Should governments of multi-ethnic

countries impose national

curriculums?
The imposition of a national curriculum by governments of multi-ethnic countries has
been a point of contention for many years. The issue involves balancing respect for
cultural diversity with promoting national unity and identity. The purpose of this research
report is to provide a detailed analysis of the existing literature on the topic and answer
the research question: "Should governments of multi-ethnic countries impose national
curriculums?". The sources researched focused on predominantly academic papers and
journal articles.
A curriculum, according to Cambridge Dictionary, is the subjects studied in a school
and the content taught within those subjects (Curriculum, 2023). Through curricula, society
expresses and determines its educational identity. It influences the thoughts, beliefs and
values of the pupils who study it and thus is of immense social importance (Barbareev,
2014).

Ethnicity on the other hand is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses a
range of social, cultural, and historical factors (Hall, 2020). It is often based on shared
cultural heritage and ancestry, including language, customs, beliefs, and values, and can
involve a sense of belonging to a particular group (Brubaker, 2017). However, as Brubaker
(2017) argues, ethnicity is not necessarily synonymous with group identity, as it can also
involve individual self-identification and multiple affiliations. Overall, ethnicity is a
complex and evolving concept that encompasses a range of social, cultural, and historical
factors.
Multi-ethnicity refers to a context or society that includes individuals or groups from
multiple ethnic backgrounds or cultures (Blair, 2002). This can involve a diverse range of
cultural practices, beliefs, and values, and can create unique challenges and opportunities
for individuals and communities (Amin, 2004). Blair (2002) notes that effective leadership
in a multi-ethnic context requires an understanding of cultural diversity and sensitivity to
the needs of different ethnic groups. This can involve developing strategies for promoting
inclusivity and creating a sense of belonging for all members of the community. Overall,
multi-ethnic refers to a context that includes individuals or groups from diverse ethnic
backgrounds or cultures and requires approaches that are sensitive to cultural diversity
and promote inclusivity.
Ultimately, this research report will contribute to the ongoing debate on the imposition
of a national curriculum by governments of multi-ethnic countries. The main perspectives
we will study will be educational, social, and religious and the political perspective will
be touched upon. While all of these perspectives will be analyzed, they will tie into the
educational perspective since the topic is highly focused on education but still opens up
opportunities to look into the social and religious implications of the implementation of a
national curriculum. To reach this goal a critical review of the existing literature will be
attempted. A critical review focuses on revealing the strengths and weaknesses in the
literature on a particular topic by critically evaluating the inconsistencies, controversies
and contradictions in the field of curriculum implementations in multi-ethnic countries.
(Baumeister & Leary, 1997; Kirkevold, 1997)

Educational Perspective - the effects of a national curriculum on the quality of

education
Two sources which provide an educational perspective on promoting coexistence and
social inclusion in multi-ethnic societies are ‘The Impact of Curriculum Development
Strategies, Globalization, and Students’ Cultural Competencies on Multicultural
Education in Indonesia’ by Setyowati and Herianto (2022) and ‘Education policy in
multi-ethnic societies: A review of national policies that promote coexistence and social
inclusion’ by Berns et al (2005).
Setyowati and Hariento focused on the impact of curriculum development strategies,
globalization, and students’ cultural competencies on multicultural education in
Indonesia. They found that the current state of multicultural education in Indonesia is
influenced by factors such as teacher training, curriculum design, and the lack of
promotion of diversity and inclusion which results in a homogenized education. The
authors suggest that a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to multicultural
education is needed to ensure that students are engaged in the classrooms and are
educated in a manner that allows them the opportunity to increase their cultural
competence.
Berns et al. (2005) on the other hand review national policies and social inclusion in
education in multi-ethnic societies. They identified different countries and the various
strategies they have adopted, such as language policies, affirmative action, and
intercultural education programs, to promote coexistence and social inclusion. The
authors suggest that effective policies must be tailored to the specific cultural, political,
and social contexts of each country.
While neither source explicitly addresses the debate of whether governments of multi-
ethnic countries should impose national curriculums, they do provide some insights.
