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AFRICA’S GLOBAL ENGAGEMENT:
PERSPECTIVES FROM EMERGING COUNTRIES
Migration Conundrums,
Regional Integration and
Development
Africa-Europe Relations
in a Changing Global Order
Edited by
Inocent Moyo · Christopher Changwe Nshimbi · Jussi P. Laine
Africa’s Global Engagement: Perspectives
from Emerging Countries
Series Editor
Ajay Dubey
African Studies Association of India (ASA India)
Centre for African Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi, India
The 21st century has been characterized by a global rush to engage African
countries. Unlike in the past, globalization has given African countries
options to select and diversify their engagements. Though traditional
powers are still trying to reinforce their links, African countries have
generally found it more empowering to reduce their traditional depen-
dence and develop more equitable relations with counties of the South,
especially with emerging economies. Different regions and countries of
the world find different opportunities and challenges in their attempts to
engage the African region. Similarly, African countries, along with the
African Union and other regional organizations, find different advantages
in diversifying their traditional dependence. However, the new engage-
ments have neither replaced the traditional engagement of Africa, nor are
they wholly unproblematic from African perspectives. In this context, it is
essential to understand and analyse emerging Africa’s global engagements.
To that end, this series will cover important countries and regions, includ-
ing traditional powers, that engage African countries, the African Union
and African regional organisations. The book series will also address
global and regional issues that exclusively affect African countries. Books
in the series can be either monographs or edited works.
Expected Content:
The series will focus on the following aspects, among others:
• In its current global engagement, is Africa still a “helpless” player?

Who dictates the terms of Africa’s new engagement, and how it
impacts various African countries?
• In the current competition between traditional powers and emerg-
ing economies to engage Africa, is Africa’s global engagement merely
undergoing a geographical shift, or is it moving toward increasingly
equitable international relations? How traditional powers have re-
strategised themselves to retain their influence on Africa and how
Africa is responding to them?
How is Africa involved in the issues of global governance and how it

negotiates and navigates its positions on issues of global concerns?
More information about this series at

http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15417
Inocent Moyo
Christopher Changwe Nshimbi
Jussi P. Laine
Editors
Migration
Conundrums,
Regional Integration
and Development
Africa-Europe Relations in a Changing
Global Order
Editors
Inocent Moyo Christopher Changwe Nshimbi
Department of Geography and Centre for the Study of Governance
Environmental Studies Innovation (GovInn)/Department
University of Zululand of Political Sciences
KwaDlangezwa, South Africa University of Pretoria
Hatfield, South Africa
Jussi P. Laine
Karelian Institute
University of Eastern Finland
Kuopio, Finland
Africa’s Global Engagement: Perspectives from Emerging Countries

ISBN 978-981-15-2477-6 ISBN 978-981-15-2478-3 (eBook)
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To all classes of migrants who have suffered from or perished in the raging
intra-Africa and Africa–European Union migration conundrums
and contestations and who continue to. The hope for a shared
humanity still lingers.
Foreword
The issue of intra-African migration and EU-Africa migration are topics

that continue to elicit mixed reactions and, in some cases, misplaced policy
responses. The need to separate facts from fiction, and more importantly,
crafting policies that situate migration at the heart of global and regional
developmental efforts, remain critical tasks that scholars, politicians and
policymakers cannot afford to ignore. This is the reason why this book is
a timely addition to the body of knowledge in this field. The book weaves
together not only the different currents underlining migratory patterns
within and outside the continent but also the variables that should shape
policy approaches. While the different authors that have contributed to
this edited book approach the question of migration from multidimensional,
multidisciplinary perspectives, one thread that runs through their ideas is
the imperative of reframing the existing problematic narrative. They have
presented readers with a critical, informative guide to understanding that
migration can no longer be seen from a “single story” lens. This point is
of utmost importance particularly against the background of increasing
antagonistic response of European countries to African migrants, incidents
of xenophobic attacks in some African countries, and the inability of
African Union (AU) member states to commit to an implementation
approach that is sustainable. In addition, the EU-African dialogue on
migration often exists within a dialogue-of-the-deaf milieu, with both
parties speaking past and around each other. While the EU views migration
from Africa through a securocratic/hard border lens, Africa advocates a
broader, developmental perspective on tackling this issue.
vii
viii FOREWORD
This book rightly locates the debate on migration within the intersections
of a changing global order, regional integration efforts in Africa, and varying
national dynamics. Emerging from this scholarly discourse is the imperative
of adopting nuanced and context-specific solutions. Arriving at such a
juncture requires a broader conceptualisation of migration as both an
enabler of economic development and an important condition of human-
ity. The latter is essentially the reason why compassion and respect for
humanity should always lie at the heart of designing and implementing
policies on migration. As the late literary icon Chinua Achebe pointedly
warned, “when we are comfortable and inattentive, we run the risk of
committing grave injustices absentmindedly”. As discussed in the book,
the effective governance and management of intra-African and EU-Africa
migration have to be multisectoral. A bottom-up approach that encompasses
civil society participation, an objective understanding of push-and-pull
factors, meaningful and respectful EU-African partnership, transformational
national leadership in Africa, and genuine Afrocentric policy response to
migration issues are necessary ingredients for addressing this problem.
This pivotal book comes at a critical phase of African integration. The
AU is currently engaged in efforts aimed at transforming its institutions
and processes and has adopted protocols on free trade and free movement
of persons. While the former has already been ratified, the latter has
received negligible interest from member states. The book’s scholarly
focus on migration matters provides an essential spectrum and guide for
policymakers, researchers, and politicians to further their intellectual
engagement on this subject. I have no doubt that this book will stimulate
interest and new ideas that will enhance the grasp of the articulation and
implementation of policy instruments on a phenomenon that is as old as
humanity itself.
Pretoria, South Africa Babatunde Fagbayibo

31 October 2019
Acknowledgements
This volume would not have been possible without the generous sup-
port of the Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency
(EACEA) of the European Commission (EC) under the Jean Monnet
Activities within the Erasmus + Programme (Project Number 587767-
EPP-1-2017-ZA- EPPJMO-PROJECT). The collaborative work that
resulted in this volume came out of a project co-led by Chris Nshimbi
and Inocent Moyo at the Centre for the Study of Governance Innovation
(GovInn), Universities of Pretoria and Zululand, respectively, in South
Africa, Jussi P. Laine at the University of Eastern Finland and Tabani
Ndlovu at Nottingham Trent University. The team of editors express our
gratitude to all participants in the workshop and conference on the
EU-Africa migration conundrum in a changing global order hosted by
the Centre for the Study of Governance Innovation (GovInn), at the
University of Pretoria from 3 to 4 September 2018. Their intense
engagement and rigorous contribution in the debates are greatly appre-
ciated as the account for the success of the project. Our thanks also go
to Kirsty Agnew Nepomuceno, Project Coordinator, and the logistics
team at GovInn, for the hard work in making the workshop and confer-
ence successful. Likewise, we appreciate the immense contributions by
the dedicated team of reviewers who critically reviewed this work and
were always ready to meet our never-ending requests. Notwithstanding,
ix
x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
reasonable effort has been made to contact copyright holders before

publication, and in the event that there have been oversights in this
regard, the editors and publishers apologise and are ready to correct
them, if the need arises.
31 October 2019 Inocent Moyo

Jussi P. Laine
Contents
Part I Migration Conundrums in Regions and Development

in a Changing Global Order 1
1 Migration and Transformation: Africa-Europe Migration

Conundrums in a Changing Global Order 3
Inocent Moyo, Christopher Changwe Nshimbi,
and Jussi P. Laine
Introduction 3
Migration, Regions and Development in Africa 7
Africa-Europe Relations in the Age of Increased Migration
and Globalisation 8
Migration Contestations and Transformation 10
Migration and Misrepresented Views and Actors in
Conventional Migration Discourses 11
References 13
2 Migration, Regional Integration and the Development

Conundrum: Reflections on Policy, Identity and Shared
Humanity 17
Samuel O. Oloruntoba
Introduction 17
The Crisis of Global Migration 20
Migration and Regional Integration in Africa 23
xi
xii Contents
Reframing the Discourses on Migration and Regional

Integration 27
Resolving Identity Crisis Through Decoloniality 29
Conclusion 31
References 31
3 Migration and Sustainable Development: Challenges and

Opportunities 37
Ernest Toochi Aniche
Introduction 37
Conceptualizing Migration and Sustainable Development 39
Theoretical Perspectives for Understanding the Nexus Between
Migration and Sustainable Development 42
Challenges and Opportunities of Migration and Sustainable
Development 47
Concluding Remarks 57
References 57
Part II Migration Conundrums: Africa-Europe Relations

4 The EU’s Approach to African Migration During Crisis:

Reinforcement and Changes 65
Anna Knoll
Introduction 65
One Crisis: Many Facets 66
Actors, Interests, and Policy Narratives in the EU:
Influencing EU-Wide Response 73
Intensified Engagement with African Countries on
Migration 80
The Way Forward in the EU 86
References 87
Contents xiii
5 Reframing African Migration to Europe: An Alternative

Narrative 93
Jussi P. Laine
Introduction 93
Information Is Power 96
The Bigger Picture 98
Africa-Europe Relations Beyond Migration? 106
Conclusion 110
References 112
6 Intercontinental Citizenship: Europe-based Congolese

Migrants and Their Influence on Homeland Governance
During 2011 DRC Electoral Crisis117
Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka
Introduction 117
Intercontinental Citizenship and Democratic Governance:
Some Conceptual and Theoretical Considerations 118
Intercontinental Citizenship 119
Democratic Governance 122
Understanding Intercontinental Migrant Citizenship Through
the Lens of Political Transnationalism 127
Some Determinant Factors of Migrant’s Intercontinental
Citizenship 130
Methodological Considerations 132
The 2011 Elections and Its Discontents in DRC: Homeland
Context of Congolese People Exodus 133
European Democratic Governance Context: A Political
Opportunity Structure for the Europe-based Congolese
Migrants’ Citizenship 138
Europe-based Congolese Migrants’ Citizenship in the Quest for
Democratic Governance in the DRC 140
Assessing the Influence of Europe-based Congolese Migrants’
Citizenship in Demand for Democratic Governance in DRC 148
Conclusion 151
References 152
xiv Contents
Part III Migration Conundrums Down Under: Intra-Africa

Relations, Regional Integration and Development 163
7 Life in the Fringes: Informality, African Migrants’

Perception of the Border and Attitudes Towards
Migrating to Europe165
Introduction 165
Of Gold and All That Glitters: Brief Conceptual and
Methodological Takes on Migration and Borders 170
Of Crossroads and Ancient Paths: Migrants’ Contextual
Environmental Background and Influence on Perceptions of
Borders and Migration 173
Of Perceptions and Attitudes: Orientations Towards Global
Socioeconomic and Political Realities 179
Of Irreconcilable Views and Interpretations:
Concluding Remarks 183
References 185
8 Migration and the Locality: Community Peacebuilding as

a Deterrent to Collective Violence in South Africa193
Mpangi Kwenge
Introduction 193
The Research Component 198
The Intervention 201
The Alexandra Case Study 203
The Mamelodi Case Study 205
Conclusion 209
References 210
9 African Informal Migrant Traders in Johannesburg:

Experiences on the Ground and Implications on Human
Mobility in the SADC213
Inocent Moyo
Introduction 213
Conceptualisation 214
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) 216
Contents xv
Views on the Ground 217

