Subject Name: Control systems

Subject Code: EC-4005

Semester: 4th
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Unit 5
Syllabus: State space analysis
State space representation of systems, block diagram for state equation, transfer function decomposition,
solution of state equation, transfer matrix, relationship between state equation and transfer function,
controllability and observability.

5.1: State Variables:

The state of a system is defined as the smallest set of variables that must be known at any given instant in
order that the future response to any specified input may be calculated from the given dynamic equations.
The state may be regarded as a compact representation of the past history of the system, which can be
utilized for predicting its future behavior.
Since the complete solution of a differential equation of order n requires precisely n initial conditions, the
state of such system will be specified by values of n quantities called state variables.

Input output
variables Controlled System variables

State variables

here
=[ ] mx1 column matrix called input vector
⋮

=[ ] nx1 column matrix called state vector

⋮

and = px1 column matrix called output vector

⋮
[ ]
State equation is an arrangement of a set of first order differential equation, with the following form of a LTI
system,
̇ = . + .
Here A and B are matrices of dimensions nxn and nxm respectively with constant elements.
The output equation of the system is given by
= . + .

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Here C and D are metrices of dimensions pxn and pxm and y(t) is having dimension px1.
The block diagram representation of a state model of a linear multi input, multi output system is shown
below.
u + x’ x y
B ∫ C
+
A

5.2: State Transition Matrix:

State transition matrix is denoted by ∅ and defined as the matrix that satisfy the linear homogeneous
state equation
= . 5.2.1
Let ∅ be the nxn matrix which represent the equation (1), hence
∅
= ∅ 5.2.2
At t=0, let x(0) denote the initial state then ∅
can also be defined by matrix equation
=∅ . 5.2.3
Which is the solution of the homogeneous equation (1) for ≥ . Now taking Laplace transform of equation
(1)
− = .
− . =
[ �− ] =
= [ � − ]− 5.2.4
By eq. (3) = /∅
Taking inverse Laplace of equation (4)
= − [ � − ]−
Therefore ∅ = − [ �− − ] 5.2.5
Solving the above equation
Therefore ∅ = ��
Properties of State Transition Matrix
1. ∅ = �. = �(the identity matrix)
2. ∅− =∅ −
3. ∅ − . ∅ − =∅ −
4. [∅ ]� =∅
5. ∅ + =∅ +∅

Example 5.1 Obtain the State Transaction Matrix ∅ for the given system matrix
=[ ]
Solution:
Given
=[ ]

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then [ �− ]=[ −
]−[ ]=[ ]
− −
And | �− |= −
then
− − −
∅ =[ �− ]= [ ]=
− − −
[ − − ]
Hence �
∅ =[ � �
]

5.3: Advantages of state variable approach over transfer function approach:

1. The state variable approach gives the information about internal states of the system.
2. The state variable approach is applicable for linear time varying as well as time invariant systems.
3. The state variable approach is applicable for multiple input multiple output system.
4. The state variable approach takes the initial conditions in to account.
5. It can be used to determine controllability as well as the observability of the system.
Disadvantages
1. It involves the matrix algebra, therefore mathematical calculations are complex.
2. It is difficult to determine poles and zeros of the system.

5.4: State Model:

̇ = . + .
= . + .
Where, X = State Matrix
A = System matrix of order ×
B = Input matrix of order ×
C = Output matrix of order ×
D = Transmission matrix of order ×
Representation of state model:
1. Physical variable representation,
2. Phase variable representation,
3. Canonical representation.
A system can be represented by many state models, therefore state model of a system is not unique.
However the transfer function of a system is always unique.
While finding the state model, we will assume that voltage across capacitor and current through inductor is
zero for < .

5.5: Transfer Function Determination from state model:

Let we have a state model:
̇ = . + . 5.5.1
= . + . 5.5.2
Taking Laplace transform of equation 5.5.1
= . + .
[ �− ]= .
= [ � − ]− . .
And from equation 5.5.2
= . + .
−
= .[ � − ] . . + .

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= . [ � − ]− . +

.{ [ � − ]− }. + | � − |
=
| �− |
Characteristics equation | � − | =
The above equation gives the poles of the system.
Putting = �
|�� − | =
Here � represents the Eigen values of A, therefore the Eigen values of A are poles of the System.

