LIVING IN THE IT ERA Here are five ways that technology has altered the
Introduction Information Technology (IT)
Week 1
Information Technology (IT)
- the creation, processing, storing,
protecting, and exchanging of all types of electronic
data through the use of computers, storage,
networking, and other physical devices.
IMPACT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
IN OUR DAILY LIVES
1. Better Information Access.
2. Improved Communication.
3. Decreased Privacy.
4. Flexible Working.
5. Accessible Shopping from anywhere.
Summary
• IT is the use of technology to create, process,
store, retrieve, and exchange all kinds of data and
information.
• IT can be many things and cover many facets of
life.
• IT has different impacts on our daily lives - good
or bad
DIFFERENT FACETS OF SCIENCE
Week – 2
SCIENCE
• It is the systematic investigation of the structure
and behavior of the natural and physical worlds via
observations and experiments.
TECHNOLOGY
• It is an art, skill, or ability used to create and
develop products as well as to acquire knowledge.
NATURE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
• It includes a wide range of fundamental skills
such as agricultural advancement and chemical
development, industries, medical technology, and
software development, to name a few.
• Understanding the attributes or elements
necessitates knowledge and comprehension
of worker intelligence.
CULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
Culture - is a broad term that includes both social
behavior and human society's norms.
8 Elements of culture:
• Language
• Religion
• Daily Life
• Economy
• Government
• Arts
• History
• Social Groups
TECHNOLOGY SHAPES CULTURE
way we work:
DIFFERENT FACETS OF SCIENCE
Week – 2
• Mobility
• The Cloud
• AR/VR Innovation
• Customer Data
• Social Impact
ABOUT ETHICS OF IT
Ethics is a set of beliefs about what is and is not
acceptable behavior.
Morality refers to social conventions about what is
right and wrong that are so widely shared that they
form the foundation of an established consensus.
Virtue is a habit that encourages people to do what
is acceptable, whereas
Vice is a habit that encourages people to do what is
unacceptable. A person who acts with integrity
follows a personal set of principles.
MORALS, ETHICS, & LAWS
• Morals are one's personal beliefs about what is
right and wrong.
• Ethics are the standards or codes of behavior that
a group to which one belongs expects of an
individual.
• The law is a set of rules that govern what we are
and are not allowed to do
ETHICS IN IT
The significance of ethics and human values has
been understated in recent years.IT breakthroughs
have a wide range of consequences. Here are some
examples of public concern about information
technology's ethical application.
IT PROFESSIONALS
A profession is a calling that necessitates
specialized knowledge and, in many cases,
extensive academic training.
A "professional employee" is defined in the
United States Code of Federal Regulations as
someone who is engaged in the performance of
work
THE IMPORTANCE OF INTEGRITY
Integrity is a pillar of ethical behavior.
Persons of integrity:
• Adherence to a personal code of principles
• Extend the same courtesy and consideration to
everyone.
• Maintain consistent moral standards in all
situations.
• When moral standards are applied, a lack of
integrity emerges depending on the situation or the
people involved
• Many ethical quandaries are not as simple as right
and wrong versus incorrect
DIFFERENT FACETS OF SCIENCE
Week – 2
WHY IS A PROFESSIONAL CODE OF
ETHICS IMPORTANT FOR IT
PROFESSIONALS?
PROFESSIONAL CODE OF ETHICS
A professional code of ethics outlines the
fundamental principles and core values of a specific
occupational group's work.
Public trust and respect—Public trust is based on
the expectation that a professional will act ethically.
Evaluation benchmark—A code of ethics includes
an evaluation benchmark that a professional can use
for self-evaluation. The code can also be used by
the professional's peers for recognition or censure.
CERTIFICATIONS
Certification indicates that a professional possesses
a specific set of skills, knowledge, or abilities
CERTIFICATIONS FOR VENDORS
Many IT vendors, including Cisco, IBM,
Microsoft, SAP, and Oracle, provide certification
programs for users of their products.
Certifications tied to a vendor's products are useful
for jobs with very specific requirements or certain
aspects of broader roles.
INDUSTRY ASSOCIATION
CERTIFICATIONS
There are numerous industry certifications available
in a variety of IT-related subject areas. Their worth
varies significantly depending on where people are
in their careers, what other certifications they have,
and the nature of the IT job market.
IT PROFESSIONAL MALPRACTICE
Professionals who violate their duty of care are
liable for any injuries caused by their negligence.
This type of liability is known as professional
malpractice.
COMMON ETHICAL ISSUES FOR IT USERS
• Software Piracy
Software piracy in the workplace can sometimes be
traced back to IT professionals, who may either
allow it to happen or actively participate in it.
• Inappropriate Use of Computing Resources
Some employees use their computers to visit
popular Web sites unrelated to their jobs, chat in
chat rooms, view pornographic sites, and play
computer games.
• Inappropriate Sharing of Information
Every organization stores vast amounts of data that
can be classified as private or confidential.
DIFFERENT FACETS OF SCIENCE
Week – 2
SUPPORTING ETHICAL PRACTICES OF IT
USERS
• Establishing Guidelines for the Use of Company
Software
• Defining and Limiting the Appropriate Use of IT
Resources
• Structuring Information Systems to Protect Data
and Information
• Installing and Maintaining a Corporate Firewall
SUMMARY
• The importance of science and technology.
• How technology shapes culture.
• The importance of Ethics in IT as well as the code
of Ethics in IT is important to IT Professionals.
• Also, the significance of certifications in IT has
been emphasized. How this indicates that IT
Professionals possess a specific set of skills and
knowledge on the subject matter
COMPUTER SYSTEM
WEEK – 3
Computer
- The word computer is derived from the
Latin word 'computare', which means 'to
calculate', 'to count', 'to think', or 'to sum up'.
- is a fast-electronic calculating machine that
accepts digitized input data, processes it using a
list of internally stored instructions, and outputs
the resulting output data.
PARTS OF THE COMPUTER
ACCORDING TO THEIR FUNCTION
Central Processing Unit
- is the computer's "brain" where processing
takes place.
RAM (Random Access Memory)
- It is used to temporarily store data that the
computer's central processing unit (CPU) is actively
using.
OUTPUT DEVICES
It provides feedback to the user
INPUT DEVICES
Enable the user to send data to the computer
STORAGE UNITS
They are permanent disk storage devices such as
floppy disks, hard disks, CD-ROMs, memory
cards, and memory sticks.
 COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPUTER SYSTEM
WEEK – 3 WEEK – 3