Reflections on Migrants’ Experiences 218
Conclusion 220
References 222
10 African Migrants’ Aspirations and Citizens’ Anxieties in

Johannesburg, South Africa: Concerning Migration
Management227
Christal Spel
Introduction 227
Historical Context of Migration 228
Migration Management 233
South African Citizens’ Anxieties in the Face of African
Migrants 235
African Migrants’ Aspirations 239
Migration Management, South African Citizens and
African Migrants in South Africa 243
Conclusion 247
References 248
11 Artisanal Miners, Migration and Remittances

in Southern Africa257
Esther Makhetha
Introduction 257
Research Context: Migration and Lesotho’s Changing Rural
Economy 260
Migration and Remittances Since Independence 261
Zama-zama Migrants: Migration and Remittances 262
Remittances 265
Conclusion 266
References 268
xvi Contents
Part IV Conclusion: Migration, Africa-Europe Relations

12 Beyond the Present: Migration Governance for Regions

and Inclusive Development273
Christopher Changwe Nshimbi, Inocent Moyo,
and Jussi P. Laine
Introduction 273
Regions and Development 275
Africa-Europe Relations 276
Intra-Africa Relations 277
References 279
Index281
Notes on Contributors
Ernest Toochi Aniche holds BSc, MSc and PhD degrees of the
Department of Political Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka (UNN),
with a bias to international relations. His areas of research interest include
African integration, comparative regionalism, migration studies, border-
land studies, peace and conflict studies, security and strategic studies,
international environmental politics, oil politics, energy politics, the-
ories of international relations and international political economy.
He has authored three books, co-authored two books, co-edited a
book and contributed chapters in books and articles in scholarly
journals. He is a lecturer in the Department of Political Science,
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Federal University Otuoke
(FUO), Bayelsa State, Nigeria. He is also the acting head, Department
of Political Science, Hezekiah University, Umudi, Imo State, Nigeria.
Anna Knoll is the head of the Migration Programme at ECDPM. She
has seven years’ policy research experience (research design and imple-
mentation) in international policy activities engaging on develop-
ment, aid, migration and conflict and security issues. With an academic
background in philosophy and economics (BA) and in international
political economy (MSc), her current research and publications focus
on the interaction between migration, displacement and development
processes, the external and development dimension of the EU’s
migration and asylum policies, migration in European development
policies as well as African narratives, policies and processes on
migration.
xvii
xviii NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
Mpangi Kwenge is working for Freedom House. She holds a master’s in

international conflict analysis from the University of Kent. She has held
appointments at the Dag Hammarskjold Institute for Peace Studies at the
Copperbelt University in Zambia as a special research fellow and the
Swiss ethnic power relations project funded by the Swiss Programme
for Research on Global Issues for Development (R4D). Her research
includes work on ethnic power relations in Zambia and xenophobia
and constraints towards social cohesion in South Africa.
Jussi P. Laine is an associate professor of multidisciplinary border studies
at the Karelian Institute of the University of Eastern Finland and holds the
title of Docent of Human Geography from the University of Oulu,
Finland. He is the president of the Association for Borderlands Studies
and also serves in the Steering Committee of the International Geographical
Union’s Commission on Political Geography. By his background, he is a
human geographer, yet in his approach to borders he combines influences
also from international relations and geopolitics, political sociology, his-
tory, anthropology as well as psychology. Within border studies, he seeks
to explore the multi-scalar production of borders and bring a critical per-
spective on the relationship between state, territory, citizenship and iden-
tity construction. Most recently, his works focused on border mobility and
tourism, the ethics of borders and bordering, bottom-up construction of
borders and border making, as well as on ontological security have been
published.
Esther Makhetha is a postdoctoral fellow at the Graduate School of
Business Leadership, University of South Africa (UNISA). She holds the
following qualifications: a baccalaureus degree in consumer science
(University of Pretoria, South Africa), an MSc Research, Agricultural and
Food Economics (University of Reading, United Kingdom), and a PhD
(University of Pretoria, South Africa). Her research interests include
mining: artisanal and small-scale mining, commercial mining, gen-
der, land needs and land use.
Inocent Moyo is a Senior Lecturer and Head of the Department of
Geography and Environmental Studies at the University of Zululand,
South Africa. Inocent is a human geographer with a deep interest in the
interface between people and the environment, particularly the broader
fields of political geography, political economy, political ecology, migra-
tion, regional development, globalization and transnationalism, borders
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS xix
and borderlands and urban geography, among others. He has published

and delivered international presentations on these topics. Inocent is the
founding chair of the International Geographical Union Commission on
African Studies (IGUCAS).
Christopher Changwe Nshimbi is Director and Department of Science
and Technology/National Research Foundation (DST/NRF) Research
Fellow in the Centre for the Study of Governance Innovation (GovInn),
University of Pretoria. He researches migration, borders, regional integra-
tion, the informal economy, social cohesion and water resource manage-
ment. Besides teaching and supervising postgraduate research at the
University of Pretoria, Chris also participates and sits on regional
and international technical working groups on trade, labour and
migration as well as water. His opinion pieces are occasionally pub-
lished on THE CONVERSATION Africa, OpenDemocracy and other
media outlets.
Samuel O. Oloruntoba is an associate professor and the coordinator of
the research cluster on innovation and developmental regionalism at the
Thabo Mbeki African Leadership Institute, University of South Africa,
Pretoria, South Africa, and a visiting professor at the Institute of African
Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada. He obtained his PhD
in political science with specialisation in international political economy of
trade from the University of Lagos, Nigeria. He was previously a visiting
scholar at the Program of African Studies, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois, and a fellow of Brown International Advanced Research
Institute, Brown University, Rhode Island, USA. His research interests
include regional integration and development in Africa, resource gover-
nance, global governance of trade and finance, democracy and develop-
ment. He has presented papers in more than forty local and international
conferences, and over forty of his scientific articles have been published in
journals and book chapters both locally and abroad. He is the author, edi-
tor and co-editor of six books, including Regionalism and Integration in
Africa: EU-ACP Economic Partnership Agreements and Euro-Nigerian
relations (Palgrave 2016), Africa and Its Diaspora: Histories, Identities
and Economy (ed.), Palgrave Handbook on African Politics, Governance
and Development, co-edited with Toyin Falola (Palgrave Macmillan 2018),
State and Development in Post-independent Africa (with Vusi Gumede
(eds)). Working with other research team members, he has concluded two
xx NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
funded research works: Migration and Regional Integration in Africa:

ECOWAS and SADC in Comparative Perspectives, as well as Illicit
Financial Flows in the Mining Sector of Four Southern African Countries.
He has served as guest lecturer in conferences and seminars in different
countries in Africa, Europe and USA. He also serves as external examiner
on MA and PhD theses to Universities of Pretoria, Johannesburg,
Kwazulu-Natal and Zululand. Oloruntoba was the recipient of Wangari
Maathai Award for Innovative Research Leadership at the Africa
Conference, University of Texas, Austin, Texas, USA, in March 2016. In
2017, he became a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation
of South Africa.
Christal Spel is an NRF postdoctoral fellow at the SARChi Chair for
Social Policy, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa. She holds
a PhD in social and public policy from the University of Helsinki, Finland,
and an MSc in development and international cooperation from the
University of Jyvaskyla, Finland. She has held visiting appointments
at the Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden; African Studies
Centre, Leiden, the Netherlands; Institute of Migration and Ethnic
Studies, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands; and the African
Center for Migration and Society, University of Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, South Africa. Her research includes work on African
migrant well-being in Africa and informal sector development in
Nigeria.
Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka is a research fellow at the Centre for the
Study of Governance Innovation (GovInn), University of Pretoria, South
Africa. He completed his master’s of arts in development studies from the
University of South Africa in 2014. He is teaching the Introduction to
Development Studies, Development Problems and Institutions,
Community Development and Programs and Projects as tools of
Development. In addition, he is an external examiner for the same
courses since 2011.
Abbreviations
ACC Alexandra Chamber of Commerce

ACMS African Centre for Migration and Society
ACP The African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States
ACPMD African Common Position on Migration and Development
AEC African Economic Community
AfCFTA African Continental Free Trade Area
AGOA African Growth and Opportunity Act
ANC African National Congress
ASM Artisanal and Small-scale Mining
AU African Union
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
CBL Central Bank of Lesotho
CDP Compulsory Deferred Pay
CEAS Common European Asylum System
CEN-SAD The Community of Sahel-Saharan States
CENI Commission Électorale Nationale Indépendante
CLSD Community-Level Social Dynamics
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CSO Civil Society Organization
CSVR Centre for the Study of Violence and Reconciliation
DAC Department of Arts and Culture
DHA Department of Home Affairs
DRC Democratic Republic of Congo
EAC East African Community
ECI European Citizens’ Initiative
ECOWAS Economic Community of Central African States
xxi
xxii Abbreviations
EIU Economist Intelligence Unit

EMU Economic and Monetary Union
EU European Union
FDI Foreign Direct Investments
FTA Free Trade Areas
HRW Human Rights Watch
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IFP Inkatha Freedom Party
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority for Development
IIAG IIbrahim Index of African Governance
JAES Joint Africa-EU Strategy
LAWA Latin American Workers Association
LNDB Lesotho National Development Bank
LUTCHA Lutte pour le Changement
M23 Movement of the 23 May
MARS Migration and Remittances Survey
MCR Mamelodi Concerned Residents
MPFA Migration Policy Framework for Africa
MPI Migration Policy Institute
NEM New Economics of Migration
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
OAU Organisation of African Unity
ODA Official Development Assistance
OSCE Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
PBTs Peace-Building Teams
RDC République Démocratique du Congo
RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme
RECs Regional Economic Communities
RFI Radio France Internationale
SACU Southern African Customs Union
SADC Southern African Development Community
SADCC Southern African Development Co-ordinating Conference
SALW Small Arms and Light Weapons
SAPS South African Police Services
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals
TEBA The Employment Bureau of Africa
UMA Development Community (SADC) and Union du Maghreb Arabe
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programmes
UNHCR United Nations High Commission for Refugees
USA United Stated of America
WHO World Health Organization
List of Figures
Fig. 6.1 Conceptual and theoretical framework. (Source: Author,

adapted from Lima (2010), Morlino and Carli (2014)
and Diamond and Morlino (2005)) 119
Fig. 6.2 Number of total DRC migrants in Europe (in thousands).
(Source: Author, adapted from the United Nations Trends in
International Migrant Stock (2015)) 149
xxiii
List of Tables
Table 8.1 Selected targeted project sites 197

Table 8.2 Social cohesion survey sites 199
xxv
PART I
Migration Conundrums in Regions

and Development in a Changing
Global Order
CHAPTER 1
Migration and Transformation: Africa-

Europe Migration Conundrums
in a Changing Global Order
Inocent Moyo, Christopher Changwe Nshimbi,

and Jussi P. Laine
Introduction
The various processes of globalisation, together with the related increase
in migration flows, have created growing concerns about the rights of
people who are either temporarily or permanently absent from their home
country. The number of international migrants globally has reached an
I. Moyo (*)
Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Zululand,
KwaDlangezwa, South Africa
C. C. Nshimbi
Centre for the Study of Governance Innovation (GovInn)/Department of
Political Sciences, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa
J. P. Laine
Karelian Institute, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
e-mail: jussi.laine@uef.fi
© The Author(s) 2020 3

