lOMoARcPSD|39963155
- Effective listeners should deliberately reduce the influence of their own  The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph.
viewpoint until they have first understood the speaker’s ideas.
 In language learning, some teaching methods, such physical response, involve
students by simply listening and responding. There two distinction involve in
listening learning process and these are:
1. Intensive Listening – in which learners attempt to listen with maximum
accuracy to a relatively brief sequence of speech.
- more effective in terms of developing specific aspects
of listening ability.
2. Extensive Listening – in which learners listen to lengthy passages for
general comprehension.
- more effective in building fluency and maintaining
learner motivation.
Prepared by:
CECILE B. BATU, Ph.D.
C. WRITING
Writing is a medium of human communication that involves the representation of a language
with symbols. It is the process of using symbols (letters of the alphabet, punctuation and
spaces) to communicate thoughts and ideas in a readable form.
A composition of writer’s thinking starts with letters, creating a word, to a group of words,
turning it to a sentence, and later on, composing a paragraph.
A paragraph basically is a collection of related sentences dealing with a single topic. It is a
series of sentences that are organized and coherent, and are all related to a single topic.
The Basic Rules:
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|39963155
 If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph.
 You can have one idea and several bits of supporting evidence within a single
paragraph. You can also have several points in a single paragraph as long as they
relate to the overall topic of the paragraph. If the single points start to get long, then
perhaps elaborating on each of them and placing them in their own paragraphs is the
route to go.
 Do not use word contractions in Academic and Formal Business writing.
 Avoid using Passive Voice instead use Active Voice sentences.
A. ELEMENTS OF PARAGRAPHS
To follow a writer’s line of thinking, reader’s need a message that is sensibly
organized. Writer must shape the material into an organized unit of meaning. So, in setting
out to organize a message, writer’s face deliberate decisions:
What do I want to emphasize?
What do I say first?
What comes after that?
How do I stay on the track?
How do I end?
As with the decisions with the content, a writer’s decision about organization are
guided by the audience’s expectations. Most useful messages – whether in the form of a
book, chapter, news article, letter or memo- usually a common organizing pattern:
introduction, body and conclusion.
The introduction previews the discussion and reveals the subject and purpose of the
message. Here the writer makes a commitment to the readers about what will be said.
Knowing immediately what to expect, readers can follow the message more easily.
The body delivers on the promise implied in the introduction, with a full explanation
of the main point. This section has unity in that everything expands on the main point. And it
has coherence in that the thought sequence is one continuous link idea to idea.
The conclusion brings the message to a perceptible end, instead of just stopping.
Often, the main point is re-emphasized.
In just about any message, the shape of an organized unit of meaning is basically the
same. This shape is best illustrated in the form of a standard support paragraph, a type of
paragraph that develops a single main point in enough detail to convey the writer’s exact
meaning.
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|39963155
Examples:
1. Computer literacy soon will be a requirement for virtually all educated people.
2. A video display terminal can endanger the operator’s health.
3. Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Each of these topic sentences only introduces a certain way of seeing subject. Without
supporting explanations, we couldn’t possibly grasp the writer’s exact meaning. Consider, the
third sentence:
Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and hazardous.
Imagine that you are a researcher for the Epson Electric Light Company and you have
been given this task: determine whether the company should begin spraying pesticides and
herbicides under its power lines, as many other utilities are doing or should continue with its
manual ways of minimizing foliage and insect damage to lines and poles. If you simply
responded with the preceding statement, your manager would have a number of questions:
Why exactly, are chemical pesticides and herbicides ineffective and hazardous?
What are the problems? Can you explain?
By answering these questions while writing your report, you provide the necessary
supporting details:
Introduction: Chemical pesticides and herbicides are both ineffective and
hazardous.
Body : Because none of these chemicals has permanent effects, pest populations
invariably recover and require respraying. Repeated applications cause pests to develop
immunities to the chemicals. Furthermore, most pesticides and herbicides attach species other
than the intended pest, killing off its natural predators; thus, actually increasing the pest
population. Above all, chemical residues survive in the environment for years, often carried
hundreds of miles by wind and water. This toxic legacy includes such biological effects as
birth deformities, reproductive failures, brain damage and cancer. The ultimate victims of
these chemicals would be our customers.
Conclusion: Therefore, I recommend we continue our present control methods.
Most paragraphs in tech. writing, follow this introduction- body-conclusion structure.
The key is to begin with a clear topic ( or orienting) sentence that states a generalization.
Details in the body support the generalization.
In this connection, well- written sentences are not enough to make your writing clear
and understandable. Sentences must be further organized into meaningful units of thoughts.
Readers look to the first one or two sentences in a paragraph to orient themselves, to
align their perceptions with the writers. When readers know what to expect, they can follow
more easily. By introducing your way of seeing something, the topic sentence gives readers a
framework for understanding your message. Without this orienting framework, readers
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|39963155
cannot possibly grasp your exact meaning. Consider, the following paragraph, those topic
sentences have been left out:
Besides containing several toxic metals, it percolates through the soil leaching out
naturally present metals. Pollutants such as mercury invade surface water, accumulating in
fish tissues. Any organism eating fish – or drinking the water – in turn, faces the risk of heavy
metal poisoning; moreover, acidified water can release heavy concentrations of lead, copper
and aluminium from metal plumbing, making ordinary tap water hazardous.
After one reading, are you able to provide point for the paragraph?
Could you restate the message accurately in your own words? Probably not, even
after a second reading. Without the orientation of a topic sentence, you have no framework
for understanding the information in terms of its larger meaning. And because you don’t
know what to look for, you can’t figure out where to place the emphasis: on polluted fish, on
metal poisoning, on tap water? Without the organizing thread provided by a topic sentence,
you have no way to tell.
Now, after inserting the following sentence at the beginning, reread the paragraph:
Acid rain indirectly threatens human health.
In the light of this organizing point, the exact meaning of the message becomes
obvious. The topic sentence gives us a framework by:
1. Naming the subject of the message(acid rain)
2. Stating the topic – the writer’s specific viewpoint on the subject (that acid rain
threatens human health)
3. Forecasting how the message will be developed (through an explanation of the
process) in response to the reader’s central questions: how exactly does acid rain
threaten human health?
A topic sentence is the key to understand the whole paragraph and it ought to appear
first in your paragraph unless you have good reason to decide otherwise.
Before you can write a good topic sentence, you must identify your purpose, based
on what you know of your reader’s needs. Then you can tailor your topic sentence to meet
those needs.
Assume, you are writing a report about whales, intended for readers you’d like to
recruit as members of the Save-the-Whales foundation. First, you must decide exactly what
point you want to make about whales. And when that point becomes part of your topic
