to the wind direction.
the last one being the most used, studied and improved.
Lately the wind generators rated power is in the range that goes from few tenths of Watt up
to 2 MW, the last ones being destined to large wind parks.
For the E&P installations the wind turbine generators rated power is generally of about
tenths of kW used especially off-shore.
Obviously the wind generators are installed in windy area. They are adapted for a wind
speed higher than 2-3 m/s. For larger wind generators the upper speed limit is 25-30 m/s
for stability reasons. The type of the electric generator depends on the rated power and
function conditions: island or in parallel with electrical network.
The wind generators for the E&P installations (as the off-shore ones) are for island
operation and, similar to the photovoltaic generation, they have to be provided with
batteries that charge during windy periods and discharge the rest of the time. The type of
the generator depends upon the rated power, generally being of the permanent magnet or
brushless type, with rectifier and conversion for the battery charge.
In this case also the battery dimensioning has to cover the energy demand during periods
without wind. The data about wind characteristics in the area are to be searched or
measured.
The large wind turbine generators that are destined to electrical network connection (large
wind area) deliver all the produced energy directly to the network. These ones are usually
provided with asynchronous generators and transformers and the air generator blades’
position can be regulated to maintain constant the speed with the wind possible variations.
Otherwise they are provided with synchronous generators and inverters to correct the
voltage and frequency generator values, variable with the wind speed, to make them
suitable for the system connection.
In the off-shore installations integrating wind and photovoltaic generation helps to improve
the generation system availability and in the meantime to reduce the associated batteries
capacity.
In this case besides the wind generator a power generation group is installed in order to
cover the demand during maintenance periods on the platform. The power generation
group has also the duty to charge the battery after the discharge period.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 15 di 41
DIESEL
G EMERG.
GEN EOLIC
GENER.
~
RECTIF.
AC MAINTENANCE LOADS
RECTIFIER AND ~ DC
CHARGE REGULATOR
=
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR THE ISLAND FUNCTIONING OF THE WIND GENERATION SYSTEM
DIESEL
G EMERG.
RECTIFIER
AC MAINTENANCE LOADS
= RECTIFIER AND ~ DC
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
= =
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
An organic fluid , with special characteristics for the evaporation and condensation
temperature (freon or similar), contained in the boiler, is vaporized by the burner and sent
to the turbine, that is put on the same shaft with the permanent magnets alternator and the
supply pump. The discharge steam from the turbine is sent to the condenser where is
chilled to the liquid state and recycled with the supply pump.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 17 di 41
The alternator produced energy is rectified and filtered to supply the d.c. system with its
users and battery, that has to be maintained fully charged.
A control system for the energy demand, provided with the package, controls the gas
quantity to the burner according to the charge demand.
The system can produce electric energy from 200 to 6000 W continuously without
maintenance. The bearings (on the common shaft for the turbine, alternator and supply
pump) are lube film type, to avoid metal to metal direct contact.
All the liquid steam circuit is in a sealed steel container to avoid the process losses. The
medium lifetime of these generators is 20 years approximately.
PACKAGE
DIESEL
G EMERG.
BOILER T GEN
~
CONDENS.
RECTIF.
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
TYPICAL DIAGRAM FOR THE SYSTEM WITH THE CLOSED CYCLE TURBINE
As described for the other systems, these generators are generally accompanied by a
battery that has to cover the eventual extra demands and guarantee a certain autonomy
during the stop procedure (as the gas system interlocking). Naturally the battery capacity is
dimensioned for a 1-2 days autonomy , much lower comparing to the photovoltaic systems
and/or the solar systems.
For the off-shore installations there is also an emergency Diesel generator to cover the
eventual necessities during maintenance periods. The Diesel group has also to charge the
batteries after a long discharge period.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 18 di 41
The gas microturbines are a compact and miniaturized construction of the classical gas
turbines described in chapter 3.1 with a similar functioning principle
The available characteristic power for these engines varies from 30 kW up to 80 kW for the
ISO conditions (15 Celsius degrees) and reduces with the temperature as shown in the
characteristic diagram.
The microturbines are one-shaft type sustained by special maintenance-free air bearings
(turbine, air compressor, generator and the eventual gas compressor are all on the same
shaft), characterized by a high turns number 96.000 rpm and provided with permanent
magnets generator.
Another characteristic of these engines is that they need no greasing system, no chilling
circuits, no gear reduction unit or other mechanical auxiliaries, that makes them interesting
for the minimum required maintenance.