Setyowati and Herianto (2022) argue that curriculum development strategies have a
significant positive impact on multicultural education in Indonesia, which suggests that
the government's role in shaping the curriculum could be important in ensuring
educational quality. Berns et al. (2005), however, argues for the importance of policies
that are tailored to the specific cultural, political, and social contexts of each society. This
suggests that a one-size-fits-all approach, such as a national curriculum, may not be
effective in raising children into capable and culturally aware citizens.
The article by Setyowati and Herianto (2022) is a credible source published in a
reputable peer-reviewed academic journal with a transparent research methodology,
enhancing the validity of their findings. In contrast, Berns et al's (2005) source lacks
academic rigor and transparency in research methodology and data analysis, making it
difficult to evaluate the validity of its findings in its’ attempt at a multi-national analysis.
However, the source provides insights into policies that promote coexistence and social
inclusion in multi-ethnic societies, which could be useful for researchers and
policymakers in the field of multicultural education.
Another two sources offer a straightforward case study of the national educational
curricula of Turkey and Botswana, respectively are "Multicultural Education Curriculum
Development in Turkey" by Aydin (2012) and "Pathways toward Peace: Negotiating
National Unity and Ethnic Diversity through Education in Botswana" by Dryden-
Peterson and Mulimbi (2017). Both concluded that the national curriculum has been
beneficial to the respective countries and it demonstrates the perspective that the national
curriculum can be universally beneficial, even for multi-ethnic countries.
Aydin (2012) examines Turkey's efforts to implement multicultural education, using a
methodology that includes a literature review and data analysis. The article suggests that
although progress has been made in promoting multiculturalism in Turkey, there is still
much work to be done to achieve true equality and inclusivity. Dryden-Peterson and
Mulimbi (2017) investigate Botswana's government policies to promote multicultural
education, using a qualitative research methodology that includes interviews with
stakeholders. The authors' findings indicate that there are still obstacles to overcome in
order to establish a truly inclusive and diverse education system in Botswana.
 Both sources suggest that a government-imposed national curriculum can be effective
in promoting multicultural education and national unity. These sources provide valuable
information for policymakers and researchers who are interested in promoting
multicultural education in different contexts.
Contrastingly, two other sources look at the instances where the imposition of a national
curriculum may not have been successful or were at least lacking in terms of their
effectiveness.
Ahmadrash and Mostafazade (2021) found that the national curriculum of Iran includes
some multiculturalism elements, such as recognition of cultural diversity and respect for
differences, but lacks attention to cultural awareness, critical multiculturalism, and
inclusive pedagogy. Similarly, Postiglione's (1999) book provides insights into minority
education in China and highlights the challenges of the policy implementation. The book
includes different authors discussing the role of culture in education, challenges faced by
minority students, and government programs to support minority education. While
progress has been made in minority education in China, the book suggests that there are
still significant challenges and areas for improvement. In summary, both works highlight
the need for greater attention to multiculturalism and inclusive pedagogy in education,
particularly in countries with diverse populations like Iran and China.
The two sources reveal the same findings but fall on opposite sides of the debate
regarding whether governments of multi-ethnic countries should impose national
curriculums as a result of how they interpret their findings and conclude their research.
This may be attributed to the vested interest of Ahmadrash and Mostafazade (2021)
which will be discussed further.
Ahmadrash and Mostafazade (2021) argue that the national curriculum of Iran should
incorporate multicultural curriculum components to provide equitable educational
opportunities for all students. They conclude that education and the national curriculum
are low-interest and even oblivious to the teachings of multiculturalism and its
components, Multicultural Education and training has been neglected. And the education
system suffers from the lack of a systematic and strategic program in order to respect
cultural and ethnic identity. This demonstrates how they identify and critique the
curriculum but aren’t essentially and ideologically against the imposition of a single
national curriculum despite the fact that the imposition is not effective in achieving the
objectives which the research investigates.
On the other hand, Postiglione (1999) suggests that the imposition of a national
curriculum in China has negatively affected the education of ethnic minority students, as
it does not adequately reflect their cultural traditions and values. He argues that the
neglect of cultural diversity and the imposition of uniform national curricula have
contributed to social and cultural alienation among minority students. Therefore,
Postiglione's findings, despite suggesting the same lack of representation, are interpreted
by the authors in a way that suggests that governments of multi-ethnic countries should
avoid imposing national curriculums that disregard the cultural differences of minority
groups.