I. Moyo et al. (eds.), Migration Conundrums, Regional Integration and
Development, Africa’s Global Engagement: Perspectives from Emerging
Countries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2478-3_1
4 I. MOYO ET AL.
estimated 272 million in 2019, an increase of 51 million since 2010 and

99 million since 2000 (UN 2019). What has been even more noteworthy
is that the number of refugees has been on the rise worldwide. Both glob-
ally and in Europe as well as in Africa, most migration is intra-continental.
The consolidation and expansion of the European Union (EU) regime of
free movement facilitated the increased mobility within the region
(Santacreu et al. 2009). Europe has always been a popular destination for
migrants; recently, however, new waves of immigration have occurred, the
most discernible of which has been the great number of refugee and asy-
lum seeker arrivals from North and Central Africa, Middle East and beyond.
Within the African continent migration is very significant in terms of
the number of people who migrate due to political, economic, social and
other factors (Adepoju 2010; McAuliffe and Kitimbo 2018). For example,
between 2015 and 2017, the number of Africans migrating within the
continent increased from 16 million to around 19 million, but those
migrating out of Africa increased from 16 million to 17 million (McAuliffe
and Kitimbo 2018). In addition to their benefits, these migration flows
have also evidently generated negative responses from their actual or
potential host countries (Davidov and Meuleman 2012; Mawadza and
Crush 2010; Solimano 2010; Stewart and Mulvey 2014) in terms of nega-
tive backlash against migrants, manifesting itself in xenophobic attacks
against immigrants in migrant-receiving countries within the continent,
such as South Africa (Mawadza and Crush 2010). Increased migration
continues to assault and undermine the fixity of nativist and territorialised
belonging (Gupta and Ferguson 2008), the idea that people are from a
particular bordered place (Laine 2018a), which by extension underlined
the ever more apparent need to rethink the “possibilities of belonging”
(Papastergiadis 2000, 80). The other actual or potential implication of
migration includes its developmental aspects, in terms of the transactions
and connections that it could generate (Moyo 2017).
Our attempt to broaden the framing of migration from a challenge or a
problem to a possibility and a resource does not lead us to ignore the poten-
tially negative impacts—be they political, economic or social, among others
(Milanovic 2016)—on both the sending and receiving countries or regions
migration may have. Much of the recent discussion on migration has, how-
ever, been narrowly focused with an apparent overemphasis on its negative
impacts—whether actual or perceived, at the expense of its positive or
developmental impacts. Such a lopsided perception of migration obscures
rather than illuminating the complex phenomenon under scrutiny and its
1 MIGRATION AND TRANSFORMATION: AFRICA-EUROPE MIGRATION… 5
various ramifications. In an attempt to contribute to more holistic and bal-

anced debate on migration, this book is premised on the understanding
that migration is “an integral part of the global transformation process,
rather than a problem to be solved” (International Migration Institute
2006, 9). We put forward that efforts should be focused on the more effi-
cient management and governance of migration as well as channelling its
various dimensions towards a developmental trajectory, rather than simply
attempting to stop migration or wish it away. In order to achieve this, more
evidence-based and easily accessible information on the drivers, motivations
and root causes, but also the complex interplay of these determining fac-
tors, is needed. There is a need to go beyond the mere push-and-pull fac-
tors and the assumption of linear causality, to the recognition that migrant
decision-making process tends to involve calculation of various factors at
the same time and have very different impact on different people. People
have always migrated and will continue to do so. Borders, however, are
nothing but an end-of-pipe solution to a much broader phenomenon and
will not make the purported problem go away because they are themselves
a fundamental part of that problem (Laine 2018a). Past efforts to curb
migration in various parts of the world have had limited success. Limiting
the movement of people may decrease documented migration, but it tends
to increase undocumented flows. Walls, whether on paper or on the ground,
may seem effective, but seldom are; once a wall is erected, people will soon
try to cross it (Laine 2018a). Migrants also tend to find alternative ways of
migrating and finding their way to intended destinations, despite efforts to
prevent them from migrating (Nshimbi and Moyo 2016a, b).
The consistent drive towards ever stricter border and migration policies
not just in Europe, but throughout the entire Global North, has not
emerged on its own or purely as a creation of politicians, but reflects the
thinking of their electorates. It is thus necessary to look deeper into the
various bordering practices, which—in the context of the strength of anti-
immigrant movements across Europe—have conveyed an image of immi-
grants, before anything else, as a threat. Such rhetoric has not only
overshadowed the proven benefits of migration, but it has also been cut
out for deteriorating support of welcome and for ignoring the harsh real-
ity and humanitarian drama which millions of refugees have to live through
every day. The resultant unwelcoming sentiment is indicative of the defi-
ciency of historical self-understanding, which has catalysed a hollowing-
out of the very values upon which the idea of Europe has generally been
constructed (Laine 2018a, 293). Migration is also a very complex
6 I. MOYO ET AL.
phenomenon; it means different things to different people, countries and

regions. As a result, reaching a consensus or resolving the perceived prob-
lem becomes difficult. Some view migration as a security issue, and this
occludes its economic or developmental benefits or its humanitarian impli-
cations. Others may focus only on the latter, ignoring the fears—no matter
how ungrounded—others may attach to migration. To this can be added
others who demonstrate emotional and ideological responses to migra-
tion, all of which amplify the migration conundrum, with which this book
grapples. Evidently, these debates range from the actual and perceived
international and cross-border security threats that migration is said to
bring, to the negative perception of migrants and the notion of migration
in the host countries or societies leading to, among others, the securitisa-
tion and hardening of borders, to the developmental potential of migrants
and migration arising from, inter alia, cross-border development and
cooperation.
For one, the EU and African Union (AU), respectively, seem to hold
different perceptions and interpretations of the migration conundrum—
whether, for example, migration (re)presents international or cross-border
security threats or that it positively contributes to development. In Europe,
questions concerning migrants and borders seem to reflect the greatest
challenges that contemporary European societies face. The birth rates
have been in decline while life expectancies have increased. As the popula-
tion has been ageing, the functionality of the labour markets and pension
systems has become challenged (Mitze et al. 2017). As a result of the need
for labour and the increased mobility, migration has emerged as a key
theme and policy instrument for the EU. The need for migrant labour has,
however, been overshadowed by the more protectionist and security-
oriented rhetoric surrounding migration in the wake of the recent so-
called refugee crisis. Worries about its consequences for society, welfare
institutions and labour markets have influenced not only public opinion,
but also political action, causing temporary closings of borders, cultural
divides, and even expressions of racism and xenophobic nationalism
(Laine 2019).
The sudden influx of refugees turned into a political crisis, giving rise to
populist parties and right-wing ideology (Laine 2018a, b), and conflated
with economic, educational and welfare migration, as well as internal EU
labour mobility, it has even sparked notions of the end of the entire
EU. The resultant prevalent rhetoric on migration concerns, problem or
threat largely outperforms the scientific evidence that European countries
will simply not manage without migrants. If anything, studies have shown
that immigration provides economic opportunities and that Europe could
achieve a fair and effective allocation of migrants that would preserve
European principles and unity (Blau and Mackie 2017; Kahanec and
Zimmermann 2016). The European attempts to “secure” or “protect”
borders have undoubtedly failed, largely because migration is often seen as
a border security issue—as something that needs to be combatted (Laine
2018a). In this view borders tend to be depicted as protective, yet vulner-
able walls safeguarding the inside from a perceived threat from outside.
This variance in perception and approach towards a phenomenon that not
only characterises the globalised world in the twenty-first century, but is
also accelerated by elements of globalisation, and, thereby, promises to
define the world for many years further into the century, warrants proper
investigation. The outcome of the investigation should then help both
sides, whose relationship has a long history, to appreciate each other’s
views as well as work out mutually acceptable and beneficial solutions to
the challenges that migration presents.
Migration, Regions and Development in Africa

The AU seeks to establish an African Economic Community (AEC) by
2028 through the 1991 Abuja Treaty for the Establishment of the African
Economic Community (Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic
Community (AEC) 1991). The strategy for attaining the AEC is through
regional economic communities (RECs) as building blocks. Eight such
RECs constitute these pillars for moving Africa towards the AEC. The
progress that each REC makes in its integration project impacts the AU’s
continental integration agenda. Migration, and, particularly, free move-
ment of economically active persons across a region’s borders, is an impor-
tant productive factor essential to regional integration. Moreover, the
AU’s New Partnership for Development (NEPAD) cites the migration-
development nexus as a sectoral priority in NEPAD’s Human Resources
Development Initiative. The AU realises that migration contributes to
development and defines its approach to the issues through two key policy
frameworks. The first, the Migration Policy Framework for Africa (MPFA),
addresses nine key migration issues: labour migration, border manage-
ment, irregular migration, forced displacement, the human rights of
migrants, internal migration, migration data, migration and development,
and interstate cooperation and partnerships (African Union (AU) 2006a).
8 I. MOYO ET AL.
The second, the African Common Position on Migration and Development

(ACPMD) raises eleven priority policy issues and recommendations for
national, continental and international action. These include Migration
and Development, Human resource and the brain drain, Labour migra-
tion, Remittances, African Diaspora, Migration and Peace, Security and
Stability, Migration and Human Rights, Migration and Gender, Children
and Youth, Elderly and Regional Initiatives (African Union (AU) 2006b).
These and other instruments of the AU and African RECs ultimately
target the establishment of the AEC predicated on RECs. As a result, the
debates on intra-Africa migration are an important point of scholarly con-
versation, which this book takes up so as to show how the continent mea-
sures up to the ideals of AU the AEC. This is precisely because while
African countries are engaged in the drive towards RECs and the AEC,
there is a corresponding movement by some states to securitise their bor-
ders, which is antithetical to the ideals under consideration. In addition,
undocumented migration and informal cross-border movements of eco-
nomically active people at the grassroots have received scanty attention
and recognition from policymakers and scholars alike. This is despite the
ubiquity of the phenomenon across Africa. Least of all, the (potential) role
and place of people engaged in such movements in economic, social and
political well-being in Africa and the RECs remain unexplored. This is also
an issue which is discussed in this book (see Chaps. 9 and 11). Overall, the
issues around intra-Africa migration demonstrate a conundrum—despite
the stated policies at continental, regional and country levels, the effective
and collective management of migration is never settled. Consequently,
the task of forming RECs in Africa (before even considering relations with
other regions such as Europe) in which migration binds and positively
transform, and thus contribute to the development of rather than dividing
the continent in this age of increased migration and globalisation, is one
of the main themes with which this book engages.
Africa-Europe Relations in the Age of Increased

