Foundation of of Electrical and Electronics

Engineering

Dr. Balakumar P
Assistant Professor (Sr.) ,
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (SELECT)
 Module 1 and 3
Fundamental concepts and DC circuits:
Basic circuit elements and sources, series and parallel connection of circuit elements,
Ohm's Law, Kirchoff’s Laws, Source transformation, Node Voltage Analysis, Mesh
Current analysis.

Module 3: Network Theorems (A.C. and D.C) :

Thevenin’s and Norton's, Maximum power transfer and Superposition Theorems.

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 DC Circuits
Basic circuit elements and sources
• An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements.
A simple electric circuit is shown in Figure 1. It consists of three basic components: a
battery, a lamp, and connecting wires. Such a simple circuit can exist by itself; it has several
applications, such as a torch light, a search light, and so forth.

Figure 1: A simple electric circuit.

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 DC Circuits
• A Direct Current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
• An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies sinusoidal with time.
• Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a unit charge through an
element, measured in volts (V).
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb

Figure 2: Polarity of voltage 𝑽𝒂𝒃

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 DC Circuits
Circuit Elements
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and active
elements.
1. An active element is capable of generating energy while a passive element is not.
• Examples of passive elements are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
2. Typical active elements include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.
• The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that generally
deliver power to the circuit connected to them.
• There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent sources.

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 DC Circuits
• An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or
current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.

Figure: Symbols for independent voltage sources

• Similarly, an ideal independent current source is an active element that provides a specified
current completely independent of the voltage across the source.

Figure: Symbol for independent current source. 6

 DC Circuits
• An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity
is controlled by another voltage or current.

Figure: Symbols for: (a) dependent voltage source,

(b) dependent current source.
• Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in
Figure.
• Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other
element in the circuit, and the source can be voltage or current.
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 DC Circuits
It follows that there are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
• A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
• A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
• A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
• A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

8
 DC Circuits
Ohms Law:
Ohms law state that the voltage V across a resistor is directly proportional to the current i
flowing through the resistor.
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
V= Voltage
I= Current
R= Resistance

Figure: (a) Resistor, (b) Circuit symbol for resistance.

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow of electric current; it
is measured in ohms (Ω).
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 DC Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Algebraic sum of currents going away from or coming towards a node is zero. If the
current going away from the node is taken as negative, current coming towards the node is
positive or vice versa.

Node: A node is a point of connection between a three or circuit element.

Figure: Currents at a node illustrating KCL.

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 DC Circuits
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a
closed path(or loop) is zero.
Loop: A loop in an electrical circuits is a closed path starting at a node and proceeding
through circuit elements, eventually returning to the starting node.

Figure: A single-loop circuit illustrating KVL.

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 DC Circuits
Resistance in series and Parallel
Series Resistance
The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors connected in series is the sum of the
individual resistances.
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ 𝑹𝒏

Parallel resistance
The equivalent conductance of resistors connected in parallel is the sum of their
individual conductance.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +⋯
𝑹𝒆𝒒 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
• The equivalent resistance of a circuit or network between its any two points (or terminals)
is that single resistance which can replace the entire circuit between these points (or
terminals).

Series Resistance
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + ⋯ 𝑹𝒏

Parallel resistance
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒒 = + +⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑵 13
 DC Circuits
STAR (Y) CONNECTION
Three ends of resistors are connected in star fashion. A common node point of star connection
is known as neutral.

Three ways in which star connection may appear in a circuit.

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 DC Circuits
DELTA CONNECTION
When three resistors are connected in a fashion to form a closed mesh Δ, connection formed is
known as Delta Connection.

Three ways in which delta connection may appear in a circuit.