sentence, it must provide enough direction for you to develop a worthwhile paragraph. Avoid
topic sentence which leads nowhere:
Examples:
1. Whales are a species of mammal.
2. Whales live only in salt water.
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|39963155
The point in your topic sentence must be focused enough to be covered in one
paragraph. Avoid broad and abstract topic sentence:
Examples: 1. Whales are interesting animals.
What is meant by interesting? Their breeding habits, migration patterns, the way they
exhibit intelligence or something else?
Whales seem to exhibit some intelligence.
Whales are fairly intelligent.
Whales are highly intelligent.
You decide the final sentence as your point most accurate. Think of ways to make this
topic sentence more informative. Readers will be asking: “Highly intelligent relative to what?
So you decide to relate whales to whales’ intelligence to that of other mammals.
Whales are among the world’s most intelligent mammals.
You have a clear direction for developing support in the body section. Let us look at
some other directions your topic sentence might have taken.
A good indication of whales high intelligence is the way they play in game like
patterns.
Like children, a group of whales can spend hours playing tag.
 Depending on your purpose and your readers’ needs, you can make any main
point more and more specific by focusing on smaller and smaller parts of it.
The paragraph should then deliver what the topic sentence promises.
In this connection, after sentences, the most basic unit of thought in writing is a
paragraph. The indention of the first sentence of a paragraph tells the reader that a new unit
of thought follows:
1. UNDERSTANDING TOPIC SENTENCES AND SUPPORT SENTENCES
A paragraph develops one main idea, which is usually stated in a sentence called the
topic sentence. Every other sentence, every fact, example and detail, should support
the topic sentence.
 TOPIC SENTENCE
A good topic sentence captures the general idea of the paragraph better than
any other sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.
The topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of a paragraph, where it
gives a preview of and direction to the sentences that come after it, as in the following
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|39963155
example. Notice that all of the other sentences in the paragraph support the main idea
with facts.
TOPIC SENTENCE Controlling the entry of the foreign pests is the job of
the Department of Agriculture. Some DA inspectors work
around the clock at 100 ports of entry. In a year’s time, they
inspect some sixty-four million pieces of baggage carried by air
travellers from foreign countries. They also meet about 62,000
ships and inspect roughly five million pieces of seagoing
baggage. On the Palawan border, they check more than forty-
five million automobiles annually and about 100,000 railroad
cars. They also screen some sixty million pieces of mail and
examine about four million cargo shipments.
Sometimes, however, the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph,
where it draws a conclusion or functions as a summary. In the
following paragraph, the topic sentence, which is at the end,
states the conclusion of the preceding ideas and adds a finishing
touch.
SUPPORTING SENTENCES Smoke curled from under the eaves and rose
from the roof. Flames shooting from the window arched
upward toward the sky. Some of the floors and interior walls
thundered downward, spraying sparks and glowing cinders
through lower doors and windows. The building could not be
saved. (Topic Sentence)
Less frequently, a topic sentence comes in the middle of a paragraph, especially
when the paragraph is a part of a longer piece of writing. In
such paragraphs the beginning sentences may function as a
transition between paragraphs as well as an introduction to the
topic sentence. In the following example, the first sentence
paves the way for the topic sentence.
INTRODUCTORY SENTENCES
Dancing and chanting to the rhythmic beat of the drums,
Polynesian students give visitors to the Polynesian Culture
Center a glimpse of Hawaii’s past. Through its exhibitions of
the Polynesian’s Culture Center shows visitors the many
elements of Hawaiian culture brought to Hawaii by its original
inhabitants,(Topic Sentence),the Polynesians, For example, the
Center shows the similarities between Polynesian and Hawaiian
villages with lie-size models. In addition, the Center
dramatizes Hawaiian legends of ancestors journeying
across the ocean in large canoes of hollowed logs. Gardens
of banana, sweet potato, taro and breadfruit plants exhibit
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|39963155
the food carried by the ocean travellers to their new home.
(Supporting Sentences).
Whatever its position, the topic sentence will always state the idea that provides
the logical connection among all of the other information in
the paragraph.
 Writing the Body
The body of your paragraph contains the supporting details that explain and
expand on your central idea and it also support material answers the questions about
your topic sentence you can expect from readers: says who? What proof do you have
to support your claim? Can you give examples?
To answer these questions, you brainstorm your topic, listing everything
you know about.
After selecting those facts that support the main idea, you arrange them
in related categories. You now have three categories of general evidence, which
are further supported by details.
With your topic sentence and supporting details on paper, you are ready
to write conclusion.
 Writing the conclusion
Your concluding statement signals readers that the discussion of the central
idea stated in your topic sentence is ending. It usually ties the paragraph together by
summarizing, interpreting or judging the facts. If the paragraph is part of a longer
report, your conclusion can also prepare readers for a subsequent paragraph.
An introduction-body-conclusion structure should serve most of your
paragraph needs in report writing. Begin each support paragraph with a solid topic
sentence and you will on target.
2. UNDERSTANDING UNITY AND COHERENCE
A good paragraph has unitybecause all of the information
supports the topic sentence. It has coherencebecause the ideas
flow naturally from one to another.
 UNITY
In a unified paragraph, all of the sentences stick to the main idea
presented in the topic sentence. A paragraph has unity if all of its sentences
relate closely to the topic sentence.
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|39963155
A paragraph is unified when all its parts work toward the same end- when
every word, phrase, and sentence explains, illustrates and clarifies the
central idea expressed in the topic sentence. Paragraph unity is destroyed
when you drift away from your stated purpose by adding irrelevant details.
Example: A Dis-unified Paragraph
Whales are among the most intelligent mammals ever to
inhabit the earth. Scientists studying whales rate their
intelligence on a level with higher primates because of their
complex group behaviour. For example, these impressive
mammals have been seen teaching and disciplining their young,
helping wounded fellow whales, engaging in elaborate sexual
foreplay and playing in definite game like patterns. Whales
continually need to search for food in order to survive. As
fish populations decrease because of overfishing, the
whale’s quest for food becomes more difficult.
When you write a paragraph, check to make sure that all of the
sentences belong. In the following paragraph, for example, the fourth and
the fifth sentences do not fit.
Every student should develop a good speaking voice. (Topic
Sentence) A strong, clear voice indicates that a speaker is
confident of his or her knowledge of ideas. A good speaking
voice aids class discussions because more students become
involved if they can hear each other’s comments. Mumbling
can indicate shyness or unwillingness to cooperate. Or a
student may speak indistinctively because of the braces on his
teeth. (Unrelated Information) Finally, the speaking so that
others can easily hear suggests that the speaker is interested in
the topic and cares enough to contribute.
 COHERENCE
In a coherent paragraph, supporting information is arranged in a logical
order and linked with transitions, repetition of main words and in some
paragraphs, with concluding sentence.
A paragraph is coherent when it hangs together and flows smoothly in a clear
direction – when all sentences are logically connected like links in a chain,
leading toward a definite conclusion.
Orders for Supporting Information
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