Example 5.2 Find out the transfer function of the system given below. Also determine the poles and zeros
of the system.
�̇ = [ ]� + [ ]
− −
=[ ]� + [ ]
Solution:
Given
Given =[ ], = [ ], = [ ], = [ ]
− −
Transfer function of the system is given by
= . [ � − ]− . +
Therefore [ �− ]=[ −
]
+
And
[ � − ]− = + +
[ ]= [ ]
+ + − + + −
Now
= . [ � − ]− . +
Therefore +
=[ ] [ ][ ] + [ ]
+ + −
=[ ] [ ]+[ ]
+ +
= [ ][ ]+ [ ]
+ +
= + +[ ]
+ +
+ + +
= =
+ + +
Therefore one pole is at = −
One zero is at = −
And we have a pole zero cancellation at =− .

5.6: Solution of the state equation:

Let we have a state model:
̇
= . + . 5.6.1
= . + . 5.6.2
(i) For homogeneous equation[ Unforced equation, u=0]
In this case ̇ = . 5.6.3
= . 5.6.4
Taking Laplace Transform of Equation 5.6.3

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− = .
[ �− ]=
= [ � − ]− .
= − [ � − ]− .
=� . = �� .
�� − [ � − ]− =
Where � = =

(ii) For Non-homogeneous equation[ Unforced equation, u=0]

Taking Laplace transform of equation 5.6.1
− = . + .
−
=[ �− ] . + [ � − ]− . .
Taking inverse Laplace
= − [ � − ]− . + − {[ � − ]− . . }

(iii) Solution of Non-homogeneous state equation in time domain:

Let ̇ = . + . 5.6.1
Therefore
− =
−�� −�� −��
− =

[ −�� ] −��
=
�
−�� −��
=∫ +

Where, � is the time constant. Not at = , = ,

�
Therefore
= �� + �� ∫ −��
�

�
�� � �−�
= +∫ �

Example 5.3 Consider a system described by:

�̇ = [ ]� +[ ]
− −
Where u is the step input. Compute the solution of this equation, assuming the initial state vector � =
[ ]� .
Solution:
[ �− ]=[ −
]
+
[ � − ]− = +
[ ]
+ + −
[ � − ]− . +
= [ ][ ]
+ + −
+ +
= [ ]
+ + − +
+
= [ ]
+ + −

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then +
−
+ +
− {[ � − ]− . }= −
= − [ + + ]
− −
+
[ + + ] + +
−� − �
− {[ � − ]− . }=[ −
−� − �]
− +
and
[ � − ]− . +
= [ ][ ] = [ ]
+ + − + +
therefore
+ +
[ � − ]− . . = [ ]=
+ +
[ + + ]

− +
= + +

[ − ]
+ +
then −� − �
− {[ � − ]− . . }=[ − − ]
−� − �
−
− {[ � − ]− . }+ − {[ � − ]− }
Then = . .
solution
−� − � −� − �
=[ − [ − − ]
−� − �] +
− + −� − �
−
−� − �
[ ]=[ + − ]
−� − �
− +

5.7: Forming State variable model by phase variables:

(a) Phase variable controllable conical form for numerators term:
Suppose
+ + +
= 5.7.1
+ + +
Dividing the equation by the highest power of s, i.e. s 3,
− − −
+ + +
= − + − + −
5.7.2
+
Now introducing a dummy variable X(s) in numerator and denominator,
− − −
+ + +
= − + − + −
+
Separating the two equations
− − −
= + + + 5.7.3
− − −
And = + + +
− − −
therefore = − + + 5.7.4

The signal flow graph for equation 5.2.4 is shown below in figure 5.2.1(a)

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U(s) 1 X(s) s-1 ̇ s-1 ̇ s-1

̇
-a1
-a2
-a3
Figure 5.2.1 (a) Signal flow graph for equation 5.2.4
And the signal flow graph for equation 5.2.3 is shown below in figure 5.2.2
b0

b1
b2
-1 -1 -1
U(s) s s s

̇ ̇ ̇

Figure 5.2.1(b) Signal flow graph for equation 5.2.3

Combining the above two signal flow graphs
b0

b1
b2
-1
U(s) 1 s ̇ s -1
̇ s-1
̇ b3
-a1
-a2
-a3
Figure 5.2.1(c) Combination of the SFG of Figure (a) & (b)
From the figure (c) let the various relations are as under
̇ = , ̇ = , ̇ = − − −
Therefore ̇
[ ̇ ]=[ ][ ]+ [ ][ ]
̇ − − −

1. State in State Space Analysis: It refers to smallest set of variables whose knowledge at t = t 0 together with
the knowledge of input for t ≥ t0 gives the complete knowledge of the behavior of the system at any time
t ≥ t0.
2. State Variables in State Space analysis: It refers to the smallest set of variables which help us to
determine the state of the dynamic system. State variables are defined by , ........ .