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 DC Circuits
DELTA TO STAR CONNECTION
Three resistors 𝑅𝐴𝐵 , 𝑅𝐵𝐶 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝐶𝐴 connected in delta form and its equivalent star connection
is shown below

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 DC Circuits
DELTA TO STAR CONNECTION

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 DC Circuits
DELTA TO STAR CONNECTION

Easy way to remember delta to star transformation is,

18
 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA CONNECTION
Three resistors 𝑅𝐴 , 𝑅𝐵 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝐶 connected in series form and its equivalent delta connection is
shown below

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 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA CONNECTION

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 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA CONNECTION
Easy way to remember star to delta transformation is,

Resistance between two terminals of Δ = Sum of star resistances connected to those

terminals + product of same two resistances divided by the third

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 DC Circuits
STAR\DELTA TRANSFORMATION

• If a star network has all resistances equal to R, its equivalent delta

has all resistances equal to 3R.
• If a delta network has all resistances equal to R, its equivalent star
has all resistances equal to R/3.

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 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Q. Convert the Y network to an equivalent Δ network.

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 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Sol:

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 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Q. Convert the Δ network to an equivalent Y network.

25
 DC Circuits
STAR To DELTA TRANSFORMATION

Sol:

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Example 1: Find the 𝑹𝑨𝑩 for the circuit shown in Fig.

Sol:
5 Ω and 1 Ω are connected in series. So, 5 Ω+1 Ω=6 𝜴

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
6Ω and 3Ω are connected in parallel. So,
6×3
=2 𝜴
6+3

2Ω and 2Ω are connected in series. So, 2Ω+2Ω=4 𝜴

6Ω and 4Ω are connected in parallel. So,

6×4
=2.4 𝜴
6+4

𝑹𝑨𝑩 =4+2.4+8=14.4𝜴
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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Example 2: Find the 𝑹𝑨𝑩 for the circuit shown in Fig.

Sol:
4 Ω , 5 Ω and 3Ω are connected in series. So, 4+5+3 Ω=12 𝜴

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
6Ω and 3Ω are connected in parallel. So,(6×3)/(6+3)=2 𝜴

3Ω and 3Ω are connected in series. So, 3+3 Ω= 6 𝜴

6Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel. So,(6×6)/(6+6)=3 𝜴

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Example 3: Find the 𝑹𝑨𝑩 for the circuit shown in Fig.

Sol:
1Ω and 5Ω are connected in series. So, 1+5=6𝜴

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
6Ω and 3Ω are connected in parallel. So,(6×3)/(6+3)=2 𝜴
12Ω and 4Ω are connected in parallel. So,(12×4)/(12+4)=3 𝜴

6Ω and 3Ω are connected in parallel. So,(6×3)/(6+3)=2 𝜴

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
1Ω and 2Ω are connected in series. So, 1+2 Ω= 3 𝜴

2Ω and 3Ω are connected in parallel. So,(2×3)/(2+3)=1.2 𝜴

𝑹𝑨𝑩 =10+1.2= 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝜴

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

Q. Calculate equivalent resistance across terminals A and B.

34
 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Soln: Replacing inner STAR into DELTA.

35
 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
15.8 ohm is in parallel with 5 ohm and 26.3 ohm is in parallel with 4 ohm, circuit becomes

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 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
Converting upper delta into star,

37
 DC Circuits
EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 4.23

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 DC Circuits
Voltage Division
Voltage division in series circuits of resistors:

Total voltage applied is equal to the sum of voltage drops 𝑉𝑅1 and 𝑉𝑅2 across 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
respectively.

𝑅1
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

39
 DC Circuits
Voltage Division
Example 1:
Find the voltage across the three resistance shown in Fig.

𝑅1 10
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉 = 60 = 10𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 10 + 20 + 30

𝑅2 20
𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉 = 60 = 20𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 10 + 20 + 30
𝑅3 30
𝑉𝑅3 = 𝑉 = 60 = 30𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 10 + 20 + 30
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 DC Circuits
Voltage Division
Example 2:
Find the voltage across the two resistance shown in Fig.