The microturbines emissions are particular low with respect to the other engines. 9 ppm -
Nox and 40 ppm - CO2.
The average necessary for a 30 kW micro-turbine is about 14÷17 Nm3/h natural gas with a
medium efficiency of 25 %.
The typical overall dimensions of the micro turbine are quite small making them very
interesting for the reduced installing areas.
The high frequency generator voltage is converted to 50Hz (or 60 Hz) three phased energy
through an inverter controlled by the turbine control system provided on the engine itself.
The microturbine package is provided also with a battery which scope is to cover the
eventual extra energy demands (inductive charges) or to support the stop procedure when
the accumulator batteries will be charged by the kinetic energy of the turbine shaft. A
completely automatic control system checks the battery charge level and avoids the deep
discharges.
The micro turbines are adapted to island and system connection functioning, among them
and/or other power generating systems.
In the case of several micro turbines working in parallel, the control system provided on the
engines themselves determine the load sharing among the turbines and the starting or
stopping procedure for one or more units in order to get the maximum efficiency.
MICROTURBINE
DIESEL
T GEN G EMERG.
~
~
~
~
=
AC LOADS DC LOADS
BATTERIES
The thermocouples based generator (TEG) produces electrical power through the direct
conversion of heat into electric energy directly without moving parts.
It is based on the characteristic of two different metallic materials joined together at one end
(thermocouple), when overheated in the junction point (hot junction) with respect to the
opposite extremities (cold junction), to produce a voltage proportional to the temperature
difference between the hot joint and the cold joint. In case of a charge (R) connected
between the extremities there is an direct current that can supply the load.
The produced power (P = V2 / R) varies with the square of the temperature.
Inside the thermoelectric generators the hot junctions of the thermocouples are maintained
at 540 Celsius degrees using a burner for fuel gas. The cold part of the thermocouple is
maintained at a low temperature (140 Celsius degrees) using a natural air circulating heat
exchanger.
The thermocouples are chain connected for a final voltage as requested, usually of 6V,
12V, 24V or 48V, determined by the number of thermocouples.
The thermoelectric generators are produced for rated power from 15W up to 550W per unit.
It is possible to connect more generators in series to obtain a max of 5000 W rated power.
Generally the TEG are installed in the non classified area but there are also available low
rated power units (100W approximately) suitable for the installation in the Zone 2
(ventilated area).
– The burner
– The thermocouples
– The cooling exchanger
– The ignition automatic module
– The automatic modules for extinction, interception and gas depressurization.
– The battery charger and distribution panel.
– The back-up battery usually dimensioned for 1-3 days autonomy.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 20 di 41
For the off-shore installations there is also an emergency Diesel generator to cover the
eventual necessities during maintenance periods. The Diesel group has also to charge the
batteries after a long discharge period
TEG
COOLING
DIESEL
G EMERG.
CONTROL
RECTIF.
MODULE
BATTERY CHARGER = DC
REGULATOR
=
INVERTER
DC
AC
BATTERIES
DC LOADS AC LOADS
In the Table 1 are summarized the main characteristics for the various electric generation
types described above.
To remember that, as the main generation prime system, the steam turbo generators are
scarcely used in the E&P installation, being preferred electric gas engine generators for
rated power up to 2 MW and gas turbine for more than 1.5-2 MW. The intermediate sizes
are to be technical and economical studied, in order to decide between a gas engine or a
turbine.
For low power generation systems it is preferred the photovoltaic panels or closed cycle
turbines, that proved to have a high reliability.
The elements of the comparison are extremely variable and is not possible to put them
together to make a classification list. The pick-up of one of the various generation types is
based on technical/economical criteria, on the future possible growth and/or environment
requirements (for example for the photovoltaic generation).
A special attention has to be paid during the basic engineering for the systems that are
supposed to grow in the future, in order to start with the appropriate solutions.
Sometimes one has to consider the geographic disposal of the plant. For example, for an
off-shore platform field, a study is required to compare the solution for a sole power station,
placed on one platform with the necessary interconnection cables to the other platforms,
against the solution with several power stations placed on each single platform. For the
evaluation cost one has to consider besides the cost for the equipment (CAPEX) the
operational and maintenance ones (OPEX).
One has to remember that for the alternative main generation systems, dedicated to low
rated power, such as:
- Photovoltaic panels
- WIND generators
- Closed cycle steam turbine
- Micro turbines
- Thermocouples generators
the c.a. electric distribution section is always supplied through an inverter (in the micro
turbines case this inverter is already installed inside the package).