Migration and Globalisation
Africa-Europe migration relations and governance have undergone a sig-
nificant shift, especially since the so-called 2015 migration crisis (Chap. 4),
and this has led to cooperation regimes and programmes which emphasise
more the restrictions of migration from Africa to Europe (Chaps. 4, 5 and
7). In contrast to the ultimate EU aim of eliminating borders within its

internal area, several governments of the EU member states have closed
their borders to refugees and reintroduced border checks in an attempt to
restrict the incoming or transiting movement of people. Such reactions
can be seen as illustrative of how states continue to function in the post-
modern era of post-national policies and non-territorial flows and to sug-
gest a regression into state-centric thinking and the weakening of the EU’s
integrationist momentum and solidarity (Laine 2018a). The apparent lack
of faith in the European social model challenges the idea of open borders,
and, as Betts implies, states’ commitment to asylum has become increas-
ingly conditional (Betts 2015). The situation is not, however, as new as it
is often claimed to be. As Huysmans (2000, 77) noted already two decades
ago, migration had become a meta-issue in the political spectacle in
Europe, and discourses reifying immigrants as a dangerous challenge to
societal stability play a prominent role in it. Ever since then, migration has
become increasingly securitised by integrating it into an internal security
framework, whereby the more welcoming sentiments have become effec-
tively suppressed (Cuttitta 2017; Gill 2018; Laine 2018b; McCall 2015).
Furthermore, increased securitisation aimed at combatting the perceived
threat has created a logic that has generated several counterproductive
dynamics (Laine 2018a), including making, on the one hand, the migrant
journeys from “outside” more dangerous and, on the other, those “inside”
feel more threatened and insecure.
The hardening and securitisation of borders against migrants from
Africa demonstrates the contradictions of globalisation and, indeed, a
changing world order. So pronounced is the insincerity in dealing with the
issue of migration that the hardening and securitisation of the EU borders
have been likened to construction of the EU as a gated community
(McCall 2015; van Houtum and Pijpers 2007). This is most evident (on
the basis of the deployment of border securitisation paraphernalia between
Africa and Europe) at Ceuta and Melilla, which are Spanish towns which
share a border with the North African country of Morocco. In this, one
can clearly see the extent to which migration impacts on Africa-European
relations in terms of the lengths to which the EU can go so as to keep out
migrants from Africa among other regions. Further, the insincerity on the
part of the EU is demonstrated in the securitisation and hardening of the
EU borders while simultaneously using humanitarian language to reduce
the rights of migrants or arbitrarily arrest or intercept them on the
Mediterranean Sea or send them back to their countries, all of which is
10 I. MOYO ET AL.
tantamount to the “boderization” of the Mediterranean Sea (Moreno-

Moreno-Lax 2018, 120). In this respect, migration challenges Africa-
Europe relations.
Against this backdrop, the common and widespread view that migra-
tion is a security issue needs to be challenged and/or debunked (Chap. 5).
Pursuant to this, the starting point around meaningful and positive Africa-
Europe relations is a counter perspective, which offers a balanced picture,
which would urge people to reconsider the attitudes they hold—and this
book is a modest attempt in this direction. This counter-narrative should
be based on and consider the interests of both Africa and Europe (Chaps.
4 and 5) and provides a balanced perspective on both the challenges
related to and opportunities provided by the ever-increasing migration
flows. We investigate several issues, ranging from conundrums relating to
migration within Africa, but also its bearing on regional and continental
integration, to migration between Europe and Africa, and the significance
of this in terms of relations between the two continents. By these means,
we seek to bring into conversation migration issues relating to the man-
agement of migration for development, social cohesion and regional inte-
gration. We particularly focus on migration issues related to the
management of migration as a threat and phenomenon that must
be curbed.
Migration Contestations and Transformation

While there is increased migration within Europe, as well as within the
African continent, there is a contention around the volume of migration
from the latter to the former. That people migrate from Africa to Europe
is a fact, but what is fanciful or fictitious is the numbers and volumes of
migrants making such movements (Essa 2018; Nshimbi 2017; Nshimbi
and Moyo 2016a). In addition to this, the major problem is that these
numbers of people who migrate to Europe are misrepresented in a man-
ner which ignores that Africans migrate more within Africa than they do
to other regions such as Europe (Essa 2018; Nshimbi 2017). Given that
only about 5.6% of refugees in Africa actually migrate out of Africa and
the rest stay within the continent, the discourse that there is a deluge of
African migrants and refugees who are overwhelming Europe is a myth
(Essa 2018; Nshimbi 2017). The important point to emphasise in this
respect is that, while migration is more significant within Africa it still

connects Africa to other parts of the world, such as Europe.
Given that the issue of migration is challenging intra-Africa relation-
ships in addition to Africa’s relationships with other regions of the world,
such as Europe, it is imperative to examine intra-Africa relations vis-à-vis
migration, besides evaluating EU-Africa relations in a global order charac-
terised by unprecedented fluxes of men, women and children within and
between the two continents. In particular, Africa is characterised by exten-
sive interactions across its artificial and contiguous borders and border-
lands, just as there are notable flows of migration from Africa to Europe.
Several questions arise, such as inter alia: How should these fluxes be man-
aged to promote socio-economic transformation and development in
Africa? What lessons can be gleaned from the experiences of the EU? This
should be viewed within the context that the changing global order is
characterised by, among others, moves towards regionalism and regional
integration. Hence, Chaps. 2, 8 and 10 delve deeper into these themes by
analysing xenophobia and issues of social protection of and social policy
around migrants, development and integration. This debate is also ampli-
fied in Chap. 3, which discusses and debates the links between migration
and sustainable development, suggesting that migration both necessitates
and confronts relationships. Concerning the issue of necessitating rela-
tionships, Chap. 6 demonstrates that the migrants from the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC) who are based in Europe have established
strong connections with their homeland in the fight against corruption,
authoritarianism and influence of local political dynamics back home.
Migration and Misrepresented Views and Actors

in Conventional Migration Discourses
To respond to the question of managing migration for development and

socio-economic transformation, some chapters (see e.g. Chaps. 3, 4, 5 and
7) in this volume juxtapose discourses on migration with mis- and under-
represented themes and phenomena in academic literature as well as in the
political and public debates whenever they engage with the broader themes
of migration and development. Chapter 7, for example, introduces and
interrogates the phenomenon of cross-border informality by exposing the
nuances that underpin this economic sector such as how informal cross-
border actors view the international or nation-state border, and what
12 I. MOYO ET AL.
insights this can throw on the development of migration policies (taking

into account regional and continental integration) in response to, and
especially, informal cross-border migration—whether it is within or
between Africa and Europe. Similarly, Chap. 9 goes on to introduce and
examine African informal cross-border migrants in Johannesburg within
the logic and context of regional and continental integration. Following
on Chaps. 9 and 10 continue with the examination of African migrants’
aspirations, along with host country citizens’ anxieties within the city of
Johannesburg, but in relation to remittances-related issues. Similarly,
Chap. 11 also examines the dynamics and nature of informal or artisanal
miners in the Southern African region and argues that this informal activ-
ity plays an important role in the flow of remittances and, by extension,
impacts on development in the receiving region. For which cause, this
brings to the fore the issue of migration management and especially infor-
mal cross-border economic activities in Africa in general and specifically
the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Continentally,
perhaps efforts to integrate Africa through the regional economic com-
munities (RECs) should then be informed by lessons drawn from across
Africa and RECs like SADC as well as the integration experience of the
EU—particularly the Schengen Area—in moving from free movement of
labour (only) to EU citizenship (Nshimbi and Fioramonti 2013), as
enshrined in Article 20 (1) of the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union.
In the final analysis, the chapters in this book bring in different perspec-
tives to the analysis of migration within the broader context of relations
within and between Africa and Europe. The analysis goes beyond merely
demonstrating the development potential of migration and the contribu-
tion of actors involved therein. Also, the book adopts a different epistemo-
logical and ontological slant from approaches generally adopted in books
of a similar nature, by asserting that migrants and migration are as impor-
tant factors as others in development agendas. Thus, effectively managing
migration within Africa, across its RECs, and between Africa and Europe,
and harnessing it to achieve inclusive development, is an important subject
of analysis in the book. And beyond examining intra-Africa migration, this
book also investigates Africa-Europe relations vis-à-vis migration.
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CHAPTER 2
Migration, Regional Integration

and the Development Conundrum:
Reflections on Policy, Identity and Shared
Humanity
Samuel O. Oloruntoba
Introduction
Migration, broadly conceptualised as the movement of people from one
place to another, has become a permanent feature and constitutes a major
point of discourse in the contemporary times (King 2012). Migration has
been part of human history from time immemorial as people have moved
from one part of the world to another either voluntarily or forced by natu-
ral disasters, wars, conflicts or slavery. The globalisation processes that
resulted from the post–Second World War liberal international order have
fostered new waves of migration as skilled and unskilled people have
been forced to move from one region to another in search of better
opportunities (King 2012). At the global level, migration has become a
S. O. Oloruntoba (*)
Institute of African Studies, Carleton University,
Ottawa, ON, Canada
© The Author(s) 2020 17

I. Moyo et al. (eds.), Migration Conundrums, Regional Integration and
Development, Africa’s Global Engagement: Perspectives from Emerging
Countries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2478-3_2
18 S. O. OLORUNTOBA
highly emotive issue, which has led to the return of nationalism, populism
and identity politics in both the right and left of the political ideological
divides (Davidov and Meuleman 2012; Solimano 2010; Stewart and
Mulvey 2014). Faced by dwindling lifestyles and economic insecurity, the
middle class in many developed countries have blamed foreign workers,
whom they accused of accepting lower wages, for their plights. As a con-
tinent that operates on the fringes of global capitalism, Africa is facing
undue pressures on the economies from neoliberal globalisation, through
deindustrialisation, financialisation and the attendant job losses. To escape
the deleterious effects of harsh economic conditions, both skilled and
unskilled Africans have moved through regular and irregular routes to
places that they consider provide better opportunities for better livelihood
(Essa 2018; Nshimbi and Moyo 2016).
From the 1980s, hundreds of thousands of professionals in various
fields have migrated to North America, Europe, other African countries
and, to a less extent, Asia. Several thousands more have undertaken peril-
ous journeys through the Sahara desert and Mediterranean Sea as they
struggle to get to Europe. Despite the regional integration agenda of the
African Union and the discourses on free movement of people, cases of
xenophobia or Afrophobia have occurred over and over in Africa
(Neocosmos 2008; Nyamnjoh 2006). Contrary to the generally held
norms of promotion of democracy, rule of law and human rights that the
European Union has championed in Africa, the regional organisation has
not been able to prevail on some of its members to treat migrants and
refugees as humans deserving dignity and protection. In contradistinction
to these principles and norms, the EU has developed Neighbourhood
Policies with North African countries, which have, contrary to their pro-
jected aims, led to the securitisation of borders and worked towards keep-
ing African migrants in Africa (Moreno-Lax 2018). Given the above
scenarios and the resultant development conundrums, questions arise on
the status of shared humanity in our contemporary times. This chapter
examines the crisis of global migration in the context of the development
conundrum, regional integration in Africa and shared humanity. Taking a
historical approach, it is argued in this chapter that whereas it might be
politically correct for developed countries to keep Africans away from their
borders, at least for the time being, it will be counterproductive for African
countries to follow this populist approach, which is anchored on neo-
nationalism or even nativism. The economic history of Africa clearly shows
that several empires were built in different parts of the continent when
2 MIGRATION, REGIONAL INTEGRATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT… 19
citizens were free to move from one part of the continent to the other,
without being restricted by borders (Zeleza 1993). Similarly, as Nkrumah
(1963) argues, consideration for geostrategic interest necessitates the
imperative of crafting a Pan-African identity and developing a common
strategy in mediating and negotiating relations with other parts of the
world. The new African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) agree-
ment is focused on the structural transformation of African economies
(ECA 2017; Oloruntoba and Tsowou 2019). However, it remains to be
seen how the question of migration will be addressed under this agreement.
Although the dominant feature of the neoliberal international order has
been that other factors of production such as capital, technology and
investors move freely across borders, the peripheral position of Africa in
the global circuit of capital, the disparities in availability of skills require a
different approach to managing migration. Both labour and capital are
part of the factors of production. The preference for capital over labour in
terms of ease of movement is one of the challenges of contemporary
modernity. The profit motif that underlined it, the degradation of the
value of humans as a critical agency of development and the protection of
class interest of members of the Transnational Capitalist Class are other
features of capitalism (Robinson 2010, 2004; Stiglitz 2012, 2010).
Scholars have argued that the global capitalist order rooted in Eurocentric
modernity is informed by the paradigm of war, greed and exploitation
(Marx and Engels 1986; Rodney 1981). This paradigm was given expres-
sion through various inhuman practices like slavery trade, colonialism and
neocolonialism. Although various forms of class division existed in preco-
lonial Africa, it was the triple forces of trans-Atlantic slave trade, global
imperialism, colonialism and neocolonialism that worsened social relations
and undermined the paradigm of peace and communalism that were the
defining features of African societies in precolonial times. Thus, it becomes
incumbent on Africa to follow a different approach in resolving the cur-
rent crisis of migration and development conundrum. Why has migration
become such an emotive issue in the development discourse? What are the
causal links between migration and development in Africa, in particular?
What are the existing frameworks for migration and regional integration
in Africa? How can Africa foreground humanism and Pan-African identity
in managing the current challenges of migration within the overall frame-
work of an integrated continent?
After this introduction, the rest of the chapter proceeds as follows.
Section “The Crisis of Global Migration” examines the crisis of migration
20 S. O. OLORUNTOBA
and the forces that have made it such an emotive issue over the past few
years. Section “Migration and Regional Integration in Africa” analyses the
challenges of migration and regional integration in Africa as well as the
African Union’s framework for mainstreaming migration into its various
development agendas. The European Union’s approach to migration and
how this shapes the responses and programmes of the African Union are
also discussed in this section. In section “Reframing the Discourses on
Migration and Regional Integration”, a case is made for a different
approach for addressing the crisis of migration and xenophobia through
the reconstruction of humanism and a pan-African identity. This recon-
struction of humanism diverts from the current preoccupation with the
commoditisation of life, in which, following the logic of neoliberalism,
capital and businesses have more leverage in moving around the continent
without hiccup than labour. Section “Resolving Identity Crisis through
Decoloniality” concludes with recommendations.
The Crisis of Global Migration