𝑅1 10
𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉 = 12 = 4𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10 + 20

𝑅2 20
𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉 = 12 = 8𝑉
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10 + 20

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 DC Circuits
Current Division
Current division in parallel circuits of resistors:

𝑅1 and 𝑅1 are parallel

𝑅1 . 𝑅2 𝑉
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑇 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅𝑒𝑞

𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 +𝐼2

𝑅2 𝑅1
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑇 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑇
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
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 DC Circuits
Current Division
Example 1: Find the magnitudes of total current, current through 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2

𝑺𝒐𝒍:
𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are parallel
𝑅1 . 𝑅2 10 × 20 𝑉 50
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = = 6.67 𝐼𝑇 = = = 7.5 𝐴
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 10 + 20 𝑅𝑒𝑞 6.67
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 +𝐼2

𝑅2 20 𝑅1 10
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑇 = 7.5 =5A 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑇 = 7.5 =2.5A
𝑅1 +𝑅2 10+20 𝑅1 +𝑅2 10+20
43
 DC Circuits
Current Division
Example 2: Find the current through 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 , if total current 𝐼𝑇 is 6A.

𝑺𝒐𝒍:
𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are parallel
𝐼𝑇 = 6 𝐴
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼1 +𝐼2
𝑅2 8
𝑰𝟏 = 𝐼𝑇 =6 = 𝟒A
𝑅1 +𝑅2 4+8

𝑅1 4
𝑰𝟐 = 𝐼𝑇 =6 =2A
𝑅1 +𝑅2 4+8
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 DC Circuits
Source Transformation
𝑉
• If voltage source is converted to current source, then current source 𝐼 = with parallel
𝑅𝑠𝑒

internal resistance equal to 𝑅𝑠𝑒 .

• If current source is converted to voltage source, the voltage source 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑠ℎ with series
internal resistance equal to 𝑅𝑠ℎ .
• The direction of current of equivalent current source is always from –Ve to +Ve internal to
the source.
• While converting current source to voltage source, polarities of voltage is always as +Ve
terminal of top of arrow as -Ve terminal at bottom of arrow as direction of current is
from –ve to the +Ve, internal to the source.

45
 DC Circuits
Source Transformation

Voltage Source to Current Source

𝑽
𝑰=
𝑹𝒔𝒆

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 DC Circuits
Source Transformation

Current Source to Voltage Source

𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝒔𝒉

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 DC Circuits
Example 1: Source Transformation
Transform a voltage source of 20 volts with an internal resistance of 5 𝛀 to current source

Example 2:
Convert the given current source of 50A with internal resistance of 10 𝛀 to the equivalent
voltage source.

Example 3: Voltage source to current source

48
 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Node is a three (or) more point (or) more branches are connected.

Steps to be followed in nodal analysis:

Step 1: Identify number of nodes.
Step 2: Mark the branch current.
Step 3: Write the node equations using KCL.
Step 4: Write the node equations in matrix form.
Step 5: Solve the matrix using crammers rule.

49
 DC Circuits
Example 1: Nodal Analysis
Calculate all the current using nodal analysis.

Solution:
Step 1:Identify number of nodes. Number of nodes is N= 2. So equations =N-1= 2-1=1

Step 2: Mark the branch current.

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 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Step 3: Write the node equations using KCL.

Node 1:
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

10 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1
= +
4 2 4
10 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1
= + +
4 2 4 4

2𝑉1 + 2𝑉1
2.5 =
4

𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟓

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 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

10 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1
= +
4 2 4
10−𝑉1 10−2.5
𝐼1 = = =1.875A
4 4

𝑉1 2.5
𝐼2 = = = 1.25A
2 2

𝑉1 2.5
𝐼3 = = = 0.625A
4 4

1.875=1.25+0.625

52
 DC Circuits
Example 2: Nodal Analysis
Using nodal analysis, determine the current in 8𝛀 resistor.

Solution:
Step 1:Identify number of nodes. Number of nodes is N= 3. So equations =N-1= 3-1=2

53
 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Step 2: Mark the branch current.

Reference node, V=0

Step 3: Write the node equations using KCL.