When supporting information is presented in a clear, logical order, the reader can most sense. Following a logical sequence within a paragraph simply means that
sense where the paragraph is going. you decide on which idea to discuss first, which is the second, and so on. The
sequence you select for any paragraph will depend on your subject, purpose, and
The supporting information in a paragraph should be presented in a logical reader’s needs. Some possibilities are as follows:
order.
Spatial sequence
Five orders are most frequently used to achieve a logical flow of ideas.
A spatial order of development begins at one location and ends at another.
This order is most useful in a paragraph that describes a physical or geographical
item or a mechanism. Simply describe the parts in the order in which readers
would actually view the: left or right, inside to outside, etc. the writer has chosen
spatial order that proceeds from the needle’s base (hub) to its point:
ORGANIZATION OF PARAGRAPHS
Order Use Chronological sequence
A paragraph describing a series of events or giving instructions is most
Chronological( Time) Gives a sequence of events; tells what effective when its details are arranged according to a strict time sequence: first
happened first, step, second step etc.
second, third and so
on Example sequence
Often a topic sentence can best be supported by specific examples, usually
Spatial ( Space) Arranges details from nearest to farthest, top arranged for greater emphasis.
to bottom, left to right,
and so on Effect –to - Cause Sequence
Order of Importance Ranks information from least important to A paragraph that first identifiesa problem and then discusses its causes is
most important or vice typically found in problem- solving reports.
versa
Comparison and Contrast Presents similarities and differences between Cause- to – Effect Sequence
items In a cause-to-effect sequence, the topic sentence identifies the cause( s ) and
the reminder of the paragraph discusses its effects.
Developmental Arranges information from one point in the
topic sentence to
another. Definition Sequence
For adequate definition, a term may require a full paragraph.