Discourses on migration have occupied major attention in the develop-
ment and intellectual community in the past one decade. These discourses
have varied from the link between the migration crisis and the global
labour market (Castles 2011) to the deliberate conflation of refugees with
economic migrants (Crawley and Skleparis 2018) to and the confusion
around structure and agency in migration theory (Bakewell 2010). There
have also been attempts to locate migration within the ongoing debates
on the commoditisation of life under the neoliberal capitalist economic
system. Mavelli (2018) shows how the state has followed the logic of the
market to commodify access to citizenship to high-net-worth individuals.
From New Zealand to Britain, United States of America, Malta and vari-
ous other developed countries, deliberate policies are being put in place to
attract rich people to come and become citizens. Similarly, faced by declin-
ing population growth, various countries are putting in place schemes and
programmes to attract people with specialised skills in various disciplines.
Thus, the cacophony of political noises over migration is geared towards
keeping the poor and vulnerable people in their countries of birth. For the
first time since the end of the Second World War, protectionist policies are
on the rise and there are many who feel disadvantaged by the open inter-
national system. Migrants from regions of less economic development are
considered as others, who must be kept away from competing for jobs,
and in the case of South Africa, for women. The rhetoric of building bor-
der walls that is emanating from populist and neo-nationalist leaders like
Donald Trump of United States of America, Brexit by Nigel Fagel and
Boris Johnson in the United Kingdom and Herman Mashaba in South
Africa is especially targeted towards immigrants that they consider
as burden.
The economic globalisation processes and the war on terror have con-
tributed to the conditions that are forcing people out of their countries to
seek for greener pastures and safe havens in the West. Africa and much of
central America, regions that constitute the highest source of irregular
migration, have been negatively affected by the politics of the Cold War, on
the one hand, and the imposition of the structural adjustment programmes
by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund over the past half
of a century, on the other (Reno 1998; Schmidt 2013). In trying to gain
geostrategic advantage, the West and East used these countries to fight
proxy wars. Dictators like Mobutu Sese seko of Zaire (now Democratic
Republic of Congo), the apartheid regime in South Africa, and leaders of
UNITA in Angola were propped up and supported in their reign of terror
and subversion of citizens’ rights. In these processes, democratic gover-
nance with accountability became a rarity. Just as the dust of the Cold War
was settling, the international financial institutions imposed structural
adjustment programmes on these countries as a way of addressing their
socio-economic problems. Lacking in home-grown strategy and crafted
without adequate consultation with either the people or their govern-
ments, the structural adjustment programmes failed dismally. As poverty
and inequality continue to grow, unemployment among youths and des-
peration to survive have driven many of them to undertake perilous jour-
neys through the Sahara desert and the Mediterranean Sea to reach Europe,
where they expect to make a better living. The Middle East also has its
share of the global migration crisis. There are domestic and external factors
that fuelled the crisis. At the domestic level, the Arab Spring that started in
Tunisia in 2009 created massive instability in various countries in the sub-
region, which continues till today. Protests against sit tight leaders in Libya,
Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria, among others, led to regime change and pro-
tracted conflicts. At the external level, there has been a lot of military activi-
ties in the Middle East post–September 11, 2001. This has led to the
emergence of counter forces like the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)
also known as Islamic State of Irag and the Levant (ISIL), with far-reaching
consequences for peace in the subregion. Many of the migrants who try to
reach Europe are refugees who are fleeing from these crises. The Arab
22 S. O. OLORUNTOBA
Spring that started in 2009 also brought in its wake various socio-eco-
nomic and political crises that accentuated the crisis of global migration in
relation to Africa, in particular (David 2008).
The deleterious effects of neoliberal globalisation are not limited to
Africa. The displacement of manufacturing and industrialisation and the
replacement of these with financialisation have created disruption in the
ways in which economies are organised in advanced countries. As indus-
tries migrate to regions of low labour economies, getting satisfactory jobs
remains difficult for many middle and lower classes in advanced countries.
Besides, wages of workers have become suppressed in these countries
more than at any time in the post-1945 era. While pay and incentives of
top business executives have grown in leaps and bounds, wages of workers
have increased much below the rise in inflation and interest rates
(Oloruntoba 2016). The power of labour unions has also been whittled
down since the Reagan-Thatcher alliance of the 1980s. Faced with the
dilemma of a reduced welfare and an absent state, the middle class has
become disillusioned about what the future holds for them. In the pro-
cess, conservative and populist politicians seize the narrative to blame
migrants for the woes of the fearful segments of the population
(Oloruntoba 2018b).
Despite the indisputable contributions of migrant workers to the econ-
omies of their host countries (see Haan 2000), politicians have created
political rhetoric of fears, using languages such as flooding, swamping,
taking over and so on to describe an imaginary invasion of migrants into
the advanced countries of Europe and the United States of America. Thus,
the crisis of migration assumes a paradoxical dimension which can be
traced to neoliberal globalisation and the resurgence of empire building.
On the first score, the forces of the market and the underlying logic of
trade agreements that developing countries sign with the developed coun-
tries have created conditions that deepen poverty in the former. Also, the
imposed liberal form of democracy, with little or no room for citizens to
constructively participate in politics, has led to the emergence of a ruling
elite that is neither developmental nor capable of addressing the challenges
of underdevelopment in the sending countries. Similarly, the vulnerable
and the excluded people, both among the middle and lower classes in
developed countries, have become concerned about how the changing
economic structure will affect their future. The resurgence of empire and
realism has further provided motivation for more military spending than
what obtains in social sectors in a country like the United States of
America. The contradictions of the crisis of global migration are visible in

the crisis of ageing workforce in developed countries, the design of various
programmes to attract highly skilled migrants from Africa, the corporatisa-
tion of citizenship by the state and the criminalisation of low-skilled
migrants and refugees from developing countries (Mavelli 2018). It
remains to be seen how the various populist policies such as building of
walls or the threat of it, arresting and keeping desperate migrants in cus-
todies, separating children from their parents as well as massive deporta-
tions will end the current crisis. It also remains to be seen how the countries
that are perpetuating these exclusionary policies will turn back to advocate
the rule of law, protection of human rights and other such platitudes in the
sending countries.
Migration and Regional Integration in Africa

Africa, like any other part of the world, has been a site of migration from
time immemorial. The push-and-pull factors of migration have propelled
people to move from one part of the continent to another (Adepoju 2003,
1988; Afolayan 1988). In precolonial Africa, push factors of migration
included seeking for business and economic opportunities from one region
to another. In the specific case of West Africa, Adepoju (2003) has shown
how various groups within the subregion moved around in search of busi-
ness opportunities. For instance, the Yoruba people of Southwest Nigeria
are found in countries like Ghana, Togo, Benin, Côte d’Ivoire and Sudan.
Ochonu (2015) also shows how the Wangari business people moved
around within the West African subregion. Ghanaians are also found in
Nigeria and other parts of West Africa. In East Africa, Kenyans, Tanzanians,
Ugandans as well as Rwandans have lived in different parts of the subre-
gion before the bifurcation carried out by the imperialists at the Berlin
Conference of 1884/1885. The freedom that Africans had to move
around without the inhibition of borders contributed to huge trade vol-
umes that flowed between and among the various nations. As Zeleza
(2003) argues in his Economic History of Africa, the free flow of people
contributed to the building of great empires that existed on the continent
before their destruction by slave trade and colonialism. The twin evil of
slave trade and colonialism constituted the initial factors that forced
Africans out of their natural habitats. As slave traders hunted for Africans,
various chiefs and heads of communities joined in this ignoble trade, thus
leading to incessant conflicts and wars among erstwhile peaceful
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big sonatas and two concertos. MacDowell’s treatment of the
keyboard can hardly be said to be original, but the concertos, and
among the shorter pieces the Hexentanz prove to be highly effective.
Many of the short pieces, which are grouped together in sets, are
charming. On the whole there is little suggestion of a new spirit in the
work of this composer of a new land. Now and then he uses negro
rhythms, as in the ‘Uncle Remus,’ sometimes he uses Indian
motives, as in the ‘Indian Lodge’ of the ‘Woodland Sketches.’ His
forms and his style are perhaps more akin to those of Grieg, with
whom, indeed, his music will be often compared, than to the earlier
Romantics. Unfortunately, however, instead of in a national idiom, he
speaks in an intensely personal one. Short phrases and rhythms
which are seldom varied seem almost to hamper his music, almost
to clog its movement. On the other hand, as in some of the ‘Sea
Pieces,’ he writes sometimes in a broad and open style, seeming to
shake off the fetters of too intense a mannerism.
Ethelbert Nevin wrote several sets of short pieces, ‘In Arcady,’

‘Venezia,’ and others, which have at least the charm of simple, sweet
melody.
Mr. Arthur Foote and Mrs. H. H. A. Beach have shown themselves

masters of an effective pianoforte style, a mastery that has on the
whole been rare in this country.[41]
FOOTNOTES:
[38] The third hand part was written for one who did not know how to play the
piano, and has but one and the same note throughout the piece.
[39] Die Neurussische Klaviermusik. In Die Musik, 1903, No. 8.
[40] Op. cit.
[41] For a detailed discussion of American composers the reader is referred to