PARTS OF THE COMPUTER

ACCORDING TO THEIR LOCATION

1.EXTERNAL PARTS
- Computer devices and peripherals that are
connected to but are outside the system unit.

2.INTERNAL PARTS
- Computer parts and peripherals that are
inside the system unit
- Common components of the System Unit

PARTS OF THE MOTHERBOARD

COMMON PC PORTS AND CONNECTORS

EVOLUTION OFTHE COMPUTER

COMPUTER PARTS AND DEFINITION
MECHANICAL ERA

Abacus
- Originated in Asia and was the first
counting device.

Pascaline
- The first mechanical digital calculator with
gears was invented in 1642 by Blaise Pascal, who
performed addition and subtraction on whole
numbers.

Weaving Loom
- It was invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard
in 1804 on the idea of punched cards used in
musical boxes to control the looms.

Difference Engine
- It was invented in 1812 by Charles P.
Babbage. He is known as the “Father of the
computer,” who discovered that many long
calculations involved a large number of similar,
repeated operations.
 UNIVAC I
- Mauchly and Eckert built the
COMPUTER SYSTEM COMPUTER SYSTEM
WEEK – 3 WEEK – 3

Augusta Ada Byron UNIVAC I. The UNIVAC I compiler was created

- The first programmer by Dr. Grace Murray Hopper.

Dr. Herman Hollerith's Tabulating Machine First Integrated Circuit

- It was used to compile data for United - Texas Instruments Jack St. Clair Kilby
States Census. and Robert Noyce created the first integrated
circuit, or chip, in 1959.
Vacuum Tube
- It was invented by American physicist Lee THIRD GENERATION: INTEGRATED
De Forest in1906. CIRCUIT (1946-1971)

FIRST GENERATION: VACUUM TUBE 1960s

(1940-1956) - Gene Amdahl designed the IBM
System/360 series of mainframe (G) computers, the
Atanasoff-Berry-Computer (ABC) first general-purpose digital computers to use
- It was constructed by Dr. John V. Integrated circuits.
Atanasoff and his assistant Clifford Berry
construct the first in 1939 laying the groundwork 1965
for advances in electronic digital computers. - BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic
Instruction Code) programming language
Turing Machine developed by Dr. Thomas Kurtz and Dr. John
- A hypothetical device that could perform Kemeny.
logical operations and read and write. It would
herald the arrival of programmable computers. 1969
- The internet started.
Harvard mark I
- A large automatic digital sequence- FOURTH GENERATION:
controlled computer. MICROPROCESSOR