Node 1:
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

100 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
= +
1 4 2
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 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis

𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2
100 = 𝑉1 + + -
4 2 2

𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝑽𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽𝟐 ……… 𝟏

Node 2:
𝐼3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼5

𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
= +
2 4 8

𝑉1 1 1 1
0 = − + 𝑉2 + +
2 2 4 8

𝟎 = −𝟎. 𝟓𝑽𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝑽𝟐 ……… 𝟐

55
 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Step 4: Write the node equations in matrix form.
From eq. (1) & (2)
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓 𝑉1
=
𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕𝟓 𝑉2
Step 5: Solve using crammers rule.

Δ = 1.28

𝟏. 𝟕𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Δ2 = = 𝟓𝟎
−𝟎. 𝟓 𝟎
Δ2 50
𝑉2 = = = 39.06𝑉
Δ 1.28
𝑽𝟐 𝟑𝟗. 𝟎𝟔
𝑰𝟖𝜴 = = = 𝟒. 𝟖𝟖𝑨
𝟖 𝟖
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 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Example 3: Determine the current in all branches (Use nodal analysis).

Solution:
Step 1:Identify number of nodes. Number of nodes is N= 3. So equations =N-1= 3-1=2

57
 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Step 2: Mark the branch current.

Step 3: Write the node equations using KCL.

Node 1:
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3

30 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
= +
4 3 8

7.5 = 0.7𝑉1 − 0.125𝑉2 … … . (1)

58
 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Node 2:
𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼5

𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 60 − 𝑉2
= +
4 8 2

30 = −0.125𝑉1 + 0.875𝑉2 … … . (2)

Step 4: Write the node equations in matrix form.

From eq. (1) & (2)

𝟕. 𝟓 𝟎. 𝟕 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝑉1
=
𝟑𝟎 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕 𝑉2

59
 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
Step 5: Solve using crammers rule.

Δ = 0.5946

𝟕. 𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟏𝟐
Δ1 = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓
𝟑𝟎 𝟎. 𝟖𝟕
𝟎. 𝟕 𝟕. 𝟓
Δ2 = = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟗
−𝟎. 𝟏𝟐 𝟑𝟎
Δ1 10.125
𝑉1 = = = 17.028𝑉
Δ 0.5946
Δ2 21.9
𝑉2 = = = 36.83𝑉
Δ 0.5946

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 DC Circuits
Nodal Analysis
30−𝑉1 30−17.028
𝑰𝟏 = = = 3.25A
4 4
𝑉1 17.028
𝑰𝟐 = = = 5.67A
3 3

𝑉1 −𝑉2 17.028−36.83
𝑰𝟑 = = = −𝟐. 𝟒𝟕𝑨
8 8

𝑉2 36.83
𝑰𝟒 = = = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟎𝑨
4 4

60−𝑉2 60−36.83
𝑰𝟓 = = = 11.58A
2 2

61
 DC Circuits
Mesh Analysis

It is a closed path which does not have any other closed path inside it.
There are steps to be followed in mesh analysis:
Step 1: Identify number mesh.
Step 2: Mark the mesh current.
Step 3: Write the mesh equations using KVL.
Step 4: Convert those equation into matrix form.
Step 5: Solve the matrix using crammers rule.

62
 DC Circuits
Mesh Analysis
Example 1: Determine the power delivered in 18𝜴 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫 ( 𝐔𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐦𝐞𝐬𝐡 𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐥𝐲𝐬𝐢𝐬)

Solution:
Step 1: Identify number mesh.
Step 2: Mark the mesh current.