Volume IV of this series.
CHAPTER X
MODERN FRENCH PIANOFORTE
MUSIC
Classical traditions: Saint-Saëns, and others; C. V. Alkan—César
Franck: his compositions and his style—Vincent d’Indy—Fauré—
The new movement: Debussy and Ravel—Debussy’s innovations:
new harmonies, scales, overtones, pianoforte technique; his
compositions—Ravel differentiated; his compositions; Florent
Schmitt and Eric Satie—Conclusion.
I
By far the most interesting and generally the most significant
developments in pianoforte music since the time of Schumann,
Chopin, and Liszt are those which have taken place in France. Not
only have the French composers greatly enriched the literature for
the instrument with compositions that have a value beyond that
which fashion temporarily lends them; they have refreshed it as well
with new ideas of harmony, and effects, which if they are not
essentially new, are newly extended and applied.
There is still to be observed in France, it is true, a very considerable

loyalty in a group of composers to the style of Chopin, or even more,
to that of Liszt, and a general dependence upon German ideas of
music which have for a century past been so preponderant in the
world as to be considered international. The admirable works of
Camille Saint-Saëns are the result of such a loyalty. He is a great
master of the pianoforte style, endowed, moreover, with a fine sense
of form and a fine imagination. Everything he has written is finished
with care, clear-cut and indisputably effective. There is no piece of
music more grateful from the point of view of the pianist than the
second of his five concertos, that in G minor. This is not only
because the treatment of the solo instrument is clear and brilliant,
but because the themes are worthy of the treatment and of the broad
form which they are made to fill. The writing for the orchestra,
moreover, is not less perfect than that for the pianoforte. But
inasmuch as the harmonies are a familiar inheritance from the past,
and the style an adaptation of an inherited technique, the work
signalizes not an advance in music, but the successful maintenance
of an already high standard. The spirit of it is less emotional and
sentimental than that of other concertos, and more witty and
epigrammatic. Hence it holds a special place as well as a high one,
from which it is hard to think that any change of fashion will ever
remove it.
The short pieces of Cécile Chaminade, Paul Lacombe, François

Thomé, Benjamin Godard, and Paul Wachs may be mentioned in
passing as having won a measure of success.
But the works of another group or two of French composers show an

originality that was at first so startling as to enrage conservative
critics. It is owing to them that pianoforte music seems to have
entered upon a new course of life. One finds the stirring of new
movements in Paris even before the time of Chopin’s arrival there,
due very clearly to the French spirit. Berlioz is growing more and
more to a huge stature in the eyes of historians. The figure of his
countryman and acquaintance, Charles-Valentin Alkan, is more
obscure, but he represents the same spirit at work in the special
branch of pianoforte music. If his compositions have not had great
influence, they none the less give an early example of the working
towards independence of a French pianoforte music.
Alkan (1813-88) was admired as a player and as a composer by
both Chopin and Liszt, and Bülow still later held him in high esteem.
An effort is now under way, encouraged by Isadore Philip, and
others, to draw his compositions from the obscurity into which they
have fallen. They are surprisingly numerous and in many ways
astonishing. They include a great number of transcriptions, of études
and of pieces of extraordinary realism. His harmonies and melodies
suggest Berlioz, with whom he is being more and more compared.
They have often a quality that is in a sense bare. They are unusual
without connoting a rich world of the unexplored. They hint rather at
a deliberate attack upon the old than at the youth of a new system.
The general flow of his harmonies, for example, is familiar. Only now
and then does something unusual obtrude itself with a sort of
harshness. Notice, for example, the chromatic movement of the
doubled inner voice in the cantabile section of the short piece 'Le
tambour bat aux champs.’ Notice, too, the strange starkness of
harmonies in the paraphrase Super flumina Babylonis.
Technically Alkan stands between Chopin and Liszt, and in this

regard his music is very exacting. He demands an equal skill in both
hands. Of the three studies published as opus 76, the first is for the
left hand alone, with long passages of rapid tremolo like that one
finds in the first of Liszt’s Paganini transcriptions. The second is for
the right hand alone, demanding an unrestricted movement of the
arm in long arpeggios and extremely wide chords. Finally the third is
a long piece in unison from beginning to end, far more awkward and
more difficult than the last movement of Chopin’s sonata in B-flat
minor. The three studies opus 15, Dans le genre pathétique, are
veritably huge works. Of these the second, Le vent, is already well
known as one of the effective concert pieces of the new era. The first
and last have the strange titles of Aime-moi and Morte. Twelve
études in minor keys were published as opus 39. One finds again
extraordinary titles, such as Rythme molossique, Scherzo diabolico,
and Le festin d’Europe. All are exceedingly difficult. Some, like the
first, are both startling and interesting as music. There is a more or
less famous study in perpetual motion for the right hand which was
given the title Le chemin de fer, extremely rapid, difficult, and
effective.
The titles throughout all his music are original. Some are easily
understood. ‘The Wind’ and the ‘Railroad’ for instance are fully
explained by the music. In fact the realism of the latter does not stop
with movement. There is to be heard even the pounding of wheels,
the puffing and the whistle of the engine. But what is the meaning of
others, of Neige et lave, Ma chère liberté and Ma chère servitude,
Salut, cendre du pauvre, Fais dodo and J’étais endormie, mais mon
cœur reveillait? On the whole these fantastic titles suggest less the
union of music with poetry or self-conscious sentiment than a sort of
rational, positive realism. There is little in the music that is vague or
sensuous. Most of it is objective rather than imaginative. He has
neither the fire of Liszt, nor the emotion of Chopin, and his
compositions are both spiritually and technically independent of
theirs. He was a terrific worker and he lived apart from men.
Marmontel wrote of him with great respect and some affection.
Oskar Bie thinks of him as a misanthrope. One can hardly speak of
misanthropic music; yet the quality which distinguishes Alkan’s
music is something the quality of an implacable irony. It is strong
stuff, and is likely to prove more logical in itself than any appreciation
or disparagement of it can be made.
CËSAR FRANCK
II
But Alkan’s music must be taken as the manifestation of an
independent spirit, French in its directness, rather than as a source
of stimulation or strength to a further development of a distinctly
French school of pianoforte music. Such a school first centres about
César Franck, who, though he, too, lived in retirement and in an
obscurity which the general public did not attempt to penetrate,
exercised a powerful influence on music in Paris. His compositions
are relatively few in number. There are but two considerable works
for pianoforte alone, and only three more for pianoforte and
orchestra. These, however, are of great beauty and two at least are
masterpieces in music. These are the ‘Prelude, Chorale and Fugue’
for pianoforte alone, and the Variations Symphoniques for pianoforte
and orchestra. The other three, which have elements of greatness
but seem to fall short of absolute perfection, are the ‘Prelude, Aria,
and Finale’ for pianoforte alone, and two symphonic poems for
pianoforte and orchestra suggested by poems of Victor Hugo, Les
Eloïdes and Les Djinns.
The ‘Prelude, Chorale and Fugue,’ and the ‘Symphonic Variations’

may be ranked with the symphony, the violin sonata, the string
quartet and the pianoforte quintet, and are no less a perfect and in
some respects a complete expression of his genius than they. One
finds in them the same ceaseless chromatic shiftings and involutions
of harmony, the same polyphonic treatment of short phrases, the
same structural unity, the same exalted and mystical spirit. In fact
this spiritual quality is perhaps nowhere so gloriously expressed as
in the Chorale movement for the pianoforte.
As a whole the ‘Prelude, Chorale and Fugue’ is flawless in structure.

There is the greatest economy in the use of musical material. The
unusual scoring of the opening measures, with the melody note
slightly off the beat and the harp-like ornamentation, is the scoring
which characterizes the final, tremendous pages of the Fugue. The
sections of the Prelude which offer contrast to this opening melody
are based upon the subject which later forms the basis of the Fugue.
And the magnificent theme and spirit of the following movement, the
Chorale, is projected, as it were, into the whole last section of the
Fugue. Never, perhaps, was a fugue more splendidly and more fully
developed, nor was the force of a work ever so made to grow and to
culminate in pages of such majestic and triumphant music.
There is a similar use of material in the ‘Prelude, Aria, and Finale,’

but the result is not quite so flawless. The Prelude, here, in spite of
the suave beauty of its chief theme, is loose and episodic in effect.
And it cannot be said that the scoring for the pianoforte is
distinguished or animated. The style is either massive or awkward.
The most beautiful part of the whole work is perhaps the concluding
section of the Aria. The earlier parts of the Aria are skillfully devised,
but the scoring is rather heavy and seems more suited to the organ
than to the piano. But the melody of this concluding section is of
inspired beauty; and as if Franck himself were well aware of its rare
and significant worth, the last pages of the stormy Finale bring it
back, woven with the chief theme of the Prelude.
Technically both works are extremely difficult. The general breadth of

effect, the demand for power and for freedom of the arm, and the
use of octaves—these as well as the use of the very high and very
low registers of the keyboard—all make evident the rather orchestral
idea of the pianoforte which Liszt introduced. Liszt, by the way, was
one of the first to recognize the greatness of Franck. But, though
Franck was at one time a brilliant pianist and was intended by his
father to electrify Europe from the concert stage, he was above all
else an organist. His pianoforte style is most evidently very closely
allied to the organ style. This is particularly noticeable in the
treatment of bass parts, which not only suggest the pedals of the
organ but are often impossible for the small hand to play. The
octaves for the left hand in the Aria, and even more remarkably
those in the Chorale, need not only the independent movement
which the organ pedals can add in polyphony, but seem to call for
the tone color of the low notes on the organ. Frequently, moreover,
as in the second section of the Prelude in the ‘Prelude, Aria, and
Finale,’ such wide stretches as the music demands of the hands, as
well as the general freedom of polyphonic movement, almost require
an instrument with two keyboards.
On the other hand, there are many effects which are brilliantly
pianistic. The flowing figures in the Prelude of the ‘Prelude, Chorale
and Fugue’ are purely pianistic. The tremendous octave passages in
the Finale need the distinct, percussive sound of the pianoforte. And
the upper notes of the Chorale melody, both when it is given alone
and when it is combined with the fugue theme, must have a ringing,
bell-like quality which only the pianoforte can produce.
The treatment of the pianoforte in those works in which it is

supported by the orchestra shows less the influence of the organ
style. Generally Franck had in mind the sonority of the organ and the
movement of music proper to that instrument. In these works the
function of the organ, so to speak, is given to the orchestra; and
hence the pianoforte is free of all responsibility but that of adding its
own special effects to the mass of sound. These are essentially
simple. In the Djinns there is some brilliant rapid work, a few solo
passages of agitated character with wide rolling but not elaborate
accompaniment figures. In the ‘Symphonic Variations,’ very
noticeably a bigger and a finer work, there are solo passages of
great breadth, and nearly all the variations make the piano prominent
by means of its own effects. There are the passages of detached
chords and double notes which seem to tinkle over the first variation,
the remarkably wide spacing in the passage which follows, with the
suggested movement of inner voices and the occasional touch upon
high notes; the flowing figures, with again a suggested richness of
inner voices, which pursue their smooth course over the 'cello solo;
finally the more brilliant effects towards the end, especially those of
the tossing chords, and of the difficult, leaping triplet figures. The
pianoforte and orchestra were never more ingeniously combined
than in those passages which the pianoforte introduces with a sort of
double waltz movement and in which the orchestra subsequently
joins with the theme in a decidedly cross rhythm, leaving the solo
instrument free to add delicately melodious runs.
The structure of the whole work, moreover, is musically interesting.

