FUNDAMENTALS OF
WEEK – 1
ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS
PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS
WEEK – 1
THE ATOM
• All matter is composed of atoms; all atoms
consist of electrons, protons, and neutrons
except normal hydrogen, which does not
have a neutron.
• An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of
that element.
• Each of the known 118 elements has atoms
that are different from the atoms of all other
elements. This gives each element a unique
atomic structure.
THE BOHR MODEL
• At first, the atom was thought to be a tiny
indivisible sphere. Later it was shown that
the atom was not a single particle but was
made up of a small dense nucleus around
which electrons orbit at great distances from
the nucleus, similar to the way planets orbit
the sun.
• Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons in an
atom circle the nucleus in different obits,
similar to the way planets orbit the sun in
our solar system. The Bohr model is often
referred to as the planetary model.
• Another view of the atom called the
quantum model is considered a more
accurate representation, but it is difficult to
visualize. For most practical purposes in
electronics, the Bohr model suffices and is
commonly used because it is easy to
visualize.
According to the classical Bohr model,
atoms have a planetary type of structure that
consists of a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting
electrons, as illustrated. The nucleus consists of
positively charged particles called protons and
uncharged particles called neutrons. The basic
particles of negative charge are called electrons.
Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons
and protons that distinguishes it from the atoms of
all other elements.
ATOMIC NUMBER
• All elements are arranged in the periodic
table of the elements in order according to
their atomic number.
PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS
• The atomic number equals the number of
protons in the nucleus, which is the same as
the number of electrons in an electrically
balanced (neutral) atom.
• For example, hydrogen has an atomic
number of 1 and helium has an atomic
number of 2. In their normal (or neutral)
state, all atoms of a given element have the
same number of electrons as protons; the
positive charges cancel the negative charges,
and the atom has a net charge of zero.
ELECTRONS AND SHELLS
• Energy Levels - Electrons orbit the nucleus
of an atom at certain distances from the
nucleus. Electrons near the nucleus have less
energy than those in more distant orbits.
Only discrete (separate and distinct) values
of electron energies exist within atomic
structures. Therefore, electrons must orbit
only at discrete distances from the nucleus.
• Each discrete distance (orbit) from the
nucleus corresponds to a certain energy
level. In an atom, the orbits are grouped into
energy levels known as shells. A given atom
has a fixed number of shells. Each shell has
a fixed maximum number of electrons. The
shells (energy levels) are designated 1, 2, 3,
and so on, with 1 being closest to the
nucleus.
• The Bohr model of the silicon atom is
shown in the here. Notice that there are 14
electrons and 14 each of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.
The Maximum Number of Electrons in Each Shell -
The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can
exist in each shell of an atom is a fact of nature and
can be calculated by the formula,
2
Ne=2n
where n is the number of the shell. The maximum
number of electrons that can exist in the innermost
shell (shell 1) is
2 2
Ne=2n =2 (1 ) =2(1)=2
 PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS
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The maximum number of electrons that can exist in INSULATORS, CONDUCTORS AND
shell 2 is SEMICONDUCTORS
2 2
Ne=2n =2 ( 2 ) =2(4 )=8
The maximum number of electrons that can exist in INSULATORS
shell 3 is An insulator is a material that does not
2 2
Ne=2n =2 (3 ) =2(9)=18 conduct electrical current under normal conditions.
The maximum number of electrons that can exist in Most good insulators are compounds rather than
shell 4 is single-element materials and have very high
2 2 resistivities. Valence electrons are tightly bound to
Ne=2n =2 ( 4 ) =2(16)=32
the atoms; therefore, there are very few free
electrons in an insulator. Examples of insulators are
VALENCE ELECTRONS
rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.