ENIAC (Electrical Numerical Integrator and
Calculator)
- John W. Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
Jr of the University of Pennsylvania.
Transistor
- At Bell Labs in 1947, John Bardeen,
Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invented
the transistor.
Intel 4004 microprocessor (G) chip
- It was created by Dr. Ted Hoff.
Ed Roberts
- “Father of the Microcomputer”
Altair 8800
- It was produced by Micro Instrumentation
and Telemetry Systems.

EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic 1975

Computer)
- Maurice V. Wilkes created the first
stored-program computer.
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer)
-Mauchly Eckert and von Neumann
created the second stored-program computer.
SECOND GENERATION: TRANSISTOR
(1956-1963)
Automatic Computing Machine (ACE)
- Alan Turing created the ACE
in 1950, which some consider to be the first
programmable digital computer.
- Microsoft was born.
William Gates and Paul Allen
- Two young hackers
1976
- Cray developed the Cray-I
supercomputer (G). Apple Computer, Inc. was
founded by Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak.
1977
- Jobs and Wozniak designed and built the
first Apple II microcomputer.
1981
- The IBM PC was introduced with a 16-bit
microprocessor.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
WEEK – 3
1984
- Apple Computer launched the Macintosh,
the first successful mouse-driven computer with
GUI.
1984
- IBM released the first commercial
implementation of 80286 called PC/AT (PC
Advanced Technology). It is three times faster than
original PCs and based on the Intel 286 chip.
1988
- A nondestructive worm was introduced
into the Internet network bringing thousands of
computers to a halt.
1989
- The Intel 486 became the world's first
1,000,000 transistor microprocessor.
FIFTH GENERATION: ULSI
The period of the fifth generation is 1980-till date.
In the fifth generation, VLSI technology became
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology,
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips
having ten million electronic components.
-ULSI technology
-Development of true artificial intelligence
-Development of Natural language processing
-Advancement in Parallel Processing
-Advancement in Superconductor technology
-More user-friendly interfaces with multimedia
features
-Availability of very powerful and compact
computers at cheaper rates
COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
1. Hardware
- Computer parts that you can actually
touch, like disks, disk drives, display screens,
keyboards, printers, boards, and chips.
2.Software
- Computer instructions or data. Anything
that can be stored electronically is software.
Systems software:
Includes the operating system and all the
utilities that enable the computer to function.
Applications software:
Includes programs that do real work for
users.
3.Data
- Distinct pieces of information, are usually
formatted in a special way. All software is divided
into two general categories: data and programs.
COMPUTER SYSTEM
WEEK – 3
Programs are collections of instructions for
manipulating data. Data can exist in a variety of
forms -- as numbers or text on pieces of paper, as
bits and bytes stored in electronic memory, or as
facts stored in a person's mind.
4.Peopleware
- Components of a Computer System
user, programmer, technician and other people
involve in the computer system
CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER
1.Super Computer
- The fastest type of computer.
Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require
immense amounts of mathematical calculations
2.Mainframe Computer
- A very large and expensive computer
capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands,
of users simultaneously.
3.Minicomputer
- A midsized computer. In size and power,
minicomputers lie between workstations and
mainframes.
4.Microcomputers
- The term microcomputer is generally
synonymous with a personal computer (PC), or a
computer that depends on a microprocessor.
Microcomputers are designed to be used by
individuals, whether in the form of PCs,
workstations, or notebook computers.
TERMINOLOGIES OF COMPUTERS
Data – the symbols that represent people, events,
things, and ideas
Information – data presented in a format that
people can understand and use
Bit –binary codes used by computers consisting of
either 1 or 0
Byte – eight bits and are used to represent one
character
Character – may be a letter, number, or
punctuation mark
File – a named collection of data that exists on a
storage medium, such as a hard disk, floppy disk, or
CD
Data File – files that are regarded as passive, the Entertainment
data does not instruct the computer to do anything – interactive games and virtual simulations,
computer-generated effects.
COMPUTER SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES SYSTEM
WEEK – 3 SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM
WEEK – 4
Executable file – files that are considered active,
the instructions stored in the file cause the computer SOFTWARE
to carry out some action • comprises of computer programs, support
modules, and data modules
INFORMATION SIZE MEASUREMENT • provides a computer with the instructions and
Kilobyte (KB) data to carry out a specific type of task.
1KB = 1,024 bytes
1KB = 140 words PROGRAMS
Megabyte (MB) • a set of instructions that solves a problem or
1MB = 1,000KB carries out a task
1MB = 1,000,000 bytes
1MB = 500 pages of the text or one large SUPPORT MODULE
book • provides an auxiliary set of instructions used in
Gigabyte (GB) conjunction with the main software program
1GB = 1,000MB • not designed to be run by the computer user
1GB = 1,000,000 KB
1GB = 1,000,000,000 bytes TYPES OF SOFTWARE
1GB = 1,000 books of text 1. Systems software or System programs
2. Application software or Application programs
Software Generation
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF AN OPERATING
1. First generation: Machine language. SYSTEM
2. Second generation: Low-level programming • An operating system is a collection of software
languages such as that coordinates the working of the different
Assembly language. components of the system and gets the user’s
3. Third generation: Structured high-level job done.
programming languages such • The operating system provides the user with all
as C, COBOL and the basic things necessary to do his job.
FORTRAN.
4. Fourth generation: Domain-specific high-level WHAT DOES AN OPERATING SYSTEM DO?
programming languages such • A computer’s software acts similarly with the
as SQL (for database access) chain of command in an army
and TeX (for textformatting) – Using application software, you issue a
command
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS – Application software tells the operating
Business system what to do
– They use computers to store information, easily • The Operating System instructs the device drivers,
interface with customers, and facilitate the device
processing and presentation of data. drivers instruct the hardware and the hardware
actually does the
Mathematics and Science work
– Watson and Cricks discovery of the structure of • The Operating System interacts with the
the DNA. application software, device drivers, and hardware
to manage a computer’s resources.
Engineering • While interacting with application software,
– degrees of miniaturization and integration have operating system is
multiplied n-fold. busy behind the scenes with other tasks