When a topic sentence calls for the description of an action, the recounting of an
incident, or the explanation of a process, the most effective order is usually chronological
order. With chronological order, you would present supporting information in a time
sequence, usually from first to last.
 One way to damage paragraph coherence is to use too many short, choppy
sentences. Two other ways to damage coherence are: to place sentences in the
wrong order and to use insufficient transitions and other connectors to link related
ideas.
Paragraphs developed logically
Once you have identified your reader and purpose, and gathered your
supporting details, you will have to arrange these details in a way that makes the
Reasons Sequence
A paragraph that provides detailed reasons to support a specific viewpoint or
recommendation is often used in job-related writing. For emphasis, the reasons
usually are arranged in decreasing or increasing order of importance.
Comparison / Contrast Sequence
A paragraph discussing the similarities or differences (or both) between two or
more items often used in job-related writing.
3. UNDERSTANDING EMPHASIS
Emphasis is the principle of the paragraph composition in which the important
ideas are made to stand.

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

 it is very important that the main points of the writer should be evident inside Each paragraph in the body should support the thesis statement with examples,
the paragraph. details, facts, reasons or incidents. The supporting information should be organized by means
 the idea should be made to stand from the rest of the elements inside the of subtopics.
paragraph.
 in establishing emphasis, the main idea of what the author or the writer wants The body of an essay develops the thesis statement, treating one subtopic at a
to say should show to have more importance. time.
The following chart lists common orders for arranging subtopics and suggests sample essay
topics that might best developed using each other.
WRITING AN ESSAY
An essay is composed of a group of related paragraphs that works together to present
one main point. Once you understand the basic structure of an essay, you can adapt the form
to fit to different topics and assignments.
ORDERS OF SUBTOPIC IN THE BODY OF AN ESSAY
Orders Sample Topics
The Parts of an Essay
Chronological (Subtopics arranged in a time How to clean a topical fish tank
An essay has three parts: (1) an introduction, which presents the main point of the sequence)
essay; (2) a body, which consists of two or more paragraphs that support or explain the
essay’s main point and (3) a conclusion, which summarizes the main point and brings the Spatial (Subtopics arranged by location or Some places to visit in Maine
essay to a close. position)
The structure of a hydroelectric power plant
Order of Importance(Subtopics arranged The need to tighten security on large university
The Introduction from least important to most important or campuses
The introduction is a vital part of an essay. It indicates the purpose of an essay, telling vice versa)
Reasons for establishing a work/study program at
whether the essay will be expository or persuasive. The most significant function of an school
introduction, however, is to present the thesis statement.
Developmental( subtopics of equal Some of the benefits of a lower speed limit
The introduction indicates the essay’s purpose and presents the main point in a emphasis arranged logically)
thesis statement. Three of the best rivers in the country for
canoeing
Most introduction begins generally, with background information or an incident and
then lead into thesis statement.
Example:
Introduction
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, whalers put to sea for two to three years a
time. Armed only with harpoons, lances and daring, they brought back needed whale oil,
bone and ivory. In the twentieth century, however, high speed boats, explosive harpoons and
gigantic floating factories have mechanized the killing process. Whale are being killed in
great numbers even though synthetic materials can be used in place of whale products. The
International Whaling Commission (IWC) has recently outlawed factory ships, but whales
remain in danger of extinction. (Thesis Statement) Whale will survive only if the IWC The Conclusion
declares a worldwide moratorium on hunting whales and if pirate whalers are stopped.
The conclusion is usually a short, separate at the end of the essay. It generally begins
with a reminder of the thesis statement. The conclusion should leave the reader feeling that
the topic has been covered thoroughly. In many cases, you may want to make the last
The Body sentence of the conclusion a clincher- a forceful sentence that drives home the main point.

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

The conclusion refers back to the thesis statement and brings the essay to close.
The following conclusion demonstrates these functions.
(Reminder of thesis statement) Only by ending all hunting of whales be preserved. If the
killing of whales continues unchecked, the noble animals described in (clincher)Melville’s
Moby Dick will soon become as legendary as Moby Dick himself.
Prepared by:
NYMPHA M. REYES
RUBY T. GALANG
B. PARAPHRASING
b. Change voice of the sentence
Barriers to implement extensive green roof systems: A Hong Kong study
Xiaoling Zhang, LiyinShen, Vivian W.Y. Tam & Winnie Wing Yan Lee
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
Volume 16, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 314-319
Abstract
Air pollution problems caused from the development of infrastructures are getting serious, in which air
flow is reduced and heat is trapped among high-rise buildings. In order to mitigate these problems, various
methods have been developed in previous studies. Extensive green roof has been identified as one of the
most important means to mitigate these problems and implement sustainable development principles in the
building features. Governments world-wide have been introducing various policies and regulations for
promoting extensive green roof particularly for building projects. However, the existing buildings in many
large cities such as Hong Kong display few extensive green roof features. Hong Kong is one of the most
densely populated cities with many high-rise buildings. This paper examines the major barriers encountered
in promoting extensive green roof systems for the existing buildings in Hong Kong. Case study approach is
adopted to investigate how and why the barriers can hinder the implementation of extensive green roof
features. Research results show that lack of promotion and incentives from governments and the increase
maintenance cost are identified as the top barriers to the implementation. The paper concludes by providing
further suggestions and actions that can help mitigate these existing barriers.

Paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text without deviating from the
meaning of the original source. It is an attempt to restate valuable information using your
own words maintaining the true meaning of the content source. Your effective paraphrasing
skills shows your ability to understand the meaning of the source material and prevents you 1. Use of Synonyms and Word Substitutes
from committing plagiarism.
Thesaurus and dictionaries are excellent resources in finding word synonyms, however,
*Plagiarism is an act of stealing and passing off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own one must be careful in selecting the appropriate synonym to use. Words that are similar
or to commit literary theft. (Merriam Webster’s Online Dictionary) are not always interchangeable.

a. Use of synonyms
Paraphrasing Techniques:
Ex. Air pollution problems caused from the development of
1. Using Synonyms or word substitutes infrastructures are gettingserious, in which air flow is reduced and heat
a. Use Thesaurus to find the appropriate synonym is trapped among high-rise buildings.
b. Use definitions
c. Change word forms Air pollution concerns caused from the construction of buildings are
d. Change words to phrases, phrases to clauses becoming worse, in which air flow is decreased and heat is confined
among high-rise buildings.

 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.

2. Restructuring the sentence

a. Change quotation from direct to indirect

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155
b. Use definition of terms
Ex. Case study approach is adopted to investigate how and why the
barriers can hinder the implementation of extensive green roof
features.
The study used an in-depth investigation of a single individual group
or event, in this case, Hong Kong Construction industry to explore the
causes of underlying principles to investigate how and why the barriers
can hinder the implementation of extensive green roof features.
 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.
c. Change word forms
Ex. Governments world-wide have been introducing various policies
and regulations for promoting extensive green roof particularly for
building projects.
Governments world-wide were responsible in the introduction of
various policies and regulations for the promotion extensive green roof
particularly for building projects.
c.1. Use an adverb instead of an adjective
c. 2. Use a verb to replace a noun.
Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.
d. Change from clause to phrase
Ex. In order to mitigate these problems, various methods have been
developed in previous studies.
Various methods to mitigate these problems have been developed in
previous studies.
Ex. Air pollution problems caused from the development of
infrastructures are getting serious, in which air flow is reduced and
heat is trapped among high-rise buildings.
Air pollution caused by reduced airflow and trapped heat among high
rise buildings is getting serious.
 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.
2. Restructuring Sentences
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|39963155
a. Change quotation from direct to indirect
Ex. “Research results show that lack of promotion and incentives from
governments and the increase maintenance cost are identified as the
top barriers to the implementation.”
The researchers stated governments’ failure to provide marketing and
reward systems, and high maintenance cost as primary reasons
hampering implementation of green roof systems.
b. Change voice of the sentence
Ex. Extensive green roof has been identified as one of the most
important means to mitigate these problems and implement sustainable
development principles in the building features.
Researchers identified extensive green roof as one of the most
important means to mitigate these problems and implement sustainable
development principles in the building features.
 Note: The example above is still very close to the original text.
This section provides techniques that you can use in paraphrasing. Often, an effective
paraphrase requires you to combine these techniques that you have just learned. It is
important to remember that in academic writing, to paraphrase means to restate precisely
what the original source is saying using your own words. To do this, you need to have a clear
understanding of the content you are trying to paraphrase. You are ready to paraphrase once
you have a clear understanding the material you are attempting to paraphrase.
Prepared by:
VEATA SANTOS
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

C. TECHNICAL WRITING
3. Properties of Technical Writing
1. FUNDAMENTALS OF TECHNICAL WRITING
Vicente, et al (1997) emphasized that “Reading a piece of technical
1. Definition & Nature writing leads one to discover its distinctive characteristics which differentiate
a. Technical writing or report writing is giving an account or description it from other types of writing. One distinguishing mark of technical writing is
of an aspect of a particular art, science, trade, or profession, learned by aptly stated by Rufus Turner: “Truth is the soul of science.” Good technical
experience, study, observation, or investigation (Vicente, Soria, Mogol writing never misleads or misrepresents. Following is a list of the properties
& Sumaga, 1997). of technical writing which Zall refers to as the ABC’s of report writing.”
b. Technical writing is a communication in any field which aims to A Accuracy
convey a particular piece of information for a particular purpose to a
B Brevity
particular reader or group of leaders. It is objective, clear and accurate,
C Coherence
concise and unemotional in its presentation of facts. It also an
exposition about scientific subjects and various technical subjects D Confidence
associated with sciences; hence, it uses scientific and technical E Emphasis
vocabulary; tables and graphs and figures to clarify and support textual F Facility
discussion; and, conventional report forms. (Alcantara & Espina, G Grammatical Correctness
2010). H Honesty
I Illustration
2. Characteristics of Technical Writing J Judgment
Technical writing also shows the following characteristics: K Knowledge
a. Technical writing treats of subject matter related to science and L Logic
technology and, lately has involved other disciplines such as M Mechanical Neatness
economics, medicine, psychology, agriculture, radiology, business N Normal Procedure
administration, and others. O Objectivity
Q Quality
b. Technical writing is characterized by certain elements such as its S Straight Sentences
scientific and technical vocabulary, its use of graphic or visual aids and
T Thoroughness
its use of conventional report forms.
U Unity
c. Technical writing observes impartiality and objectivity, shows extreme V Veracity and Viewpoint
care to convey information accurately and concisely and avoids any W Word Choice
attempt to arouse emotion. Y You-Point
Z Zest
d. Technical writing uses certain complex writing techniques such as
definition, classification, description of mechanisms, description of 4. Purposes of Technical Writing
processes, exemplification, causal analysis and others. Alcantara, et al. (2010) gives the following purposes of technical
writing:
e. Technical writing has practicality and power.
a. It gives information that leads to the accomplishment of specific tasks
f. Technical writing used to involve only engineers and architects as its and in the making of needed decisions.
primary audience. Today, however, technical writing begins to attract
students from many disciplines. b. Technical writing analyses events and their implications like the failure
or certain educational, socio-economic, or political systems; or needed
g. Technical writing courses are worthwhile because they have a high social changes, like how to save the dying bodies of water in the
carry-over value beyond the college days. country, particularly the Pasig River, Laguna Lake, and the Lingayen
Gulf.

c. Technical writing persuades and influences decisions.