63
 DC Circuits
Mesh Analysis
Step 3: Write the mesh equations using KVL.
From mesh 1
2𝐼1 + 6 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 4𝐼1 − 120 = 0
2𝐼1 + 6𝐼1 − 6𝐼2 + 4𝐼1 = 120
12𝑰𝟏 −6𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 … … … … (𝟏)
From mesh 2
3.5𝐼2 + 21(𝐼2 − 𝐼3 ) + 4𝐼2 + 6(𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 0
−𝟔𝑰𝟏 + 𝟑𝟒. 𝟓𝑰𝟐 − 𝟐𝟒𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 ……..(2)
From mesh 3
3𝐼3 + 18𝐼3 + 21(𝐼3 − 𝐼2 ) = 0

−𝟐𝟏𝑰𝟐 + 𝟒𝟐𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎 … … . . (𝟑)

64
 DC Circuits
Mesh Analysis
Step 4: Convert those equation into matrix form.
120 12 −6 0 𝐼1
0 = −6 34.5 −21 𝐼2
0 0 −21 42 𝐼3
Step 5: Solve using crammers rule.
Δ = 10584
12 −6 120
Δ3 = −6 34.5 0 =15120
0 −21 0
𝜟𝟑 𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝑰𝟑 = = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝑨
𝜟 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟖𝟒

𝑷 = 𝐼 2 𝑅= 1.48282 × 18= 36.7W

65
 Module 3

Network Theorems (A.C. and D.C) :

 DC Circuits
Thevenin’s Theorem
It often occurs in practice that a particular element in a circuit is variable (usually called the
load) while other elements are fixed. As a typical example, a household outlet terminal may be
connected to different appliances constituting a variable load. Each time the variable element is
changed, the entire circuit has to be analyzed all over again. To avoid this problem, Thevenin’s
theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an equivalent
circuit.

Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source 𝑉𝑇ℎ in series with a resistor 𝑅𝑇ℎ , where 𝑉𝑇ℎ is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and 𝑅𝑇ℎ is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
67
 DC Circuits
Thevenin’s Theorem

Figure: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

68
 DC Circuits
Steps to Apply Thevenin’s Theorem
Step 1: Remove the load resistance through which current is to be calculated.
Step 2: Calculate the 𝑹𝑻𝒉 as viewed through the two terminal of the load resistance from
which current is to be calculated by removing that load resistance and replacing all
independent sources by their internal resistances. If the internal resistance is not known
then replace the independent voltage sources by short circuited and independent current
sources by open circuits.
Step 3: Calculate the voltage across these open circuited terminals, by using any of the
network simplification techniques. This is 𝑽𝑻𝒉 .
Step 4: Draw the thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Step 5: Reconnect the load resistance and calculate the current flowing in the load
resistance. 69
 DC Circuits
Q) For the circuit shown in Figure, find the thevenins’s equivalent across the 16Ω
resistor and find the current flowing through it.

To find 𝑹𝑻𝒉

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 DC Circuits
To find 𝑽𝑻𝒉

−20 + 4𝐼1 + 24𝐼1 + 30 = 0

𝟏𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = − 𝑨
𝟐𝟖

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 DC Circuits
−𝟐𝟎 + 𝟒𝑰𝟏 + 𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟎
𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟒𝟐𝟖𝟓

72
 DC Circuits
Thevenin’s Theorem
Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Figure, to the terminals
of a-b. Then find the current through 𝑹𝑳 = 6, 16, and 36 .

Solution
We find 𝑹𝑻𝒉 by turning off the 32-V voltage source (replacing it with a short circuit) and the
2-A current source (replacing it with an open circuit). The circuit becomes what is shown in
below Figure

73
 DC Circuits
Finding 𝑽𝑻𝒉

Applying mesh analysis to the two loops, we obtain

−𝟑𝟐 + 𝟒𝒊𝟏 + 𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟎

𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟑𝟎 74
 DC Circuits
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Figure. The current through 𝑅𝐿 is

75
 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Example 1: Find the value of 𝑹𝑳 for maximum power transfer in the circuit. Find the
maximum power.

Sol:
Step 1: To find the 𝑅𝑇ℎ
• To remove the 𝑹𝑳 .
• To short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the current source to find the 𝑅𝑇ℎ .