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3. State Vector: Suppose there is a requirement of n state variables in order to describe the complete
behavior of the given system, then these n state variables are considered to be n components of a vector
x(t). Such a vector is known as state vector.
4. State Space: It refers to the n dimensional space which has x1 axis, x2 axis .........xn axis.

5.8: Representation of State Model using Transfer Function

Decomposition: It is defined as the process of obtaining the state model from the given transfer function.
Now decompose the transfer function using three different ways:
1. Direct decomposition,
2. Cascade or series decomposition,
3. Parallel decomposition.
In all the above decomposition methods first convert the given transfer function into the differential
equations also called the dynamic equations. After converting into differential equations take
inverse Laplace transform of the above equation then corresponding to the type of decomposition can
create model.

5.9: Concept of Eigen Values and Eigen Vectors

The roots of characteristic equation are known as Eigen values or Eigen values of matrix A.
Now there are some properties related to Eigen values and these properties are written below-
1. Any square matrix A and its transpose at have the same Eigen values.
2. Sum of Eigen values of any matrix A is equal to the trace of the matrix A.
3. Product of the Eigen values of any matrix A is equal to the determinant of the matrix A.
4. If we multiply a scalar quantity to matrix A then the Eigen values are also get multiplied by the same
value of scalar.
5. If we inverse the given matrix A then its Eigen values are also get inverses.
6. If all the elements of the matrix are real then the Eigen values corresponding to that matrix are either
real or exists in complex conjugate pair.
Now there exists one Eigen vector corresponding to one Eigen value, if it satisfy the following condition
(ek × I - A)Pk = 0. Where k = 1, 2, 3 ...n.

5.10: State Transition Matrix and Zero State Response

Taking the state equations and taking their Laplace transformation,
– = –
Now on rewriting the above equation
= [ � − ]− + [ � − ]−
Let[ � − ]− = � and taking the inverse Laplace of the above equation
= � + − �
The expression � is known as state transition matrix.
−
And � = zero state response.

Properties of the state transition matrix.

1. Substitute t = 0 in the above equation ie. � = .
2. Substitute t = -t in the � i.e. � − = [� ]− .
3. Another important property [� ] = � .
5.11: Controllability:
A system is said to be controllable if and only if the system states can be changed from a given state to a
desired state, over a specific periodic of time, by changing the system input.
Test of Controllability
Let �� = [ : : :…….]

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or �� ≅ [ : : ]
Here �� is called Controllability Test Matrix.
According to KALMAN, the system will be completely controllable if rank of the matrix �� is equal to order
of the system.
If rank of the matrix �� is less than the order of the system, then system is not completely controllable and
the number of controllable states are given by − , where n is the order of the system and r is the rank of
the matrix �� .
A system is controllable or "Controllable to the origin" when any state x1 can be driven to the zero state x =
0 in a finite number of steps.
Rank of the system:
Let � =[ ]
�

If − ≠ , then rank of �� is 2.
If − = , then
(i) If , , , ≠ , then rank is 1.
(ii) If , , , =, then rank is 0.

5.12: Observability:
A system is said to be observable if and only if any state of the system states can be determined at a given
time on the basis of the knowledge of the output of the system.
The observability test matrix is denoted by Q0 and is given by

� =[ ]
⋮
According to KALMAN, the system will be completely observable if rank of the matrix � is equal to order of
the system.
If rank of the matrix � is less than the order of the system, then system is not completely observable and
the number of observable states are given by − , where n is the order of the system and r is the rank of
the matrix � .

Example 5.4 Determine the Controllability of the following system

�̇ = [ ]� + [ ]
− − −
Solution:
Given =[ ]
−
−
=[ ][ ] = [ ]
− − −
Then −
�� = [ ]
−
As �� = , hence system is not completely controllable.
Rank of the system = , and = , hence
Number of controllable states − = − =

Example 5.5 Determine the Observability of the following system

�̇ = [ ]� + [ ]�
− −
=[ ]� + [ ]�
Solution:
Given =[ ]
=[ ][ ] = [− − ]
− −

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Then � =[ ] ℎ |� | =
− −
As � = , hence system is not completely observable.
Rank of the system = , and = , hence
Number of observable states − = − =

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