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155
5. Comparisons between technical writing and the other forms of writing
a. Literary Writing includes poetry, short stories, plays, and novels.
 Authors might draw on experience to create their text;
 It employs figurative word usage, imaginative imagery, dialect,
symbolism, and fictitious characters to present a message.
b. Expressive Writing records a subjective, emotional response to a personal
experience.
 Journal and diary entries are expressive;
 Its goal is to express one’s feelings through description and narration.
c. Expository Writing analyses a topic objectively.
 Its goal is to explain, and thereby reveal your knowledge of a subject.
 After explanation, response from the reader is not expected right away.
d. Persuasive Writing combines the emotionalism of expressive writing with
the analytical traits of expository writing.
 The goal is to sway your audience’s emotional attitude toward a topic.
2. OUTLINES
A. Output/End Products of Technical Writing
Most Common Technical Writing Outputs/End Products include the following:
(http://www.quia.com/files/quia/users/skrichard/TechWriting/Common_Tech_Pap
ers_PDF)
1. Business letter. It is written primarily to transact business.
2. Feasibility report. This reports the financial, economical, and technical
benefits/practicability of a proposed business project.
3. Abstract. It is a summary of a conducted study.
4. Specification. It gives detailed description or assessment or calculations of
requirements, dimensions, materials, etc., as of a proposed building, machine,
bridge, etc.
5. Brochure. It is a pamphlet or booklet containing summarized or introductory
advertising or information about a product, service, or idea purposely written
to attract attention and action of the customers.
6. Memorandum. It is usually a short interoffice communication about company
matters, e.g. on something to be done or acted upon in the future.
7. Instruction manual. It refers to a manual usually accompanying a technical
device or appliance which gives directions for use. It mayalso refer to a set of
directions for work procedures or policies.
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|39963155
8. Proposal. It is a plan or a scheme proposed to elicit action for a change or
performance which may help solve a problem.
9. Treaty. It refers to a formal written document of agreement between two or
more parties aiming for peace, alliance, commerce, or other international
agreement.
10. Article (books and technical journals). This may refer to an abstract,
summary, introduction and discussion submitted and published in books or
journals.
11. Contract. It is an agreement between two parties enforceable by law in doing
or not doing something.
12. Policy. It contains a definite course of action adopted and pursued by the
government, company management, or any organization.
13. Progress report. It pertains to an account of work on what has been
accomplished during a specified period of time, including future expectations
in the next period.
14. Technical paper. It is a research paper describing a new concept or
development intended for a professional journal or magazine.
15. Laboratory report. This is a record of laboratory tests with corresponding
procedures done. It contains descriptions of the scope, equipment, procedures,
results, and possibly conclusions and recommendations.
16. Survey report. It is an initial report on any subject or product service using
subjects like potential market, labor policies, public opinion, and community
resources.
17. Resumé
B. Outlining (Menoy, 2009)
Menoy (2009) identifies outlining as the fourth in the pre-writing process.
It implies organization of ideas. In outlining, the writer lists downs all ideas
relevant to the topic, sorts them all into major and minor ones, and creates an
outline out of them.
Furthermore, Menoy emphasizes that a good writer uses an outline which
serves as skeletal framework for his composition. Materials are well organized
when an outline is made prior to collecting information or writing the draft.
Indeed, an outline helps the writer present his ideas in an orderly fashion.
Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)
 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

Systems used in outlining:

1. Alphanumeric (number-letter) system
It makes use of Roman and Hindu-Arabic numbers as well as uppercase and 3. USE OF GRAPHIC AIDS
lowercase letters.
Menoy (2009) emphasizes that in doing oral and written reports, graphic aids
and other visual aids are important. They not only help the listeners or readers
Examples:
understand the materials, but also make them retain these materials. Reporters must
remember this principle: “What is seen is better remembered than what is heard.”
I.
A.
1.
a.
(1)
(a)
(b)
(2)
b.
2.
B.
II.

1.
1.1
1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.1.1.
1.1.1.1.1.2.
1.1.1.1.2
1.1.1.2.
1.1.2.
1.2.
2.