• Electrons that are in orbits farther from the
nucleus have higher energy and are less
CONDUCTORS
tightly bound to the atom than those closer
A conductor is a material that easily
to the nucleus. This is because the force of
conducts electrical current. Most metals are good
attraction between the positively charged
conductors. The best conductors are single-element
nucleus and the negatively charged electron
materials, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold
decreases with increasing distance from the
(Au), and aluminum (Al), which are characterized
nucleus.
by atoms with only one valence electron very
• This outermost shell is known as the valence
loosely bound to the atom. These loosely bound
shell and electrons in this shell are called
valence electrons become free electrons. Therefore,
valence electrons.
in a conductive material the free electrons are
• These valence electrons contribute to
valence electrons.
chemical reactions and bonding within the
structure of a material and determine its
SEMICONDUCTORS
electrical properties. When a valence
• A semiconductor is a material that is
electron gains sufficient energy from an
between conductors and insulators in its
external source, it can break free from its
ability to conduct electrical current. A
atom. This is the basis for conduction in
semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state is
materials.
neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator.
IONIZATION
• Single-element semiconductors are
• When an atom absorbs energy from a heat
antimony (Sb), astatine (At), polonium (Po),
source or from light, for example, the
tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and germanium
energies of the electrons are raised. The
(Ge). The single-element semiconductors are
valence electrons possess more energy and
characterized by atoms with four valence
are more loosely bound to the atom than
electrons. Silicon is the most commonly
inner electrons, so they can easily jump to
used semiconductor.
higher energy shells when external energy is
• Compound semiconductors such as gallium
absorbed by the atom.
arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium nitride,
• If a valence electron acquires a sufficient
silicon carbide, and silicon germanium are
amount of energy, called ionization energy,
also commonly used.
it can actually escape from the outer shell
and the atom’s influence.
BAND GAP
The valence shell of an atom contains valence
electrons within a band of energy levels. When an
• The departure of a valence electron leaves a
electron gains enough energy, it can move out of
previously neutral atom with an excess of
this valence shell into the conduction band. The
positive charge (more protons than
energy difference between these two bands is
electrons).
termed the energy gap or band gap. This represents
• The process of losing a valence electron is
the minimum energy required for a valence electron
known as ionization, and the resulting
to transition to the conduction band. Once in the
positively charged atom is called a positive
conduction band, electrons can move freely within
ion.
the material and are not bound to specific atoms.
 PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS
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SEMICONDUCTOR VS CONDUCTOR
Silicon is a semiconductor and copper is a
conductor. Bohr diagrams of the silicon atom and
the copper atom are shown below. Notice that the
core of the silicon atom has a net charge of +4 (14
protons -10 electrons) and the core of the copper
atom has a net charge of +1 (29 protons - 28
electrons). The core includes everything except the
valence electrons.
The valence electron in the copper atom
“feels” an attractive force of +1 compared to a
valence electron in the silicon atom which “feels”
an attractive force of +4. Therefore, there is more
force trying to hold a valence electron to the atom in
silicon than in copper. The copper’s valence
electron is in the fourth shell, which is a greater
distance from its nucleus than the silicon’s valence
electron in the third shell. Recall that electrons
farthest from the nucleus have the most energy. The
valence electron in copper has more energy than the
valence electron in silicon. This means that it is
easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire
enough additional energy to escape from their atoms
and become free electrons than it is in silicon. In
fact, large numbers of valence electrons in copper
already have sufficient energy to be free electrons at
normal room temperature.
SILICON VS GERMANIUM
The atomic structures of silicon and
germanium are compared below. Silicon is used in
diodes, transistors, integrated circuits, and other
semiconductor devices. Notice that both silicon and
germanium have the characteristic four valence
electrons.
The valence electrons in germanium are in
the fourth shell while those in silicon are in the third
shell, closer to the nucleus. This means that the
germanium valence electrons are at higher energy
levels than those in silicon and, therefore, require a
smaller amount of additional energy to escape from
the atom. This property makes germanium more
unstable at high temperatures and results in
excessive reverse current. This is why silicon is a
more widely used semiconductive material.
PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS
WEEK – 1
COVALENT BAND
• Figure shows how each silicon atom
positions itself with four adjacent silicon
atoms to form a silicon crystal.
• A silicon (Si) atom with its four valence
electrons shares an electron with each of its
four neighbors. This effectively creates eight
shared valence electrons for each atom and
produces a state of chemical stability.