In summary, Ahmadrash and Mostafazade (2021) argue in favor of incorporating
multicultural curriculum components in the national curriculum of Iran, while Postiglione
(1999) suggests that the imposition of a national curriculum in China has negatively
affected ethnic minority students.

From an educational perspective, the debate on whether governments of multi-ethnic

countries should impose a national curriculum is complex and multifaceted. The
perspective on this issue has been explored through several sources, including case
studies and policy reviews. The sources suggest that a government-imposed national
curriculum can be effective in promoting multicultural education and national unity, as
seen in the cases of Turkey and Botswana. However, it is also essential to tailor policies
to specific cultural, political, and social contexts, as highlighted by Berns et al. (2005).
Additionally, the need for greater attention to multiculturalism and inclusive pedagogy in
education is emphasized by sources such as Ahmadrash and Mostafazade (2021) and
Postiglione's (1999) book, particularly in countries with diverse populations like Iran and
China. Therefore, policymakers need to consider these various perspectives and factors
when deciding whether to impose a national curriculum in multi-ethnic countries.
Social Perspectives - Implications for the social dynamics in multi-ethnic countries
Stier and Sandström's (2018) article and Zajda's (2017) book examine the social impacts
of Sweden and Russia's National Curriculums, respectively. Stier and Sandström (2018)
explore the challenges faced by preschool teachers in Sweden when trying to implement
a multicultural curriculum. They found that while teachers were committed to creating an
inclusive environment, they struggled with time constraints and a lack of resources. Zajda
(2017) in a very different conclusion, argues that the Russian government uses textbooks
to promote a nationalistic agenda and reinforce a homogenized version of Russian
history. The book analyzes the content and language of textbooks and highlights the ways
in which they construct a particular view of the world and Russia's role in it.
 These two sources provide different perspectives on whether governments of multi-
ethnic countries should impose national curriculums. Stier and Sandström (2018) suggest
that the implementation of a national curriculum, including multicultural education, in
Sweden's preschools is essential for promoting cultural diversity and mutual respect
between different ethnic groups. Conversely, Zajda (2017) argues that the imposition of a
national curriculum has led to the homogenization of national identity in Russian history
textbooks, potentially having negative consequences for cultural diversity and minority
groups. Overall we can see two completely opposite societal changes when implementing
a national curriculum, homogenization versus multiculturalism.
Stier and Sandström's (2018) article and Zajda's (2017) book, provide different levels of
credibility and reliability. Stier and Sandström's source is a peer-reviewed academic
article published in a reputable journal and based on empirical research on multicultural
preschools in Sweden. The authors' detailed methodology and analysis make the source
credible and reliable for understanding the challenges of implementing multicultural
curricula in preschools. Zajda's source, also peer-reviewed and published by a reputable
publisher, is a theoretical analysis of the impact of globalization on national identity in
Russian history textbooks. While the author supports the argument with a wide range of
sources, the book's theoretical nature may limit its applicability to practical cases or
contexts. Interviews have been used as an interpretivist research method, which reduces
the validity. Therefore, this source is credible but may require further corroboration with
empirical research to establish its reliability.
Two other sources, Thorjussen and Sisjord's (2020) article "Inclusion and exclusion in
multi-ethnic physical education: An intersectional perspective," and Gillborn's (2003)
book "Race, ethnicity, and education: Teaching and learning in multi-ethnic schools,"
explore the social perspective of national curriculum imposition in multiethnic societies.

Thorjussen and Sisjord's (2020) article analyzes the experiences of students from
different ethnic backgrounds in physical education, examining how gender, ethnicity, and
social class intersect to shape their experiences. The authors argue for an intersectional
approach to physical education to address the complex and intersecting factors that
influence students' experiences.
Gillborn's (2003) book provides a comprehensive analysis of the impact of race and
ethnicity on teaching and learning in multi-ethnic schools. The book addresses issues
such as racism, cultural diversity, and the politics of education, emphasizing the need to
address these issues to provide an inclusive and equitable education for all students. The
author argues that schools must challenge systemic inequalities and work towards social
justice to achieve true equity in education.