Medicine WHEN DO I DIRECTLY INTERACT WITH

– more reliable artificial hearts are being offered to THE OPERATING SYSTEM?
those with heart problems. • Launch programs
• Customize the user interface
Education • Manage files
– ease of use in the creation of presentation • Configure equipment
materials and documents. • Get help
 SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES SYSTEM
SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM
WEEK – 4
WHERE IS THE OPERATING SYSTEM?
• The entire operating system is small enough to be
stored in ROM for typically handheld computers
and video game consoles
• For nearly all personal computers, servers,
workstations, mainframes, and supercomputers, the
operating system program is quite large, so most of
it is stored on a hard disk
• The bootstrap program provides the instructions
needed to load the core parts (kernel) into memory
when the system boots.
• Customization utilities and other parts of the
operating system are loaded into memory as they
are needed.
BASIC FUNCTION OF AN OS
• Process Management – handles multi-programs
that are simultaneously running.
• Memory Management – manage memory
between processes and data according to priority.
• Storage Management – Managing the permanent
Storage of data on disks or other media
• I/O Management – Manage and schedule the
input and output operations
• Device / Resource Management – Managing
devices and resources and allowing the users to
share the resources
• Security and Protection – Securing the system
against possible unauthorized access to data or any
other entity. Protecting the parts of the system
against damage.
• Booting the System and getting it ready to
work.
• Data communications – Providing interface to
connect to other computers or allowing others to
connect.
OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) AS AN
INTERFACE
SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES SYSTEM
SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM
WEEK – 4
OPERATING SYSTEM (OS) SERVICES
• Program Development – variety of services and
utilities such as Editors and debuggers. They are
usually referred to as application program
development tools.
• Program Execution – involves a number of steps,
such as loading Instruction and data in the main
memory, initialization of I/O devices and files, and
other resources to be allocated. OS handles the
scheduling.
• Access to I/O devices – Each I/O device has its
own set of Instructions and control signals. O.S.
hides these details to provide a common interface to
the user/programmer.
• Controlled access to files - nature of I/O device
(disk drive, tape drive) and structure of the data
stored in the files in the storage medium. In the case
of multiple users accessing the processor
concurrently, proper protection mechanisms have to
be used.
• System access - For shared or public systems, the
O.S. controls access to the system as a whole and to
specific system resources. Access system provides
protection of resources, and data from unauthorized
users, and resolves resource conflicts
• Error detection and response – Variety of errors
may occur in computer system. Responses may
range from program termination, retrial of the same
operation, or reporting error to the application.
• Accounting – collecting usage statistics, CPU
usages, monitor performance, etc.
STRUCTURE OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
• User – The system representation of the human
operator who requests for services.
• Application Software – Special software to help
the user do his task (E.g..MS Word)
• Shell – The program that interprets the commands
or requests given by the user and gets the job done
by the kernel.
SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES SYSTEM
SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM
WEEK – 4
• Kernel – The core of the operating system. It uses
the hardware to do the jobs required by the user or
the system. It coordinates among the hardware and
interfaces it with the above layers.
• System Software – Software that can access the
hardware directly and generally provides various
system services. (E.g..The kernel itself, device
drivers etc.).
• Hardware – The set of electronic devices that
work together to ultimately do the job required by
all the upper levels
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEM
• Single-user Operating System
– Deals with one set of input devices, those that can
be manipulated by one user at a time.
Ex. Windows, Linux & Mac OS X logos
• Multi-user Operating System
– Deals with input, output, and processing requests
from many users, all at the same time
• Network Operating System
– Provides communications and routing services
that allow computers to share data, programs and
peripheral devices
• Multitasking Operating System
– Provides process and memory management
services that permit two or more programs to run
simultaneously
• Desktop Operating System
– Designed for a personal computer, either a
desktop or notebook computer
– Designed to accommodate a single user, but may
also provide networking and multitasking
capabilities
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
It is also known as an application or an "app", is
computer software designed to help the user to
perform specific tasks.
NATURE OF EXECUTION OF SOFTWARE
• Desktop applications such as web browsers and
Microsoft Office, as well as smartphone and tablet
applications (called "apps").
• JavaScript scripts are pieces of software
traditionally embedded in web pages that are run
directly inside the web browser when a web page is
loaded without the need for a web browser plugin.
SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES SYSTEM
SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM
WEEK – 4
• Server software, including: Web applications,
which usually run on the web server and output
dynamically generated web pages to web browsers,
using e.g. PHP, Java, ASP.NET, or even
JavaScript that runs on the server.
• Plugins and extensions are software that extends
or modifies the functionality of another piece of
software, and require that software be used in order
to function;
• Embedded software resides as firmware within
embedded systems, devices dedicated to a single
use or a few uses such as cars and televisions
(although some embedded devices such as wireless
chipsets can themselves be part of an ordinary,
nonembedded computer system such as a PC or
smartphone).
• Microcode is a special, relatively obscure type of
embedded software which tells the processor itself
how to execute machine code, so it is actually a
lower level than machine code. It is typically
proprietary to the processor manufacturer, and any
necessary correctional microcode software updates
are supplied by them to users. Thus, an ordinary
programmer would not expect to ever have to deal
with it.
SOFTWARE COPYRIGHT
• a form of legal protection that grants the author of
an original “work”.
• an exclusive right to copy, distribute, sell, and edit
that work, except under special circumstances
described by copyright laws
EXCEPTIONS
Purchaser
x can make a backup or extra copy of the
software for erased or damaged original
copy
x allowed to copy and distribute parts of a
software program for reviews and teaching
x has the right to copy software from a
distribution disk or Web site for installation
LICENSE AGREEMENT
a legal contract that defines the way in which a
computer program may be used.
Techniques Validating Software License
• shrink-wrap licenses
• installation agreements
LICENSE AGREEMENT
Guide Questions for Software License Agreement
o When does the license go into effect?
o Can I sell the software?
SOFTWARE AND ITS TYPES SYSTEM
SOFTWARE AND OPERATING SYSTEM
WEEK – 4
o Can I rent the software?
o Am I buying the software or licensing it?
o Can I loan the software to a friend?
o Does the software publisher provide a warranty?
o Under what circumstances can I make copies?
TYPES OF SOFTWARE LICENSE
Public Domain Software
• may be freely copied, distributed, and resold
• not protected by copyright
Commercial Software
• sold in computer stores or at Web sites
• adheres closely to the limitations provided by
copyright law
Freeware
• a copyrighted software that is available for free
• allows you to use, copy, and distribute the
software
Shareware
• a copyrighted software marketed under a “try
before you buy” policy
• allows you to copy and distribute the software
• provide a low-cost marketing and distribution
channel
Open Source Software
• may be sold or distributed free of charge
uncompiled program instructions are available to
programmers who want to alter and improve the
software. Examples: Linux, FreeBSD
COMPUTER NETWORKS
WEEK – 5
PRINCIPLE OF NETWORKING
NETWORKING
• It is the process of delivering a message from a
source to a destination.
COMMUNICATION
• It is the process of giving meaning to these
messages received.
COMPUTER NETWORK
• It is a bunch of computers linked together.
• It is cost efficient and reliable.
• It serves as a good communication medium.
USES OF NETWORK FOR PEOPLE
• Access to remote information
• Person-to-person communication
• Interactive entertainment
COMPUTER NETWORKS
WEEK – 5
COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
• a pathway over which information can be
transferred
• information sent over a channel has a source
(transmitter), from which the information originates,
and destination (receiver), to which the information
is delivered
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
TRANSMISSION
1. Simplex Channel
-a channel whose direction of transmission is
unchanging
2. Half–Duplex Channel
-a channel in which the direction may be reversed,
but the transmission does not occur at the same time
3. Full–Duplex Channel
-a channel that allows simultaneous exchange in
both directions
TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
TECHNOLOGIES
• Point-to-point Networks
-composed of many connections in individual pairs
of machines
• Broadcast Networks
-all the machines on the network share a single
channel
TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
1. Bus topology is used, each machine is connected
to a single cable. Each computer or server is
connected to the single bus cable through some kind
of connector. A terminator is required at each end of
the bus cable to prevent the signal from bouncing
back and forth on the bus cable.
2. Star topology - each network host (PC) is
connected to a central hub with a point-to-point
connection. All traffic on the network passes
through the central hub.
3. Ring topology - A network topology that is set
up in a circular fashion in which data travels around
the ring in one direction and each device
incorporates a receiver for the incoming signal and
a transmitter to send the data on to the next device
in the ring.
4. Tree topology - (a.k.a. hierarchical topology) can
be viewed as a collection of star networks
arranged in a hierarchy. This tree has
individual peripheral nodes (e.g. leaves) which are -spans a large physical distance (geographically -
required to transmit to and receive from one other dispersed collections of LANs)
node only and are not required to act as repeaters or -not owned by any one organization but rather exist