The loads that demand a high start-up current (such as the motors) has to be considered
properly for the inverters’ dimensioning.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 22 di 41
TABLE 1
Prime mover: gas Rated power larger than Main power generation Approximately 700 $/kW
GAS TURBINE turbine. 1,5-2 MW. for medium and large for rated powers up to 3
GENERATORS Medium voltage three Operational personnel is rated power. MW. Then reduces
phased alternator. necessary. gradually to 350 $/kW for
rated powers up to 100-
150 MW
Prime mover: steam Not so much used for the Main generation and/or Generally associated to
turbine. generation systems of energy recovery for the the turbo gas in the
Medium voltage three E&P. The steam generation large rated power combined cycles.
STEAM TURBO phased alternator. requires auxiliaries for the installations. Approximately 350÷500
GENERATORS thermal cycle (boiler, $/kW for the combined
condenser, cooling system, cycle.
demineralization plant for The specific price lowers
water reintegration). for lager rated power
The operational personnel units.
is necessary.
Prime mover: internal Unit rated power up to 2 Main generation for Package with cabin
GAS ENGINE combustion motor. MW. medium rated power approximately 500÷600
ELECTRIC Generally, low voltage The operational personnel installations. $/kW
GENERATION three phased alternator. is preferable.
Fuel not required. Large installation area is Electric supply for low Complete systems for off-
No moving parts. request. The peak rated power shore platforms, structure
Low maintenance is production is 1 kWp for an installations in sunny included:
2
PHOTOVOLTAIC requested to the panels area of 20m . regions.
PANELS cleaning. The generation system is 400 W ~ 80.000 $
totally stand alone. 1700 W ~ 150.000 $
Operational personnel is
not required.
Fuel not required. Company used them to Electric supply for low
Requires recurrent produce few tenths of power demand rated
maintenance for the Watts. installations.
WIND TURBINE moving parts. The generation system is Associated to
GENERATORS totally independent. There photovoltaic panels to
is no need for operational improve the system
personnel. availability.
Requires gas for energy Electric supply for low 3 kW unit ~ 300.000 $
CLOSED CYCLE production. Maximum generation rated rated power
STEAM TURBINE Totally sealed system, power 6 kW per unit. installations.
maintenance not Generation system
required. completely stand alone. No
operational personnel are
requested
Requires fuel gas Generation unit rated Generation mainly for Approximately
Overall dimensions power up to 80kW max low rated power 2000÷2500 $/kW :
extremely reduced. Low (ISO condition) installations. Larger i.e.
GAS maintenance. Generation system totally rated power with more 30 kW unit ~ 75.000 $
MICROTURBINES independent. Operational parallel units is 60 kW unit ~ 120.000 $
personnel not necessary. possible.
Requires fuel gas. Maximum available rated Electric supply for a Complete systems for off-
Has no moving parts. power 5 kW with more units low rated power shore platforms, gas
Low maintenance. connected. demand. treatment included:
THERMOCOUPLE Generation system totally
GENERATORS independent. Operational 400 W ~ 70.000 $
personnel not necessary. 1700 W ~ 200.000 $
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 23 di 41
In the case of electrical black-out the guarantee for an electric supply to the preferentials
and the privileged users, is entrusted respectively to the emergency Diesel generators and
to the UPS for a.c. or battery for d.c.
In case of the main supply shut-down the emergency groups have to start-up immediately.
To maintain this availability degree during stand-by they are continuously surveyed by
their own control systems, that maintain the efficiency of the preheating for oil and air, that
guarantees the immediate loading procedure, together with the automatic charge of the
battery and/or starting-up compressors and the recurrent start-up tests.
The electric generation group start-up time is variable from 15 s approximately, for low
rated power engines, up to 1 min , generally being considered several start-up procedures
that repeat in case of the start-up failure (generally 3+3 that can be variable with the battery
capacity). This means that in the period of time between the automatic request for the start-
up procedure and the effectively group start, on the preferentials’ bus bars there is no
voltage. It is absolutely necessary to evaluate the functional characteristics of the load in
order to appreciate the availability for the temporary voltage shortage.
In some isolated installations the electric generators groups have the goal to supply the
auxiliaries of the main groups (start-up motors of the gas turbines). In this case the electric
generator group is provided with a synchronizing system, to guarantee the passage from
the emergency group to the main supply.