Although neither source takes a clear stance on whether governments of multiethnic
countries should impose national curriculums, both offer some insights into the debate.
Thorjussen and Sisjord's (2020) article highlights the importance of an intersectional
approach to education, suggesting that any national curriculum must consider the diverse
experiences and needs of students from different backgrounds. Gillborn's (2003) book
emphasizes the need for schools to address issues of racism and cultural diversity to
provide an inclusive and equitable education. Thus both sources give us a clear direction
towards an inclusive education, an intersectional approach that takes into account all
social aspects. Together, these sources make the point that the imposition of a national
curriculum cannot be recommended or suggested against without proper
contextualization. Thus, these sources suggest that the answer to the research question
can be both a yes and a no depending on the situation. This is a particularly interesting
and rationally appealing judgment. Both sources have a sound research methodology in
their analysis although the age of Gillborn’s book has to be taken into consideration
The debate on whether governments of multiethnic countries should impose a national
curriculum is complex and multifaceted, and the sources analyzed in this chapter provide
different perspectives and insights. Stier and Sandström's (2018) article and Zajda's
(2017) book provide divergent views on the issue, with the former suggesting that a
national curriculum can promote cultural diversity and mutual respect while the latter
argues that it can homogenize national identity and limit cultural diversity. Thorjussen
and Sisjord's (2020) article and Gillborn's (2003) book, although not taking a clear stance
on the issue, offer insights that can inform the debate by highlighting the importance of
addressing issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in education.
Overall, the sources suggest that there is no clear answer to the research question, and
the imposition of a national curriculum should be contextualized and informed by the
specific needs and experiences of students from different ethnic backgrounds. The
intersectional approach proposed by Thorjussen and Sisjord (2020) is particularly
relevant in this regard as it highlights the complex and intersecting factors that influence
students' experiences in education. The credibility and reliability of the sources also vary,
with Stier and Sandström's (2018) article being the most reliable due to its empirical
research-based approach, while Gillborn's (2003) book may require further corroboration
with empirical research to establish its reliability.
In conclusion, the sources analyzed regarding the social implication of the imposition of
a national curriculum, suggest that the imposition of a national curriculum cannot be
recommended or suggested against without proper contextualization. Instead, any
decision on this issue should consider the diverse experiences and needs of students from
different backgrounds and work towards addressing issues of diversity, equity, and
inclusion in education. There is a social danger that a process of homogenisation or
cultural erasure will happen as a result of a blanket national curriculum.
In light of these conclusions, a single national curriculum imposed on a society without
any regard for social, cultural and ethnic differences seems unreasonable and damaging.
Religious perspective - Educating a religiously diverse student body
Two sources which examine the social impacts of school education on religious
diversity in Pakistan and China are Nayyar's (2003) article which highlights the
insensitivity of Pakistani school education to the religious diversity of the nation and
Zhao’s (2020) article which examines the representation of the religious world in Chinese
social studies textbooks. Nayyar (2003) analyzes curricula and textbooks in Pakistan's
Urdu, English, Social Studies, and Civics subjects and finds that they present a biased
and narrow perspective on religion. He finds that this leads to the marginalization of
religious minorities and exacerbates sectarian tensions. In contrast, Zhao's article finds
that religious education in China is primarily secular and focuses on the historical and
cultural aspects of religion. The author argues that this approach to religious education
fosters a sense of religious tolerance and harmony among the diverse religious
communities in China.
Both sources provide different perspectives on the religious impacts of school education
on religious diversity. Nayyar's (2003) article highlights the negative consequences of
presenting a biased and narrow perspective on religion in school education, potentially
leading to the marginalization of religious minorities and sectarian tensions. On the other
hand, Zhao's (2020) article suggests that a secular approach to religious education can
foster religious tolerance and harmony in a diverse society while promoting
secularization in the process.
Nayyar's (2003) source is based on a detailed analysis of curricula and textbooks in
Pakistan's school education system. The source provides credible and reliable insights
into the insensitivity of Pakistani school education to religious diversity. However, the
study's focus on curricula and textbooks may limit its applicability to practical cases or
contexts.