• Also, this sharing of valence electrons
produces the covalent bonds that hold the
atoms together; each valence electron is
attracted equally by the two adjacent atoms
which share it. cause it also has four valence
electrons.
PN JUNCTION DIODE
WEEK – 2
TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors ---Intrinsic Semiconductors
---Extrinsic Semiconductors
>N-Type
>P-Type
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
• An intrinsic semiconductor is one made of
highly pure semiconductor material, such as
germanium or silicon
• The figure illustrates energy bands for an
intrinsic semiconductor, like a pure silicon
crystal, indicating the presence of a band
gap between the valence and conduction
bands.
• Intrinsic semiconductors, on their own, lack
utility due to their conductivity dependence
on temperature and intermediate
conductivity levels.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
• By introducing impurities known as dopants,
the properties of intrinsic semiconductors
can be modified, resulting in extrinsic
semiconductors.
• Dopants, added in small quantities through
processes like gaseous diffusion or ion
implantation, transform the crystal into
either N-type or P-type semiconductors.
 PN JUNCTION DIODE
WEEK – 2
N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
• N-type semiconductors incorporate
pentavalent impurities like phosphorus,
arsenic, or antimony
• The model illustrates a silicon crystal with a
pentavalent impurity at its core, generating
an extra electron and giving the crystal a net
negative charge, thus termed N-type.
• Because of the extra electron it gives,
pentavalent impurities are often called
donors
• These donor electrons reside just below the
conduction band, allowing for easy
transition to the conduction band.
• Consequently, the doped crystal exhibits
increased conductivity due to a higher
concentration of free electrons, with the
level of enhancement correlating with the
doping level.
• In N-type material, electrons are the
majority charge carriers, while holes are the
minority carriers due to the significant
disparity in their numbers.
P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
• P-type semiconductors incorporate trivalent
impurities like boron, gallium, or indium.
• The model illustrates a silicon crystal with a
trivalent impurity at its core, generating a
hole where an electron is absent and giving
the crystal a net positive charge, thus termed
P-type.
• Because of the absence of an electron in the
holes created by trivalent impurities, they
are often referred to as acceptors
• Introduction of holes shift the Fermi level
closer to the valence band and farther from
the conduction band making it resistive in
nature
PN JUNCTION DIODE
WEEK – 2
• Doped crystals alone can function as
resistors, with resistivity determined by the
doping level and geometric factors.
• In P-type material, holes are the majority
charge carriers, while electrons are the
minority carriers
FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION
When a region of N-type material is positioned next
to a region of P-type material within a single
crystal, a notable phenomenon arises. Due to
thermal energy, some free electrons from the N
material migrate into the surplus holes of the
adjacent P material, resulting in a zone devoid of
charge carriers termed the depletion region. This is
depicted in the figure below, where excess electrons
in N material are represented by minus signs, and
excess holes in P material are represented by plus
signs. At the interface, electron-hole recombination
occurs, leaving behind positive ions in the N
material and negative ions in the P material.
The creation of a region devoid of charge carriers
poses a challenge to establishing current flow
through the device. This concept stems from the
shift in Fermi levels observed when doping intrinsic
crystals: in N material, the Fermi level rises towards
the conduction band, while in P material, it
descends towards the valence band. When these
dissimilar regions adjoin, their energy bands adjust
to align the Fermi levels, causing the bands of the P
material to rise relative to those of the N material,
forming a "hill" at the interface known as the
depletion region.
DIODE BIASING
FORWARD BIAS
Electrons move from the negative battery terminal
toward the N material, where they easily traverse
due to its abundance of majority carriers. If the
supplied potential is sufficient, electrons can diffuse
into the P material, rich in lower energy holes, and
continue towards the positive battery terminal,
completing the circuit.
 PN JUNCTION DIODE
WEEK – 2
DIODES
• To ensure current flow, the supplied
potential must surpass the depletion region's
effect, resulting in a voltage drop known as
the barrier potential or forward voltage drop.
• Typical values for silicon devices are around
0.7 volts, while for germanium devices it's
closer to 0.3 volts, and LEDs may exhibit
values between 1.5 to 3 volts.