The alternators of the emergency groups are usually low voltage up to 1000-1500 kW and
medium voltage for lager rated powers.
When the preferential loads are supplied from the emergency group an automatic start-up
sequence is necessary, to avoid the blocking of the system caused by the whole load
start-up procedure. Similar to all the other loads the privileged ones also are to be started
up automatically from DCS. For the emergency group dimensioning one has to consider
besides the individual loads their start-up sequence.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 24 di 41
For information only the loads supplied from the emergency groups are:
– Emergency lighting
– Battery chargers
– Auxiliary services for the main generation groups (to guarantee the start-up).
– Auxiliary services for the emergency groups itself.
– Instrument air compressor
– Fire water pumps
– Essential process load
– Auxiliaries of the main process engines (compressors, engines etc)
– HVAC system for the control room. Note: to avoid the overload of the emergency
generator one has to stop the compression unit maintaining the ventilation only for
security reasons (especially for off-shore installations).
– The electric system for the personnel’s accommodation off-shore and on-shore.
The plant can be provided with several such emergency groups based on the necessary
and the electric system extension.
In the case of several emergency groups working in parallel there is necessary to install an
automatic control and synchronizing system and also check the necessity for load sharing
and load shedding system.
The fuel demand of a power generation group depends on the efficiency, load regime,
specific power of the fuel, etc. For the fuel tank dimensioning, one can consider
approximately 200-220 grams of oil for each kWh produced energy. To determine the fuel
tank capacity it can be used the following formula:
C = 0,3 x P x h where
Normally the requested autonomy for the oil tanks’ dimensioning depends upon the
logistics and dislocation besides the necessity or not for operational personnel.
For example, for an off-shore platform, without operational personnel, placed some marine
miles away from the nearest logistic base, one should provide a fuel tank, to guarantee at
least 24 to 48 hours autonomy for the vital systems of the platform. On the contrary, for an
on-shore platform, provided with operational personnel, where the fuel supply is simpler, a
guaranteed autonomy of 12 hours is enough.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 25 di 41
6.2 BATTERIES
The batteries represent for the installations the spare and secure power supply.
The batteries for the fixed installations are of the stationary type, to distinguish them from
those used for traction.
Usually in the installations of the company are used the Ni-Cd or Pb-Ca batteries.
Constructively the batteries can be open type (CEI EN 60896-1) or sealed type (valve
regulated type) (CEI EN 60896-2).
For the open type batteries the container of the electrodes and electrolyte usually has a
valve to limit the gas from charge/discharge of the battery and to stop a possible flame; an
improvement are the batteries with valves that allow gas recombination into H2O reducing
the electrolyte demand. On the cover the open type batteries have a cap for the electrolyte
reintegration. This type of battery has to be installed with the elements vertical on
appropriate shelves and the necessary space for the filling up.
The sealed type batteries (Pb or Pb-Ca) have sealed containers and gel type electrolyte.
Are provided with an one-direction discharge valve for the eventual internal over pressure
release. The gas produced inside the battery is recombined inside and there is no demand
for electrolyte refill; that’s why they are called without maintenance. This battery type needs
small installation area; moreover they can be installed horizontally inside appropriate
panels. The battery delivers small quantities of gas meaning that natural air ventilation is
necessary.
Despite the alternative generation systems (photovoltaic, WIND, TEG, ecc), described in
chapter 4, where the batteries are a part of the generation systems themselves, for some
other installations the batteries are charged and maintained charged by dedicated rectifiers,
in order to be used, in case of the main system failure, for the essential loads supply that
does not allow supply breakdown.
Typical essential loads are: various control and survey circuits, protection system, data
transmission system, security systems (gas survey/fire, emergency lighting, security
lighting, navigation auxiliary system, etc), some lubricating emergency pumps that
sometimes are provided with dedicated batteries, etc.
For the batteries installation there are dedicated rooms, natural or electrical ventilated. The
ventilation has to ensure a proper removal after the charge/discharge cycles.
The battery room must be provided with electric facilities (lighting, extractor ventilation),
EX-d execution, floor and walls with anticorrosive protection, depending on the type of the
battery.