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPHIC AIDS (Menoy 2009)

GRAPHIC AID FUNCTION KINDS
GRAPHIC AID FUNCTION KINDS
Schematic diagram To show how a thing works
Pie (Circle/Sector) To present proportions and Solid – consists of sectors or is organized
graph percentages bound together and
differentiated by color Flow chart To show chronology of Strip chart – has strips of
shading, etc. events in a narrative or paper to cover the items
Exploded – consists of stages in a process presented
sectors shown separately
Non-strip chart – has not
Column (Bar) graph To compare quantities Vertical – consists of strips of paper
standing columns
Horizontal – consists of Tree chart/diagram To present a classification or
lying columns an analysis

Line graph To show progress or Single line – consists of only Drawing/Illustration To show details not available
development one line in a photograph, e.g., parts
Multiple line – consists of
many lines differentiated by
color, form, or thickness

Surface graph To present proportions and Single-surface – consists of

4. TECHNICAL REPORTS
quantities only one layer or stratum
Multiple-surface – consists Technical Report is an objective, organized presentation of specialized factual
of several layers or strata; information that are collected, analysed and presented for an immediate and
also called strata, belt, or practical purpose. It serves as the basis on which decisions are made by
band chart authorities concerned in business, industry and government. (Magpayo et al,
1996)
Map chart To show geographical data Geographical map – consists
and how things are put of places or locations.
together Other maps – used not for Purposes of Writing Technical Reports
geographical purposes, but
for other purposes 1. To record information for future reference.
2. To ensure accurate, efficient means of transmitting information to different
Figure graph To present quantities in the people in different locations in an organization.
form of figures 3. To identify problems in management and offer solutions to these problems
after conducting a thorough investigation.
4. To improve standards for effective performance of the job on the basis of
Photograph To show how a thing looks
technical reports’ results.
like
5. To determine order of priority of tasks.
Organizational chart To present the liens of
responsibility and
accountability in an Qualities of a Good Report
organization
1. Good writing is accurate.
Table To present a large body of Formal – consists of titles or 2. Good writing is clear.
numerical and other data headings, and legends, etc; 3. Good writing is concise.
usually in grid form 4. Good writing is conventional.
Informal – lacks some items 5. Good writing is appropriate to the subject.
found in a formal table

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

5. BUSINESS COMMUNICATION It consists of the initials of the sender in all caps and the initials of his
secretary/typist in small letters.
Business Communication is also one of the essential products of technical
writing. They are called business letters because they are used for business purposes 5. Enclosure Notation
and they are aimed to serve three purposes: to sell, to buy, and to promote good It refers to the item or items placed inside the envelope, other than the
business relationship (Menoy, 2007). letter.

A. Elements of a Business Letter 6. Carbon Copy Notation

Unlike a social or a friendly letter (whose parts are limited to heading, It refers to the persons going to receive the letter other than the addressee.
salutation, body of the letter, complimentary close, and signature) a business
letter is composed of the basic and the miscellaneous elements. 7. Postscript
It contains some items that re omitted from the body of the letter and
Basic Parts should be included.
1. Heading
It consists of the sender’s address and the dateline (month, day, and year).

2. Inside Address B. Mechanics of Letter Writing

It consists of the name of the addressee, his designation, his company and
its business address.
M – Margining
3. Salutation 1. The usual margin is one inch on all sides, particularly letters of one-page
It serves as the welcome part of the letter. length.
2. Short letters or articles of less than one-page long have two-inch or one-and-a-
4. Body of the Letter half margins on the left and right sides.
It gives the details of the communication and consists of the introduction 3. If the report is bound, a half-inch is added to the one-inch.
(purpose), the body (discussion), and the conclusion (token of 4. Margins may be justified or unjustified.
appreciation/building of goodwill).

5. Complimentary Close E – End Stops (punctuation marks placed at the end of

It serves as the farewell part of the letter. the sentence)

6. Signature
It consists of the name of the signatory (sender) and his designation. C – Comma and other Punctuation Mark

Miscellaneous Parts
These parts are optional and therefore may be absent in the letter. H- Hyphenation and Spacing Compounds
1. Reference Line
It indicates the sequential number of the letter which is used for A- Abbreviation and Alignment
reference/filing purposes. Abbreviations are used sparingly in technical writing. A business writer
can make use of any of the following forms:
2. Attention Line
It bears the name of the addressee intended to read the letter if such name 1. Acronyms (CCP, UE, TUCP, AIDS, APEC, GMA, PICPA, PBA, etc.)
does not appear on the inside address. 2. Clipped or apocopated words (lipo, demo, exam, prelim, semi, lab, lib, eco,
sub, psych, etc.)
3. Subject Line 3. Blends or portmanteau words (infotech, medtech, techwrite, skylab, enercon,
It contains the topic of the letter or the title of the message elaborated in domsat, scifi, con ass, concon, etc.)
the body of the letter. 4. Conventional abbreviations (Dr., Atty., Gen., Gov., Cong., Fr., Sr., Jr., Bro.,
etc.)
4. Identification notation or reference initials

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

 (Unconventional abbreviations are not allowed in formal written business
communication. These include: & (for and), w/c (for which), w/ (for
with), w/o for (without), # (for number, and so on.)
N- Numbers
In business communication, numbers are written as words, figures, or both.
The rules are as follows:
1. Numbers as one digit are written as words.
Ex. There are seven sacraments.
2. Numbers of two or more digits are written as figures.
Ex. There are 27 students who attended the conference.
3. Numbers are written as figures if they precede units of measurements.
Ex. The customer ordered 25 kilos of sugar.
4. Numbers are written as words when they appear first in a sentence or direct
speech.
Ex. Thirty cases of AIDS have been discovered in the Philippines.
Ex. The customer asked, “What is the selling price?”
3. The first word of a direct quotation
Ex. The teacher said, “Pass your paper now.”
4. The first word of a line of poetry.
5. Words in titles of books, magazines, newspapers, movies, shows, etc.
6. The first word of the salutation or complimentary close of a letter
7. The names of natural and juridical persons (Mr. Contreras, San Miguel
Corporation)
8. The names of historical periods and events
9. The names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft
10. Words designating places, races, and languages
11. Words used to address people (Madam President)
12. Words or titles preceding names of people or used as epithets (Saint John the
Beloved)
13. The pronoun I
14. Words designating the Deity
15. The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays and holy days.
16. Names of courts and treaties
17. Registered trademarks and service marks
18. Names of planets, constellations, satellites, and other heavenly bodies