Though the theme in F-sharp minor, announced simply by the
pianoforte after several pages that are more or less introductory,
may be regarded as the chief theme, there is another distinct and
highly characterized theme—first given fully by the pianoforte in the
magnificent solo passage (C-sharp minor) so prominent in these
introductory pages. This, as well as the chief theme, is elaborately
varied, and is ever and again throughout the work so cleverly
combined with the chief theme, that one must regard the whole
ultimately as a series of double variations.
These few works of César Franck are architecturally the most

imposing for the pianoforte since the last sonatas of Beethoven; and
the ‘Prelude, Chorale and Fugue’ and the ‘Symphonic Variations’ are
surely to be numbered among the most valuable compositions from
which the pianist may draw his delight. They are very nearly unique
in plan and style. The ceaseless shifting of harmonies and
interweaving of short phrases will doubtless seem to many
manneristic and a little irritating. Then, too, they are, in spite of their
breadth and power, mystical, and in that sense, elusive or even
baffling. The weight of the organ style rests on them, and they are
awkwardly difficult and taxing. Yet in spite of these peculiarities they
remain pianoforte music of great dignity, beauty, and nobility.
III
At the basis of the two greatest pianoforte works of César Franck,
one discerns a classical foundation. The harmonies, it is true, are
Romantic and strange; but the ideals are traditional. In the matter of
form there is less a departure from old principles than a further
development of them. They present a few new complications of
structure; but as far as the pianoforte is concerned they have little
new to show in the matter of effect. Their peculiar sonority is that of
the organ, and remains not wholly proper to the pianoforte. On the
whole, then, the music is easily related to that of Beethoven, of Liszt,
and of Wagner. There is no striking departure from that road to which
Beethoven may be said to have pointed.
Nor does one find, on the whole, less traditional loyalty in the
pianoforte compositions of Franck’s pupil, Vincent d’Indy. These are
not numerous. There are only a few sets of short pieces, and but two
works of length. The little sonata, opus 9, is in classical form. There
are three short waltzes in a set called Helvetia, opus 9; a Serenade,
Choral grave, Scherzetto, and Agitato, opus 16, one or two pieces in
classical dance forms, and three little romances in the style of
Schumann, opus 30. Of the last the third is a most successful
imitation of Schumann, resembling passages from the Kreisleriana in
spirit and in technique. None of these short pieces, however, calls for
more than mention, except as they all show a clear but not
distinguished traditional and simple treatment of the keyboard. There
is hardly the harmonic freedom of either Wagner or Franck in them.
The two long pieces are far more distinctly original. The first of these
is a set of three fanciful pieces called Poëmes des Montagnes. The
first of these—Le chant des bruyères—is divided into five parts: the
song of the heather, or the heath, mists, a touch of Weber, a theme
which is to be found in all three movements called La bien-aimée,
and finally the song of the heath again, this time in the distance. The
second movement is again subdivided, this time into dances amid
which la bien-aimée makes a momentary appearance; and in the last
movement—Plein-air—one finds a promenade, thoughts of great
trees (hêtres et pins) on the side of the mountain, la bien-aimée, a bit
of calm before a burst of wind, finally a pair of lovers united. At the
beginning and at the end of the series there are a few broken
chords, vaguely styled Harmonies, and at the very end again there is
a reminiscence of the theme of la bien-aimée.
One cannot but find the whole series closely akin to Schumann. The
romanticism is the romanticism of Schumann, carried a step into the
open air and among the mountains, of his devotion to which d’Indy
has left many a proof in music. The fleeting touch of Weber, and
especially that d’Indy should have written Weber’s name over the
measure in which it falls, is again characteristic of the composer who
introduced Paganini and Chopin into his Carnaval. The identification
of a theme with a beloved one is another instance. But even more
definite than these tokens of a certain romanticism is the treatment
of the piano, and even the nature of much of the thematic material.
Le chant des bruyères and La bien-aimée are in the mold of
Schumann. The Valse grotesque recalls in rhythm some of the
Davidsbündler and the first of these Danses rhythmiques is like parts
of the Pantalon and Colombine of the Carnaval.
On the other hand, there is something original and new in the section
called Brouillard. The general mistiness of the harmonies, the long
holding of the pedals with consequent vague obscurity of sound, and
the irregular line of clear points in a sort of melody that is drawn
against this inarticulate accompanying murmur, these indicate new
ventures in pianoforte style. The rhythmical irregularity of the first of
the dances and the irregularity in the form and recurrence of sections
are further signs of the advent of something rich and strange. In fact
the whole work loses somewhat by the frequent suggestion of bold
experiment, and is hardly to be considered equal to the traditional
standard of music, as represented by Schumann, nor sufficiently
successful to establish a new one. Barring the Brouillard, the
treatment of the keyboard lacks distinction.
Far, far different must be the verdict on the Sonata in E, opus 63.
Here, though one still finds a classical ideal of form, there are bold,
clashing harmonies, and endless complexities of rhythm. The
scoring is tremendous, the effect big as an orchestra. The sonata is
in three movements, all of which represent the development of one
central idea. The first movement, which is preceded by a long and
fiery introduction, is made up of a series of variations on this central
idea. A subsidiary idea, which, as in the ‘Symphonic Variations’ of
Franck, was suggested in the introduction, is woven into the music
here and there. The complicated second movement, in 5/4 time,
constantly suggests the subsidiary motives of the first; and in the
last, which shows the broad plan of the classical sonata form, the
theme of the first movement finds a full and glorious expression.
Technically the sonata is extremely difficult. Some of the variations of

the first movement, with their trills, recall the pianoforte style of the
last Beethoven sonatas, however. The interlocking of the hands in
the second movement is in a measure new in effect, though not new
in principle. The scoring of the last movement is not free of
commonplaces.
On the whole, the sonata may be considered modern in harmonies,

melodies, and rhythms, though a more or less classical harmonic
foundation may be detected. The form is obviously a further
development of the principles so clearly exemplified in the works of
César Franck, which were drawn from Bach and Beethoven. It does
not seem unfair to say that the scoring is rather orchestral than
distinctively pianistic; so that the sonata may be considered more
significant as a contribution to music in general than as one to
pianoforte music in particular.
IV
None of the French composers has written more for the pianoforte
than Gabriel Fauré. In his music, too, there is a strong element of
tradition, though as a harmonist he is perhaps more spontaneously
original than d’Indy. He prefers to work in short forms, and he avoids
titles of detailed significance. He has written eleven Barcarolles, ten
or more Nocturnes, nearly as many Impromptus, a set of eight
Preludes, published as opus 103, and a few pieces of nondescript
character including dances and romances. The impression made by
a glance over the pages of this considerable amount of music is one
of great sameness. Fauré’s style is delicate and well adjusted to the
keyboard but there is little to observe in it that is strikingly original.
Nor do the pieces give proof of much development in technique or in
means of expression. There is little trace of the exquisite
impressionism of the songs. The pianoforte music is hardly more
than pleasing, and is only rarely brilliant.
The well-known second impromptu, in F minor, is perhaps the most

interesting and the most original of all his pianoforte pieces. Here is
genuine vivacity, piquancy of style, originality of harmony. But the
other impromptus and the nocturnes have, in spite of certain modern
touches of harmony, a style that is now Mendelssohn, now
Schumann. The eleven Barcarolles rock gently over the keyboard,
the Valses caprices dance lightly along. All is facile and pleasing
salon music, one piece much like the others. The Theme and
Variations, opus 73, is interesting and is well known at the
Conservatoire, and the second of the preludes, opus 103, is
decidedly effective. The fourth Nocturne is full of poetry. In fact there
is poetry in much of his music, but it is on the whole too much in the
same vein.
Finally, after mentioning Pierné, for the sake of a set of short pieces
in delicate style, Pour mes petits amis, and Emanuel Chabrier for the
sake of the Bourrée fantastique, we come to the two men whose
work for the piano has enchanted the world: Claude Debussy and
Maurice Ravel. So far as the pianoforte is concerned, theirs is the
music which has created a new epoch since the time of Liszt and
Chopin, which has signalized the leadership of France in the art of
music.
V
For a discussion of the general musical art of Debussy the reader is
referred to the third volume of this series. His system of harmony
and scales has there been explained. Here we will regard him as a
composer for the pianoforte and attempt only a brief analysis of his
pianoforte style and an appreciation of a few of his compositions. His
pianoforte style has been no little influenced by his conception of
harmony which admits chords of the seventh and ninth among the
consonances. The pianoforte being essentially a harmonic
instrument, composers have spent a great part of their skill in
devising rapidly moving figures which would keep its harmonies in
vibration. Such harmonies have either constituted a music in
themselves, or have furnished a vibrant background behind a
melody or an interweaving of several melodies. The shape of the
figures has been determined by harmony and the figures have been
blended into a general effect by the use of the pedal. One of the
most prominent characteristics of Chopin’s style was the intrinsically
melodious conformation of many of such figures. Hence there is a
suggestion of polyphony in his music; and hence, too, the pedalling
of his music must be most delicately and skillfully done.
With Liszt, on the other hand, such figures rarely had this melodious
significance. They were founded rather flatly on the notes of chords
or on the scale. Hence a mass of notes with little or no individuality.
Such we shall find many of Debussy’s figures to be, and it is indeed
easy to say that there would have been no Debussy had there been
no Liszt. Not only this density, which in the case of Debussy may be
more properly called opaqueness, of figures; but also the free use of
the arms over the keyboard point to a relation of the style of the one
to that of the other. But Debussy’s style is in two features at least
sharply differentiated from that of Liszt.
The first of these is owing to his different conception of harmony.