The rated voltages for the batteries are defined in the basic technical rules of the
installation (basic engineering). The voltages normally used are: 110 V d.c., for control and
protection systems; 24V and/or 48 V, for auxiliary regulation systems, telecommunications
etc. Based on the reference voltage is defined the number of specific elements of the
battery.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 26 di 41
For a classical installation, provided with gas turbine generators or gas engine groups, a
configuration of N+1 generators is recommended: where N is the number of generators,
usually on-line (minimum two) with rated power 20-25% lager than the installation power
demand. This over dimensioning has the goal to cover the eventual peak demands (values
are to be checked on the target of the generator) and also the lower shaft output power due
to the prime mover ageing. A generator (+1) usually is in stand-by or for maintenance.
The pick-up of the stand-by engine considers such a turnover to determine for all the
engines the same functioning process / ageing.
Another aspect that points to the N+1 configuration is the possibility in case of sensible load
reducing to stop one of the generators to make the other ones in best efficient work load.
To be consider that low power demand, especially for gas engine groups, are particular
critical for the performances and will require frequent maintenance operations. To overpass
such inconveniences one has to provide passive loads such as resistances to load the
engines for at least 60-70 % of the rated power.
Two synchronous generators can work in parallel if they have the same voltage, same
frequency and same phase of the voltage systems. The parallel operation is generally
completely automatic and regulate the parameters (voltage and frequency) for the engine to
be connected and close the engine circuit breaker when the conditions are fulfilled. The
operation can be done manually also, helped by the apposite measuring devices (double
voltmeter, double frequency-meter and synchronizer), in this case the circuit breaker
closing being controlled by a supervision device (Synchrocheck) to avoid dangerous
commutation errors. The parallel operation is generally initiated from the control desk or the
DCS, that has an interface with the supervision electric system ECS. Sometimes the control
operations are local, from the generator or turbine/motor control panel.
Once reached the parallel conditions the new engine divides the load with the other ones.
This asks to increase the shaft power (increase the speed) for the newest engine and in the
same time to lower the speed of the other ones, to balance the power generation with the
power demand.
This operation can be automatic, using a centralized control system, that has to divide the
load between the various generators according to their rated powers or based on
programmable sharing parameters. The load sharing system divides active power and also
reactive power among the various generators on-line.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 27 di 41
For the less complicated power plants the load sharing is done by the “droop” characteristic
of the engines’ speed regulators. The droop characteristic is a functional feature for the
speed regulators of the prime movers (turbines, gas enginess, ecc.), defined as the
percentage frequency variation for a 100 % variation of the rated power (kW).
Usually the droop characteristic is 4 %. That means that, with reference to the rated
frequency of 50 Hz, for a load variation of 100% results a frequency variation of 2 Hz, for a
load variation of 50% results a frequency variation of 1Hz ecc.
For the engines with the same droop characteristics, as the frequency variation is the same
for all the generators, working in parallel, they divide the same percentage of load variation.
For the engines with different droop characteristics the load division is no longer
proportional, the engines with lower droop characteristic being those that mostly responds
to the load variations.
F [Hz] F [Hz]
G1 G2
∆F%
F [Hz] F [Hz]
G1 G2
∆F%
Naturally after a positive or negative load variation, the system frequency goes up or down,
depending on the droop characteristic of the engines.
To maintain the same frequency, the droop characteristic has to equal zero, that
corresponds to the isochronous engine.
For a system with several parallel engines, only one can be isochronous the other ones
being necessary to have active droop characteristic (droop regulation). In case of more
isochronous engines there can be load oscillations between the engines, with a strong
influence upon the regulation systems.
All the load variations, are absorbed by the isochronous engine that will keep constant the
frequency, the other engines staying on the previous load level. Then the operational
personnel of the plant or auxiliary control system will divide the load between the engines.
The same concept of the active power distribution between the engines, as a function of the
frequency, goes also for the reactive power demand. In this case becomes active the
generator’s AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulator) that has also a droop characteristic,
defined as the percentage variation of the voltage reported to the 100 % reactive power
variation of the engine (kVAR).
In this case also for more parallel engines , the voltage is nothing but equal for all , the
generators with the same droop characteristic deliver the same percentage of reactive
power variation.
In case of failure and/or malfunction that stops one or more generators, and the power
demand is higher than the power delivered by the generators, there is an unstable situation
for the electric system that collapses, called black-out.
To stop such inconvenience, load shedding is required, meaning some of the loads are
disconnected, to balance the available power delivered by the on-going generators.
For this purpose the power plants are provided with load shedding that can be activated in
two ways:
– Frequency check
– Logic control for the generation system configuration
Frequency check
One or more relays are checking the electric system frequency. The frequency lowers when
the power demand is larger than the generated one. The load shedding becomes active
when is reached a certain minimum frequency. To speed up the load shedding a df/dt
function is used because they are sensible to the frequency drop long before the minimum
value is reached.