Similarly, Zhao's (2020) article is based on a detailed analysis of Chinese social studies
textbooks. The source provides credible and reliable insights into the representation of
the religious world in Chinese social studies textbooks. However, the study's focus on
China's education system may limit its applicability to other contexts that have religious
social strata.
Both sources provide insights into the social impacts of school education on religious
diversity and suggest that a balanced, inclusive, and secular approach to education can
foster tolerance and mutual respect among different religious and ethnic groups. Nayyar's
article highlights the negative consequences of an education system that does not
acknowledge religious diversity and suggests that a national curriculum that promotes
inclusivity and mutual respect is necessary. Similarly, Zhao's article argues that a secular
approach to religious education can enhance mutual understanding and respect among
different religious groups. Overall, the sources can be interpreted as providing arguments
in favor of national curriculums that promote cultural diversity, mutual respect, and
inclusivity in the context of multi-ethnic societies.
Another two sources which investigate the same theme from a different standpoint are
Nord and Hanyes’ (1998) article and Nord’s (2014) article this time round from a US
perspective.
Nord and Haynes (1998) and Nord (2014) examine the role of religion in American
education. Nord and Haynes (1998) argue for the inclusion of religion in the school
curriculum and suggest that teachers should acknowledge and address the religious
diversity of their students to promote mutual respect. They highlight the ways in which
religion intersects with other academic disciplines, such as history and literature, and
offer practical strategies for integrating perspectives into the classroom. Nord (2014)
takes a broader view and provides an in-depth analysis of the historical and political
factors that have shaped the relationship between religion and education in the United
States. He argues that the current approach to religious education in the US is flawed and
proposes a more inclusive and comprehensive approach that recognizes the diversity of
religious traditions and their contributions to American culture.
These two sources contribute to the debate over the role of religion in American
education. Nord and Haynes (1998) make a case for the inclusion of religion in the
curriculum as a means of promoting tolerance and understanding. They argue that
religious diversity is an integral part of American society and that ignoring or
downplaying it in schools is detrimental to students' education and their ability to
function in a multicultural society. Nord (2014) builds on this argument and suggests that
a more nuanced approach to religious education is necessary to address the complexities
of religion in American culture. He highlights the ways in which religion has been
politicized and marginalized in American schools and proposes a more inclusive and
comprehensive approach that recognizes the diverse religious traditions of American
students.
In summary, Nord and Haynes (1998) and Nord (2014) contribute to the ongoing debate
over the role of religion in American education by providing practical strategies and a
nuanced analysis of the historical and political context of religion in American culture.
Their sources are credible and reliable, providing valuable insights for educators and
scholars alike.
Nord and Haynes (1998) suggest that the omission of religion in the curriculum can lead
to ignorance, misunderstanding, and even intolerance towards other religions and
cultures. Similarly, Nord (2014) argues that the exclusion of religion from the curriculum
in the United States has led to a lack of religious literacy, which has negative
consequences for the country's democratic ideals and values. He suggests that religion is
an essential part of American history and culture and should be included in the
curriculum in a balanced and unbiased way. He also argues that the exclusion of religion
from the curriculum can lead to religious intolerance and discrimination.
These sources tangentially tackle the research question. Their arguments suggest that a
higher emphasis on religious pluralism is required which can be guaranteed in all schools
by centralized change. This supports the argument that a national curriculum can benefit
the populace, even in multi-ethnic countries.
Jackson (2005) and Reimers (2020) also provide insight into the complexities and
challenges of incorporating religious education in public schools in different contexts.
Jackson (2005) examines the issues surrounding religious education in public schools
and argues for a more critical and pluralistic approach to religious education. The article
highlights the importance of understanding different religious traditions and their role in
society, and the need to promote tolerance and respect for diversity.
On the other hand, Reimers (2020) focuses on the entanglements of religion and cultural
heritage in non-confessional Swedish preschools. The article explores how secularism
and religious traditions coexist in the Swedish education system and how this impacts the
teaching of cultural heritage. Reimers argues that a more nuanced approach to religious
education is necessary to promote cultural diversity and to avoid marginalizing religious
minorities. The article provides insight into the complexities of incorporating religious
education in a secular society and highlights the importance of understanding the
intersections of religion and culture.