COMPUTER NETWORKS COMPUTER NETWORKS

WEEK – 5 WEEK – 5

regenerators. Unlike the star network, the under collective or distributed ownership and
functionality of the central node may be distributed. management; 256Kbps-2Mbps

5. Mesh topology - The fully connected mesh
topology is generally too costly and complex for
practical networks. It has been used on networks
with only a small number of nodes. n most practical
networks that are based upon the partially connected
mesh topology, all of the data that is transmitted
between nodes in the network takes the shortest
path between nodes.
4. Personal Area Network (PAN)
-a network arranged within an individual person,
typically within a range of 10 meters.
-Personal computer devices that are used to develop
the personal area network are the laptop, mobile
phones, media player and play stations.

6. Hybrid networks use a combination of any two

or more topologies in such a way that the resulting
network does not exhibit one of the standard
topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). A hybrid
topology is always produced when two different
basic network topologies are connected.

7. Daisy chain- Except for star-based networks, the

easiest way to add more computers into a network is
by daisy-chaining, or connecting each computer in
series to the next. If a message is intended for a
computer partway down the line, each system
bounces it along in sequence until it reaches the
destination. A daisy chained network can take two
basic forms: linear and ring.

DISTRIBUTED SYSTEM
Centralized Data Processing (CDP)
-The conventional way of doing all the processing
and control on centralized computers.

Distributed Data Processing (DDP)

-refers to the manipulation of data using distributed
systems.

Client/Server
-an extension of distributed data processing wherein
it provides the best of both centralized and
distributed data processing

TYPES OF NETWORK
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
-connects network devices over relatively short
distances usually owned by an individual or
corporation, 10-100Mbps

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

-connects computers that are in specific
geographical area like cable television
-5-10 Mbps, slower than LAN and smaller than
WAN.

3. Wide Area Network (WAN)