This simple, practical and economical system is adapted for small systems and for the
systems that require no accurate load selection for disconnection. The load to disconnect is
approximately determined so, in order to prevent the collapse of the system, there is the
tendency to sacrifice more.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 29 di 41
The system is based on PLC, that controls the configuration of the electric system,
measures the power demand for each individual load, memorizes the power capability by
the running generators, computes on-line the electric balance and determines, in case of
load shedding, the load to discharge based on their priority.
This more accurate system allows not only to keep safe the generators but to adapt the
shedding according on the power availability and the process requirements.
8. SIZING CRITERIA
A- Process utilities
Generally are electric motors for pumps, compressors, fans, heating packages, ecc.
B- Process Auxiliary services (Privileged loads)
Refers to the services that are independent to the process, such as telephone,
communications, radio, air and marine signaling, DCS, d.c. and a.c. security
systems.
Belong also to this category the logistics systems such as: auxiliaries water system,
drinking water, and all the other installations inside the plant but not connected to the
process.
C- Auxiliary installations
To this category belong the installations that work with intermittence during the day
and season, such as lighting, socket, heating, air conditioning
All the loads indicated at the A – B – C points have a service and a contemporaneity factor.
A- The process electric auxiliaries, usually motors, are dimensioned based on the
maximum requested mechanical shaft power and on an increasing factor, indicated
in the table below; as suggested by the international practice(UOP SPEC. 358 –
REV.2 JULY 5, 1972 – ELECTRIC MOTORS)
The electric load-balance has the goal to give the necessary data for the dimensioning of
the main electric components such as:
The following table gives an overview for the data that are to be considered by a preliminary computation. A more
accurate computation has to be done after, to cope with the various installation types.
LOAD FACTOR
CATEGORY LOAD POWER NOTES
( K U)
The power resulted for the B category is used to determine the emergency power
generation.
The load factors KU indicated in the table consider only the effective power demand without
no other reduction criteria for the simultaneity (KC = simultaneity factor)
The criterion to define KC depends on the service condition defined by the process
(continuous, spare, intermittent, discontinuous, irregular, etc). Intermittent services is when
the working and stand-by periods are very frequent in a day (i.e. air compressors) and than
the intermittent is considered similar to the continuous services; discontinuous and/or
irregular services is when after the running operations there are very long stand-bay
periods (i.e. tanks charging pumps), for this reason it important to evaluate the amount of
working hours.
For every new installation is considered a possible future development of the process and
the auxiliary services.
The future demands are studied considering the electric balance. The new rated powers of
the auxiliaries and accessories are normally established as percentage (max 20 %) from
the future process load.
For the future a lot of things are to be evaluated and last but not least the economic ones.
As a general rule one has to do as follows:
a - Short time and low importance expansions;
b - Medium/long time and high importance expansions.
For the short time and low importance developments (10-20 % from the basic load-balance)
usually one has to consider everything from the beginning to satisfy the new demands.
Sometimes is postponed only the purchasing of the equipment, for future demands, to be
installed in the switchgears.
- Generation: Usually the generation is dimensioned for the final load
- Electric panels Usually are dimensioned and equipped for the future
development also.
- Transformers: Usually are dimensioned for the final load balance including the
expansion.
Medium/long time and high importance expansions introduce the modularity concept for the
installations and components, but remain the same the electric dimensioning for short
circuit and bus bars rated current.
- Generation: The initial rated power is accurately esteemed to allow the
installation of one or more future expansions. Usually one has to
consider also the necessary area for the future installations.
- Electric panels: Medium Voltage Panels
For the large installations with the rated power >30 MW, the
medium voltage panels are divided into two categories and two
voltage levels.
The first category at a higher voltage (10÷30 kV), includes the
panels for generation and primary distribution. For these panels
usually is considered the necessary space for further panel
expansion.
The second category at a normal voltage level (3÷6÷11 kV) is
dedicated to the large motors’ supply. For these panels the
necessary space is provided in the cabin for further panel
expansion.
For the installations with more restrained rated powers one tries
to unify the two voltage levels.
9. INSTALLATION
Generally for the power supply it is good practice to select a safe area with (no explosion or
fire risk). Such eventual phenomena can cause all sort of damages including those coming
from lack of process supply.
When placing the generation systems one has to consider the possibility to deliver the
extra energy to national network or some other client.