 Jackson (2005) and Reimers (2020) are both scholarly articles published in reputable
journals and are peer-reviewed. Both sources are reliable and credible, and their authors
provide a thorough and detailed analysis of the issues surrounding religious education in
public schools. Therefore, both sources can be considered trustworthy and valuable
contributions to the field of religious education.
Jackson (2005) argues for the importance of public religious education that promotes
pluralism and diversity, recognizing that religious education is an important aspect of the
broader education system. He suggests that public schools should provide students with
opportunities to learn about a range of religions and develop the skills necessary to
engage in respectful and informed dialogue with people of different faiths. This
perspective supports the idea of a national curriculum which should incorporate religious
education that promotes cultural and religious diversity.
In contrast, Reimers (2020) analyzes the entanglement of religion and cultural heritage
in non-confessional Swedish preschools and the challenges this poses for promoting a
secular curriculum that is inclusive of all children, regardless of their religious or cultural
background. She argues that while the Swedish education system is committed to
secularism, the cultural heritage of children's families and communities can still have an
impact on what is taught in preschools. Reimers suggests that this entanglement of
religion and cultural heritage poses challenges for promoting a national curriculum that is
truly secular and inclusive of all children. To deduce from this source reveals that the
diversification of curriculum such as private boards may be more suitable instead of a
national curriculum.
Ultimately, the key is to strike a balance between promoting unity and diversity, and to
ensure that all students have access to an education that respects their cultural and
linguistic backgrounds, while also preparing them for an increasingly interconnected
world.
From the sources, we get a fairly complex image when it comes to religion and its
implementation in curriculums. On one side if a completely secular curriculum is
implemented that tends to erase the voice of religious minorities and creates a negative
perspective on religion as a whole. Conversely, implementing a curriculum solely based
on the major religion of the country again will erase the voice of religious minorities and
secular viewpoints. Similarly, with the other perspectives one conclusion comes to the
fore, a national curriculum that doesn’t consider all voices in society will tend to run over
the differences in society.
Reflection, Limitations and Future Research
 There was an abundance of sources on the topic but it was fairly difficult to filter out the
academic research from opinion pieces due to their sheer volume. One limitation of the
research was that it was too brief to be able to answer the research question extensively.
The question was too broad and theoretical and there are a multitude of resources that
could be taken into consideration. The research could have benefitted from a longer
research conduction period so that a wider range of sources of varying perspectives could
have been considered. However, this research can serve as a base for more specific and
targeted research. To better understand this topic, it would be interesting to do case
studies of various instances where national curriculums have been imposed on multi-
ethnic societies to see the variety of possible effects that it may have on the populace.
At the start of the research, I conducted an initial and brief literature review over a short
span of time in which I just read various sources and articles in order to get a vague
perspective and understanding of the topic without which it would be extremely difficult
to understand the academic sources which were considered in the research. During this
phase I had developed an ideological opposition to the imposition of a national
curriculum on a multiethnic populace on the grounds that it could homogenize students;
however, the research opened up my perspective to the various possible benefits of such a
policy including standardized quality and increased equality of opportunity. Through this
research, I was also able to consider this imposition as a tool to minimize ethnic divide
and societal polarization. This helped me understand this policy in a more nuanced
manner allowing for a better understanding of both sides of the debate.
Conclusion
This research has allowed me to comprehend the debate about the imposition of national
curriculums on multi-ethnic societies. Through this research, I have come to the
conclusion that a national curriculum’s imposition cannot be recommended across the
board. Postigilione’s research (1999) has shown how similar policies can show different
effects depending on the circumstances in which they are applied. Furthermore, any
curriculum should strike a balance between promoting uniting and common values and
fostering cultural diversity. Having a national curriculum may also be a platform for
students from different backgrounds to engage together allowing them an opportunity to
become more culturally competent. Throughout the sources, a common theme can be
observed which suggests that more effort needs to be put into national curriculums to
make them higher in quality and representation.
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