Liszt’s harmonies are clearly defined, Debussy’s, by contrast, vague.
There are few instances of harmonies in Liszt’s music which are not
related to a tonic scale; Debussy’s whole-tone scale has destroyed
the relation of major and minor keys, even their definitions. With Liszt
the various degrees of the scale suggest their proper harmonies; and
as his melody or his bass moves from one to the other of them, the
harmonies must change to follow it. The harmonic figures must be
constantly moved here and there. Sometimes, as in the first phrase
of the Waldesrauschen, they do not change to follow the melody, it is
true; but in such a case the melody is so conceived as really to
accentuate the notes of the chord on which the accompaniment
figure plays. But with Debussy the progress of the melody entails no
such change of harmony, or at least no such frequent change. Even
if he chooses to conceive a passage as in a clearly defined key, his
fondness for the chord of the ninth plays him in good stead. He can
keep a ninth chord running up and down the keyboard and still enjoy
the proper use of five notes of the scale in melody. And in the case
where he is using the whole-tone scale and has consequently thrown
his music out of all relation to the traditional system of keys, he is
even more free. Therefore, the fingers, not having to find a new
position every measure or so, or even twice in a measure, are let
free, without hindrance, over a wide range of the keyboard.
Furthermore, since having once struck the desired notes within this
range the use of the pedal will sustain the vibration a long time, they
have not to repeat them over and over again with the distinctness
necessary to establish a new harmony, but touch them lightly, or
graze them unevenly. With the result that the sparkle which even in
the dense runs of Liszt was created by the more or less distinct
sound of indispensable notes, is veiled, and the general effect is one
of fluid color.
A second feature which distinguishes the style of Debussy from that

of Liszt is the relative absence in it of the sensationalism of speed.
The sort of run we have been discussing, which may be studied in
the Reflets dans l’eau, or in Pagodes, is as rapid as Liszt’s runs. But
the monotony of it, the lack of change and therefore of emphasized
points, reduces the effect of speed. For speed is chiefly appreciable
between definite points. In fact the background of Debussy’s music
may be compared to mist, while that of Liszt’s is, we might say, more
like a curtain of chain mail.
The effect of this prolongation of harmonies by means of the pedal,

lightly aided by the fingers, and of this lack of sharp contours is to
take from a great part of his music a certain hard substantiality. In
other words, recalling what we said of the qualities of sound in the
pianoforte in the chapter on Chopin, the sonority of his music is one
of after-sounds. Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, more than any
composers before them, have consciously made use of this peculiar
quality of the pianoforte.
It is not only their treatment of runs which makes it audible, nor do

they depend only upon the after-sounds of notes which have been
struck. Holding the dampers off the strings for relatively long spaces
allows an almost distinct vibration of overtones or of sympathetic
tones to enter into the mass of sound. Both Debussy and Ravel
count upon this. The notes they write upon the page are but the
starting point of their effects. It is what floats up and away from them
that constitutes the background of their music. One finds in the later
pieces of Debussy not the old-fashioned indication of the pedal, but
such directions as quittez, en laissant vibrer, or laissez vibrer (let the
vibrations continue), which must be intended to attract the ear to
after-sounds. He has even invented a notation of such un-substantial
sound. Here is an example, from Les collines d’Anacapri:
He will fill up a whole measure with notes that find their reason only
in the vague sound of the next measure, as here in La cathédrale
engloutie:
Note also that his spacing of chords, and particularly his strange
doubling of parts, brings overtones into prominence. One hears not
so much a doubling of parts on the keyboard as an accompanying
shadow of sound which is, as it were, cast by them. Witness the
choral passages in La cathédrale engloutie, and the treatment of
chords in Et la lune descend sur le temple qui fut. Here, at the
beginning, one notices too the inclusion within the chord itself of
notes which may properly be considered overtones.
It is true that Schumann experimented with sympathetic vibrations

and overtones, that the player who would give to Chopin its special
charm must have an ear tuned to after-sounds, and that Liszt
experimented with many similar effects and really opened the way
for a treatment of the pianoforte such as that Debussy and Ravel
have perfected. But all earlier experiments were limited by a clear
perception of certain harmonic proprieties. A chord was defined by
the notes struck in it. But in this music of Debussy and Ravel a chord
is not such a restricted thing. It is a potentiality rather than an
actuality. It spreads and grows in after-sounds so that its boundaries
become vague and merge with other boundaries or cross them. So
they have created a pianoforte music that seems almost to have no
dependence upon the mechanical levers and hammers, a sort of
music liberated from the box, and yet the most subtly and intimately
related to the instrument that has been written.
Debussy’s music is by no means all compact of these vague effects.

It is often as clear-cut as crystal, having a netteté hard to match in
other music for the instrument. Witness for example Les jardins sous
la pluie and La sérénade interrompue. In these cases it is plain to
see that he is no less aware of the charm latent in the percussive
quality of tone in the pianoforte than of that in its peculiar after-
sounds. He can be incisive, also, and sharply rhythmical as in La
puerta del Vino, or sparkling as in the Feux d’artifice.
Technically, then, Debussy’s pianoforte style seems to have been

influenced by a clear perception of the two qualities of sound of
which the instrument is capable, and so remarkable has been his
revelation of them that one cannot but feel that they come to our
ears as fresh discoveries. His ingenuity seems inexhaustible and
always successful. He can be rapid without being sensational,
forceful without pounding. Except that an occasional use of chords
suggests the organ or some new mysterious wind instrument, his
music never departs from the piano, to the spirit of which it gives a
new expression. It is extremely difficult to play. It requires the utmost
fleetness and lightness of fingers; and also a perfect freedom of the
arm, for he seems at times to ask the player to touch all parts of the
piano at once. In a measure, however, it may be said of some of his
music that it conforms to types as Liszt’s does, and that
consequently, compared with Bach and Chopin, it is not so difficult.
Nevertheless, by all tokens the music of Debussy, though technically
it springs from Liszt, is going to elude the grasp of most fingers even
as that of Chopin does. Perhaps it is a spiritual rather than a
technical difficulty that stands in the way.
His compositions show signs of a very great development both in his

ideals and his means of expression. An early group comprises a
Nocturne, a Suite Bergamasque, and another suite called Pour le
piano which consists of a Prelude, Sarabande and Toccata. There
are signs in nearly all these pieces of originality and some attempted
departure from traditional commonplaces. The nocturne is hardly
distinguished either in sentiment or in treatment of the piano. Only
the section in 7/8 time is interesting. But in the Suite Bergamasque
one finds a Passepied and the well-known Clair de lune which hint at
the works to come, the former in its piquant scoring and rhythm, the
latter in its harmonies and its employment of the lower and higher
registers. The Toccata is original in harmony also, and well-scored
for the pianoforte. But except in the Clair de lune there is no trace of
the delicate impressionism which has made his better known music
unique.
This comes out strongly in a second group of pieces in which one

may include the L’isle joyeuse, the Estampes and the first series of
Images including the Reflets dans l’eau in which he seems to us to
reach the height of this middle achievement. L’isle joyeuse is a
strange, wild piece, full of his characteristic harmonies, especially
those founded upon the whole-tone scale. It is the longest of his
pieces for the pianoforte, and is rather unsatisfactory in structure.
Perhaps the monotony of key is to blame—for in spite of passages in
whole-tone scales, the whole is very clearly in A major. Yet it must be
said that this very sameness of key intensifies the early languor and
the later Bacchanalian fury—is intoxicating in itself.
The Estampes (‘Engravings’) are among the best of these middle

pieces. A comparison of them with works of an early period, with the
two arabesques or even the Suite Bergamasque, shows an
extraordinary development in Debussy’s art and a change or a more
marked independence in his ideals. There is hardly a trace in the
earlier works of the new expansion in pianoforte technique which
marks the Pagodes, La soirée dans Grenade, and Jardins sous la
pluie. Especially in the first of these pieces the whole range of the
keyboard is blended into effects of a new sonority of sevenths and
ninths. The second is a study in impressionism, in the combination of
a few fragments of melody, harmony and rhythm into a whole of new
poetic intensity. In the former his technique, in the latter his
procedure, are strange and unfamiliar in pianoforte music, yet wholly
successful. Their effectiveness is no doubt largely due to the nature
of his material. The motives of the Pagodes are Oriental, those in La
soirée both Spanish and Moorish. Perhaps for this reason they
sound more exotic than the Jardins sous la pluie, which, in spite of
odd blendings of harmony, is essentially more conventional than its
two companions in the set. Certainly the Jardins is a wholly poetic
and effective piece of keyboard music; but it lacks the originality and
the elusive suggestiveness of the Pagodes and of La soirée.
The Reflets dans l’eau is superior to the Hommage à Rameau and

the Mouvement, with which it is combined in the first series of
Images. Technically it is a masterpiece, and both by the quality of its
themes and its perfection of form is fitted to stand as a piece of
absolute music of rare beauty. The plan of it is logical rather than
impressionistic. It is the development of a single idea, not the
combination of suggestive fragments. Hence it seems to stand as
the most complete result of the art of which the Pagodes and Les
Jardins are representative. In the second series of Images the

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Migration Conundrums, Regional

Integration and Development:

• In its current global engagement, is Africa still a “helpless” player?

How is Africa involved in the issues of global governance and how it

More information about this series at

Africa’s Global Engagement: Perspectives from Emerging Countries

Cover design: eStudio Calamar

The issue of intra-African migration and EU-Africa migration are topics

Pretoria, South Africa Babatunde Fagbayibo

reasonable effort has been made to contact copyright holders before

31 October 2019 Inocent Moyo

Part I Migration Conundrums in Regions and Development

1 Migration and Transformation: Africa-­Europe Migration

2 Migration, Regional Integration and the Development

Reframing the Discourses on Migration and Regional

3 Migration and Sustainable Development: Challenges and

Part II Migration Conundrums: Africa-Europe Relations

4 The EU’s Approach to African Migration During Crisis:

5 Reframing African Migration to Europe: An Alternative

6 Intercontinental Citizenship: Europe-based Congolese

Part III Migration Conundrums Down Under: Intra-Africa

7 Life in the Fringes: Informality, African Migrants’

8 Migration and the Locality: Community Peacebuilding as

9 African Informal Migrant Traders in Johannesburg:

Views on the Ground 217

10 African Migrants’ Aspirations and Citizens’ Anxieties in

11 Artisanal Miners, Migration and Remittances

Part IV Conclusion: Migration, Africa-Europe Relations

12 Beyond the Present: Migration Governance for Regions

Mpangi Kwenge is working for Freedom House. She holds a master’s in

and borderlands and urban geography, among others. He has published

funded research works: Migration and Regional Integration in Africa:

ACC Alexandra Chamber of Commerce

EIU Economist Intelligence Unit

Fig. 6.1 Conceptual and theoretical framework. (Source: Author,

Table 8.1 Selected targeted project sites 197

Migration Conundrums in Regions

Migration and Transformation: Africa-­

Inocent Moyo, Christopher Changwe Nshimbi,

© The Author(s) 2020 3

estimated 272 million in 2019, an increase of 51 million since 2010 and

various ramifications. In an attempt to contribute to more holistic and bal-

phenomenon; it means different things to different people, countries and

Migration, Regions and Development in Africa

The second, the African Common Position on Migration and Development

Africa-Europe Relations in the Age of Increased

7). In contrast to the ultimate EU aim of eliminating borders within its

tantamount to the “boderization” of the Mediterranean Sea (Moreno-­

Migration Contestations and Transformation

respect is that, while migration is more significant within Africa it still

Migration and Misrepresented Views and Actors

To respond to the question of managing migration for development and

insights this can throw on the development of migration policies (taking

Mawadza, A., and J. Crush. 2010. Metaphors of migration: Zimbabwean migrants

Migration, Regional Integration

© The Author(s) 2020 17

The Crisis of Global Migration

America. The contradictions of the crisis of global migration are visible in

Pretoria, South Africa Babatunde Fagbayibo

31 October 2019 Inocent Moyo

Part I Migration Conundrums in Regions and Development

1 Migration and Transformation: Africa-Europe Migration

2 Migration, Regional Integration and the Development

3 Migration and Sustainable Development: Challenges and

Part II Migration Conundrums: Africa-Europe Relations

4 The EU’s Approach to African Migration During Crisis:

5 Reframing African Migration to Europe: An Alternative

6 Intercontinental Citizenship: Europe-based Congolese

Part III Migration Conundrums Down Under: Intra-Africa

7 Life in the Fringes: Informality, African Migrants’

8 Migration and the Locality: Community Peacebuilding as

9 African Informal Migrant Traders in Johannesburg:

Views on the Ground 217

10 African Migrants’ Aspirations and Citizens’ Anxieties in

11 Artisanal Miners, Migration and Remittances

Part IV Conclusion: Migration, Africa-Europe Relations

12 Beyond the Present: Migration Governance for Regions

Table 8.1 Selected targeted project sites 197

Migration and Transformation: Africa-

tantamount to the “boderization” of the Mediterranean Sea (Moreno-