On this purpose the generation systems have to be installed in some peripheral area of the
plant, to allow a future development and to separate the area with proper fence due to
fiscal and/or management destinations.
10. STANDARDS
Below are presented some procedures for the analysis and/or computing examples, useful
for the preliminary dimensioning of the installation’ s equipment.
For the generators dimensioning one has to consider first of all the maximum active power
demand Pmax from the load balance.
In case there are no programmed future developments which impose different choices
criteria, the rated power of the generation system has to be greater or equal to Pgen = 1.2 ÷
1.25 Pmax (computed value for the site’s most difficult conditions)
For a (2+1) generation system (meaning two running generators and a stand-by generator),
the rated power for each unit has to be greater equal to Pu = Pgen / 2.
For a (N+1) generation system the rated power for each unit has to be greater equal to
Pu = Pgen / N.
One has to check that one generation unit is capable to start-up directly (DOL) the largest
motor of the plant, with the generator already pre-charged with running loads.
As a general information this condition is fulfilled when the remaining available shaft power
on the prime mover (gas turbine, gas engine group, ecc), before the largest motor’s start-
up, is 2-2.5 times lager the rated power of the motor. Otherwise one has to consider an
indirect start-up or to provide an interlocking system that allows the motor start-up only for
more generators working in parallel.
In case of more parallel generators one has to consider the total remaining power available
on the running generators. The indicative value of 2-2.5 times the motor’s power comes
from the fact that during start-up of an asynchronous motor, the start-up current as
modulus/phase, as seen in the high point of circular diagram, which correspond an
absorbed power equal to 2-2.5 times the rated power, that has to be delivered by the
generator.
The admissible drop voltage on the generation bus-bars during motor’s start-up (max 10-
14%), depends on the generator’s characteristics (power and transient reactance) and the
start-up current of the motor. Usually this condition is fulfilled for the direct start-up of the
motor if the apparent power of the generator (kVA), independent from the pre charge
condition, is at least 8 times the load’s power. Obviously this is an approximate evaluation
and needs further load flow and stability computation.
When the above mentioned conditions are not fulfilled for the large rated power motors’
start-up, one has to provide alternative methods that reduce the absorbed current and
power during start-up to guarantee the generators’ stability.
In particular are the following start-up methods:
The a), b) and c) start-up systems fed the motor during start-up with a reduced voltage,
meaning a reduced torque as the last one depends on the square of the voltage. One has
to check that the resultant torque is higher than the resistant one of the load during start-up.
The d) method (VSD) starts-up the motor supplying it with variable voltage and frequency
from zero to rated values, that allows to start-up the motor keeping constant to the rated
values the torque and the current and also allows a variable speed regime. This system is
more expensive than the other ones.
The e) system that uses winding rotor motors is not very frequent as the motor’s price and
the maintenance demanded by the brushes are very high. This system, that requires
start-up resistors, has the advantage of the rated current and high torque during starts-up.
Example:
Gas turbine 2500 kW and generator 3200 kVA, with preload 1800 kW.
Motor 400 kW (direct start-up)
Available power on the turbine Pav= 2500 – 1800 = 700 kW being less than 2 x 400 kW, is
not possible the direct start-up of the motor , so an alternative start-up method has to be
considered (for example with autotransformer)
For a turbine’s preload of 1500 kW; Pav= 2500 – 1500 = 1000 kW > 2 x 400 kW and a
being the generator 3200 kVA ≥ (8 x 400kW) the system would be adapted also for the
direct start-up.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 38 di 41
The three phase short circuit power delivered by a synchronous generator in case of fault is
determined by the following formula:
Sk3 = c • ( Sr / X”d )
where:
Sk3 = three phased short circuit power
Sr = generator apparent rated power
X”d = subtransient reactance (saturated) of the generator (p.u.)
c = voltage factor (c=1.1 for MV; c=1 for l.v.)
Examples::
– synchronous generator 5 MVA – 6 kV - X”d = 15 % (0.15 p.u.)
Sk3 = c • ( Sr / X”d ) = 1.1 • (5 / 0.15) = 36.7 MVA
In case of several parallel generators on the same bus bar system the total short-circuit
power on the bars is the sum of the individual short-circuit powers:
For the short-circuit dimensioning of the bus bars one has to consider also the contribution
of the stand-by generator (that periodically runs to make its test or to back-up another one)
and also the contribution of the electric motors.
The eventual synchronous motors are considered for the short circuit current contribution
just like any other generator.