• Conceptually, the voltage source flattens the
inherent energy hill of the junction,
facilitating current flow once the applied
forward-bias voltage exceeds this hill's
magnitude.
DIODE MODELS
REVERSE BIAS
Electrons in the N material move towards the
positive terminal while holes in the P material move
towards the negative terminal, resulting in a brief,
small current. This widens the depletion region until
it reaches the supplied potential, halting current
flow.
• Essentially, the energy hill is enlarged, and
further voltage increases exacerbate this
effect, expanding the depletion region.
• Ideally, the PN junction functions as an open
circuit with reverse-bias voltage applied.
This asymmetry proves highly
advantageous, leading to the development of
the simplest semiconductor device, the
diode, which permits easy current flow in
one direction while blocking it in the
opposite direction.
DIODE AND ITS APPLICATIONS
WEEK – 3
• A diode is made from a small piece of
semiconductor material, usually silicon, in
which half is doped as a p region and half is
doped as an n region with a pn junction and
depletion region in between.
• The p region is called the anode and is
connected to a conductive terminal. The n
region is called the cathode and is connected
to a second conductive terminal. The basic
diode structure and schematic symbol are
shown in the figure.
• The diode's characteristic curve highlights
its non-linear behavior, unlike resistors.
Because of this, conventional techniques
like superposition can't be directly applied to
solve diode circuits without prior knowledge
of whether the diode is forward or reverse-
biased. This creates complexity in circuit
analysis. To simplify, three approximations
are commonly used:
1. Treating the diode as a dependent switch,
closed for forward bias and open for reverse
bias.
2. Incorporating the forward voltage, typically
around 0.7 volts for silicon devices, required
to overcome the energy barrier.
 DIODE AND ITS APPLICATIONS DIODE AND ITS APPLICATIONS
WEEK – 3 WEEK – 3

3. Recognizing a small non-infinite slope in the CLIPPERS

characteristic curve beyond the knee
voltage, approximated as a small resistive
value (Rbulk). These approximations
progressively improve accuracy in modeling
diode behavior.
DIODE PACAKGES
Typical diode packages with terminal
identification. The letter K is used for cathode to
avoid confusion with certain electrical quantities
that are represented by C. Case type numbers are
indicated for each diode.
Limiting the maximum amplitude of a signal
can serve various purposes, such as protection
against damage to following circuits or shaping the
waveform for aesthetic effects like emulating guitar
fuzz. For these kinds of applications, clipper circuits
are employed. A basic clipper circuit involves
placing a diode in parallel with the load, limiting the
voltage swing to the diode's forward turn-on
potential However, for more flexibility in setting the
limit, biased diode clippers are utilized, where the
diode is biased with a DC source to achieve desired
clipping levels.

DIODE APPLICATIONS
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
In an AC circuit containing a single diode,
positive portions of the input wave forward-bias the
diode, effectively closing it like a switch. As a
result, the entire input signal voltage appears across
the resistor. Conversely, during negative portions of
the waveform, the diode is reverse-biased, acting as
an open switch. Because of this, no voltage
develops across the resistor, and all applied
potential drops across the diode, in accordance with
Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL).
CLAMPERS
A clamper circuit modifies an AC signal by
adding a DC offset, ensuring the resulting voltage
remains unipolar. A positive clamper introduces a
positive offset, aligning the former negative peak at
zero volts, while a negative clamper introduces a
negative offset, aligning the former positive peak at
zero volts. These circuits are also known as DC
restorers. Clampers can be biased to set the new
peak point at a value other than zero volts.

FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Full-wave rectification is an enhancement
over half-wave rectification, which is inefficient due
to discarding the negative portion of the input
signal. Full-wave rectification utilizes this negative
portion by inverting its polarity, resulting in
improved performance. Two common methods for
achieving full-wave rectification are the use of a
pair of diodes with a center-tapped secondary
transformer and the use of a four-diode bridge
network.
While the full-wave rectification circuit is
slightly larger and more complex, it offers
significant performance improvements.
Additionally, the diode bridge configuration can
generate a bipolar output, comprising both positive
and negative outputs of the same magnitude.