𝑅𝑇ℎ

76
 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
2Ω and 3Ω are connected in series. So, 2Ω+3Ω=5𝜴

6×12
6Ω and 12Ω are connected in parallel. So, =4𝜴
6+12

4Ω and 5Ω are connected in series. So, 4Ω+5Ω=9𝜴

𝑅𝑇ℎ =9𝜴
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 DC Circuits
Step 2: To find the 𝑽𝑻𝒉 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• To remove the 𝑹𝑳 to replace 𝑽𝑻𝒉 .

𝑰𝟐 = −𝟐𝑨
To apply KVL at outer Loop
−12 + 6𝐼1 + 3𝐼2 + 𝑉𝑇ℎ =0 ……. (1)

So need to find the 𝑰𝟏 . 𝐓𝐨 𝐰𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐞 𝐋𝐨𝐨𝐩 𝟏 𝐭𝐨 𝐦𝐞𝐬𝐡 𝐄𝐪.

−12 + 6𝐼1 + 12𝐼1 − 12𝐼2 =0 …….(2)
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 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Apply 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟐𝑨 to Eq. 2 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟐𝑨

−12 + 6𝐼1 + 12𝐼1 − 12(−2)=0

−12 + 6𝐼1 + 12𝐼1 + 24=0
𝟐
𝑰𝟏 =−
𝟑
𝟐
Apply 𝑰𝟏 =− 𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑰𝟐 = −𝟐𝑨 to Eq. 1, To find 𝑽𝑻𝒉
2
−12 + 6(− ) + 3(−2) + 𝑉𝑇ℎ =0
3

𝑽𝑻𝒉 =22V
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝒉 =9𝜴

𝑽𝟐𝑻𝒉 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = =13.4 W
𝟒𝑹𝑳 𝟒×𝟗
79
 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Example 2: Find the value of resistance 𝑹𝑳 for maximum power transfer and calculate
maximum power.

Sol:
Step 1 Calculation of 𝑽𝑻𝒉
To removing the variable resistor 𝑹𝑳 from network.

𝑰𝟐 − 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟒 … . . (𝟏)
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 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Apply KVL,
𝟖 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝟓𝑰𝟏 − 𝟓𝑰𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟎
−𝟔𝑰𝟏 − 𝟓𝑰𝟐 = 𝟐 … … . . (𝟐)

Solve Eq. (1) & (2), We get

𝑰𝟏 = -2A
𝑰𝟐 = 2A
Writing 𝑽𝑻𝒉 Eq.

𝟖 − 𝑰𝟏 − 𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟎
𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽

81
 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
(ii) Calculation of 𝑹𝑻𝒉
• Replacing the voltage by short circuit and current source by open circuit.

5Ω and 5Ω are connected in

series. So, 5Ω+5Ω=10𝜴

10Ω and 1Ω are connected 𝑹𝑻𝒉

10×1
in parallel. So, =0.91𝜴
10+1

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 DC Circuits
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

𝑽𝑻𝒉 =10V
𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝑻𝒉 =0.9𝟏𝜴

𝑽𝟐𝑻𝒉 𝟏𝟎𝟐
𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = = =27.47 W
𝟒𝑹𝑳 𝟒×𝟎.𝟗𝟏

83
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states the following: In any linear and bilateral network or circuit having
multiple independent sources, the response of an element will be equal to the algebraic sum of
the responses of that element by considering one source at a time.

1. Use the superposition theorem to find the current flowing in the 3 Ω resistance in the
circuit shown in the figure

84
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Solution
Considering only 20V Voltage source

5Ω and 3Ω are connected in series.

20
𝐼3Ω = = 2.5𝐴
5+3
Considering only 5A Current source
Applying in current division rule
5
𝐼3Ω = 5 = 3.125𝐴
5+3

𝑰𝟑𝜴 = 𝟐. 𝟓 + 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑨

85
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Verification:
Write the node 1 equation
20 − 𝑉 𝑉
+5=
5 3

𝑉 𝑉
4− +5=
5 3

𝑉 𝑉
9− =
5 3

𝑉 𝑉
9= +
3 5

𝑉 = 16.87𝑉

𝑽 𝟏𝟔. 𝟖𝟕
𝑰𝟑𝜴 = = = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟐𝟓𝑨
𝑹 𝟑
86
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
2. Use the superposition theorem to find the 4Ω resistance across the voltage (V) in the
circuit shown in the Figure.