The asynchronous motor’s short circuit contribution depends on the motor’s apparent rated
power and start-up impedance:
where:
Sk3m = motor’s short-circuit contribution
Srm =motor’s rated apparent power : Srm = Prm / ( η • cosϕ)
ILR / Ir = motor’s starting current reported to the motor’s rated current.
c = voltage factor (c=1.1 for MV; c=1 for l.v.)
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 39 di 41
Example:
Asynchronous motor 500 kW; 6 kV; η=0.96; cosϕ=0.92 (566 kVA) with the starting
current ILR = 5 Ir
The motor’ s short-circuit contribution will be:
Sk3m = c • Srm • ( ILR / Ir ) = 1.1 • 566 • 5 = 3113 kVA
For the simplified computation instead of each individual evaluation one can consider all the
motors complex connected on the same bus bars as an unique equivalent motor, with the
rated power equal to the sum of the individual rated powers, of the running motors, and the
ILR / Ir report as the medium value of the individual ones.
The total motors contribution depends on the installation’s structure, on the number of the
motors directly connected to the bus bars and/or those connected through the distribution
transformers, on the report between the rotating and non-rotating loads, etc. The motors
contribution equals 35 – 65 % from the short-circuit contribution of the running generators.
In the case the load is mainly composed of motors directly connected the contribution is
closed to 65%, in case the static loads represent the major part of the total the contribution
decrease to 35%.
The short circuit contribution of the motors is summarized, as modulus, to the short circuit
contribution of the generators.
where:
Sk3T = three phased short circuit power delivered by the transformer
ucc = short circuit voltage of the transformer (p.u.)
SrT = rated apparent power of the transformer
S’k3 = short circuit power upstream the transformer
Example:
Transformer rated power 1.6 MVA, with Ucc= 6% (0.06 p.u), and upstream short circuit
power equal to 160 MVA.
The downstream short circuit power of the transformer is:
Sk3T = SrT (ucc + SrT S’k3 ) = 1.6 (0.06 + 1.6 160 ) = 22.86 MVA
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 40 di 41
11.3 BATTERIES
Capacity
The rated capacity of the battery is measured in Ah. This value multiplied by the battery’s
voltage measured in V represents the electric energy accumulated of the battery measured
in Wh.
The battery’s capacity is reported to the nominal discharge regime that is equals 10 h for
the Pb-Ca batteries noted as C10 and 5h for the Ni-Cd batteries noted as C5 .
The battery’s capacity is variable with the discharge current. The capacity reduces for
larger discharge currents.
For example a Pb-Ca battery with C10 = 250 Ah, can deliver :
– 25 A for 10h as a whole 250 Ah
– 31A for 8h as a whole 240 Ah
– 45A for 5h as a whole 225 Ah
– 68A for 3h as a whole 205 Ah
– 160A for 1h as a whole 160 Ah
as consequence for the battery dimensioning it is necessary to consider the values of the
loads currents.
For the 110 V voltage level, the total capacity of the battery should be 1072 Ah
(118000Wh/110V), that guarantees 107 A, with a discharge current of 10 h.
As the load demand can reach 19500 W and discharge current 177A, one has to consider
some correction factors given by the batteries’ catalogues, that require the use of larger
batteries.
For the accurate computation of the battery’s capacity, the suppliers have specific software
programs based on the discharge regime.
That’s way one has to give the specific discharge diagram as represented in the figure
below.
Eni S.p.A. 20211.VAR.ELE.SDS
Rev.0 November 2004
Exploration & Production Division
Pag. 41 di 41
190
180
170
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
h
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
It is necessary to know the short circuit current of the batteries to select suitable automatic
circuit breakers. Even if the power cables between the battery and the various distribution
panels lower the short-circuit current values, an accurate computation being necessary.
The short-circuit current delivered by the battery depends on the voltage and the own
internal resistance and is defined by the supplier.
The internal resistance depends on the elements’ capacity, the charging level and the
battery’s age. Anyway one can consider the following characteristic values for the new
battery: approximately 2,5÷3,3 mΩ / 100 Ah for the Pb-Ca battery and 0.3÷0.4 mΩ / 100 Ah
for the Ni-Cd battery.
To make it more simple it is possible to evacuate the short circuit current with the following
approximate formulas:
Example:
The Pb-Ca battery 110 V – C10 = 600 Ah at the beginning has a short circuit current of
Icc = 8 • C10 = 8 • 600 = 4800 A