5. Numbers are written as words and figures enclosed in parentheses in business S- Spellings
documents and contracts. Misspellings occur everywhere because writers do not observe the basic rules
Ex. Pay to the order of Dr. Arnulfo Martinez the amount of TEN THOUSAND in spelling, as follows:
PESOS (P10,000.00).
We shall give the teacher ten (10) complimentary copies of the book. 1. Silent e. When adding suffixes, drop the e if the suffix begins with a vowel
and retain the e if the suffix begins with a consonant.
Ex. love + able = lovable love + ly = lovely
I- Italicization and Indention like + ing = liking like + ness = likeness
The following items are italicized in print: imagine + ation = imagination sore + ness = soreness

1. Titles of books, magazines, newspapers and periodicals 2. Final y. When adding suffixes, change y to i if y is preceded by a consonant
2. Names of ships, aircraft, and spacecraft and retain the spelling of the word to be affixed if y is preceded by a vowel.
3. Words, letters, and figures when referred to as words letters and figures. Ex. lady + es = ladies key + s = keys
Ex.The word inflammable does not have a prefix. marry + ed = married pray + ed =
The letter e is dropped before the suffix ing is added. prayed
The numbers 234 and 578 are even. 3. Final consonant. When adding suffixes, double the final consonant if it is
4. Foreign words and expressions that have not been assimilated in English preceded by a vowel and found in a one-syllable word or a two-syllable word
Ex. bon appétit, bon voyage, hasta la vista, etc. stressed on the final syllable and the suffix begins with a vowel.
5. Scientific names of plants and animals Ex. begin + ing = beginning benefit + ed = benefited
occur + ence = occurrence prefer + ence = preference
(stress shift)
C- Capitalization 4. EI and IE pronounced as long e. Remember to use i before e, except after c.
Generally, capitalization is used to signal the beginning of the sentence or the Ex. believe perceive
presence of a proper noun. Other than these two, the following are capitalized: relief conceit

1. The first word of the sentence or the sentence fragment.

Ex. Yes. In America.
2. The first word of a direct question

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)

 lOMoARcPSD|39963155 lOMoARcPSD|39963155

5. Plurals of Nouns. Nouns that end with a sibilant sound (s, z, sh, zh, ch, j, and 3. Modified Block
x) have es as the plural suffix. Otherwise, the nouns take the s as the plural Certain parts of the letter such as the dateline, the complimentary close, the signature
suffix. are aligned to the right to help balance the other parts of the letter which have a left
Ex. bus buses flash flashes girl girls hand alignment.
buzz buzzes test tests
judge judges cent cents
tax taxes E. HACKNEYED EXPRESSIONS TO AVOID IN BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
C.ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A BUSINESS LETTER
1. I beg to remain (old fashioned; no longer used in business communication)
The Opening
2. Pleasure (we take pleasure in) Overformal. Better say, “We are sending or we
This is an important part of the letter. In the opening sentence or sentences,
are glad to send.”
the writer should explain what the letter is all about. The writer should involve the
3. Thank you again (once is enough)
idea, which is of great interest to the reader.
4. Thanking you in advance (a trite device, may antagonize)
5. Pursuant to your order (overformal, better say following your directions)
Ex. We are pleased to tell you that your request of August 20 for a one-month
6. Permit me to say (no permit is needed, just say it)
leave with pay is granted. Your record has been of such faithful character that
7. We beg to acknowledge receipt (better – thank you for your letter of …)
you have earned the privilege. Your leave will be from October 1 to October
8. Attached you will find (overformal, better – we are attaching to, we are enclosing
30.
…)
9. At the present time (now is preferable)
10. At your earliest convenience, at an early date, at the earliest possible moment
The Closing
(overformal, better say “soon.”)
The closing sentence or sentences bring to a focus the action desired. It leaves
11. In as much as (just say,, because)
an echo of courtesy.
12. Please be good enough to advise (better – please tell us or please let us know)
While the first sentence of a business letter is a good place stressing the idea
that is of great interest to the reader, the closing sentence is the best place for
expressing an idea that is of prime interest to the reader. The final sentence offers and
excellent opportunity for making a request for action, if that is the purpose of the
letter.

Ex. We appreciate your inquiry and we will send the brochure tomorrow.

 Note: Always thank the people for their services. But let the thanks be Prepared by:
expressed after the service has been performed, not in advance. Thanking in
advance is unwise because the one who thanks in advance leaves the JOCELYN Y. ARROZAL
impression that he wants to save himself the trouble of expressing his KYLE DIANA R. MANIO
appreciation letter.

D. STYLES OF A BUSINESS LETTER

1. Full-Block Style
Everything under the letterhead is aligned along the left margin.

2. Semi-Block
This is exactly the same as the modified block except that the first line of each
paragraph is indented.

Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com) Downloaded by Parasol Markenson (parasolmarkenson@gmail.com)