Solution
Considering only 6V Voltage source
Applying in voltage division rule
4
𝑉4Ω = 6 = 2𝑉
8+4

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 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Considering only 3A Current source

Applying in current division rule

8
𝐼4Ω = 3 = 2𝐴
8+4
𝑉4Ω = 2 × 4 = 8𝑉

Verification: 𝑽𝟒𝜴 = 𝟐 + 𝟖 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽

Write the node 1 equation

6−𝑉 𝑉
5=
8 4

𝑽𝟒𝜴 = 𝟏𝟎𝑽

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 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
3. Use the superposition theorem to find the current flowing in the 3Ω resistance in
the circuit shown in the Figure.

Solution
Considering only 18V Voltage
source
𝑽 𝟏𝟖
𝑰𝟑𝜴 = = = 𝟑𝑨
𝑹 𝟔

89
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Considering only 24V Voltage source
Mesh 1 Equation
4𝐼1 + 8𝐼1 − 24 + 4 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0

4𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 6 (1)

Mesh 2 Equation
4(𝐼1 +𝐼2 ) + 3𝐼2 = 0

4𝐼1 + 7𝐼2 = 0 (2)

Solve the equation 1 and 2

𝑰𝟐 = −𝟏𝐀
90
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Considering only 3A Current source
Apply node 2 KCL
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
𝑉2 3= +
8 4
3 = −0.25𝑉1 + 0.375𝑉2 (1)

Apply node 1 KCL

𝐼3 = 𝐼4 + 𝐼5

𝑉2 − 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1
= +
4 3 4
0 = 0.834 − 0.25𝑉2 (2)
91
 DC Circuits
Superposition Theorem
Solve the equation (1) and (2)
𝑉1 = 3 𝑉
3
𝐼3Ω = = 1𝐴
3

𝑰𝟑𝜴 = 𝟑 − 𝟏 + 𝟏 = 𝟑𝑨

92
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem
Norton's theorem states that all linear circuits can be simplified to an equivalent circuit
with a single current source in parallel with a single resistor connected to a load.

1. Determine the Norton’s equivalent circuit at the terminal A and B for the circuit
shown in Figure.

Solution:
To find the 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝑹𝑵

𝑅𝑁 =3.3Ω
93
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem
To find the 𝑽𝑻𝒉
To the voltage division rule
10
𝑉10Ω = 20 10+5 = 13.34V

13.34
𝐼𝑁 = = 4𝐴
3.3
Norton’s Equivalent circuits

94
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem
2. Determine the Norton’s equivalent circuit at the terminal A and B for the circuit shown in
Figure.

Solution:

To find the 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝑹𝑵

𝑹𝑵 =3.3Ω

95
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem
To find the 𝑽𝑻𝒉

−20 + 10𝐼1 + 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 0 (1)

−20 + 10𝐼1 + 5𝐼1 + 10 = 0

𝑰𝟏 =0.66A

−20 + 10 × 0.66 + 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 0

𝑽𝑻𝒉 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝑽

96
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem
13.34
𝐼𝑁 = = 4𝐴
3.3
Norton’s Equivalent circuits

97
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem

Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in Fig

Solution:

To find the 𝑹𝑻𝒉 = 𝑹𝑵

98
 DC Circuits
Norton’s Theorem

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟐𝑨

5𝐼2 + 8𝐼2 + 4 𝐼2 − 𝐼1 + 8𝐼2 = 0

5𝐼2 + 8𝐼2 + 4 𝐼2 − 2 + 8𝐼2 = 0

𝐼2 = 0.8𝐴

𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟖 × 𝟓=4V
Norton’s Equivalent circuits

99