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The Internet of Things
The Internet of Things
From Data to Insight
Edited by
John Davies
British Telecommunications plc, Ipswich, UK
Carolina Fortuna
Jožef Stefan Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia
This edition first published 2020
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v
Contents
About the Editors xi

List of Contributors xiii
Foreword xvii
Acknowledgments xix
1 Introduction 1
John Davies and Carolina Fortuna
1.1 Stakeholders in IoT Ecosystems 3
1.2 Human and IoT Sensing, Reasoning, and Actuation: An Analogy 4
1.3 Replicability and Re-use in IoT 5
1.4 Overview 6
References 7
2 Connecting Devices: Access Networks 9

Paul Putland
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Overview of Access Networks 10
2.2.1 Existing Technologies Are Able to Cover a Number of IoT Scenarios 10
2.3 Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) 12
2.3.1 Long-Range (LoRa) Low-Power Wide Area Network 14
2.3.2 Sigfox Low-Power Wide Area Network 14
2.3.3 Weightless Low-Power Wide Area Network 15
2.4 Cellular Technologies 15
2.4.1 Emerging 5G Cellular Technology 16
2.5 Conclusion 18
References 18
3 Edge Computing 21
Mohammad Hossein Zoualfaghari, Simon Beddus, and Salman Taherizadeh
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Edge Computing Fundamentals 22
vi Contents
3.2.1 Edge Compute Strategies 22

3.2.2 Network Connectivity 25
3.3 Edge Computing Architecture 25
3.3.1 Device Overview 25
3.3.2 Edge Application Modules 26
3.3.3 IoT Runtime Environment 26
3.3.4 Device Management 27
3.3.5 Secure Runtime Environment 27
3.4 Implementing Edge Computing Solutions 28
3.4.1 Starter Configuration 28
3.4.2 Developer Tools 28
3.4.3 Edge Computing Frameworks 29
3.5 Zero-Touch Device On-boarding 30
3.6 Applying Edge Computing 32
3.7 Conclusions 33
References 33
4 Data Platforms: Interoperability and Insight 37

John Davies and Mike Fisher
4.1 Introduction 37
4.2 IoT Ecosystems 38
4.3 Context 40
4.4 Aspects of Interoperability 41
4.4.1 Discovery 41
4.4.2 Access Control 43
4.4.3 Data Access 44
4.5 Conclusion 48
References 49
5 Streaming Data Processing for IoT 51

Carolina Fortuna and Timotej Gale
5.1 Introduction 51
5.2 Fundamentals 52
5.2.1 Compression 52
5.2.2 Dimensionality Reduction 52
5.2.3 Summarization 53
5.2.4 Learning and Mining 53
5.2.5 Visualization 53
5.3 Architectures and Languages 54
5.4 Stream Analytics and Spectrum Sensing 56
5.4.1 Real-Time Notifications 57
5.4.2 Statistical Reporting 57
5.4.3 Custom Applications 58
5.5 Summary 59
References 60
Contents vii
6 Applied Machine Vision and IoT 63

V. García, N. Sánchez, J.A. Rodrigo, J.M. Menéndez, and J. Lalueza
6.1 Introduction: Machine Vision and the Proliferation of Smart Internet of Things
Driven Environments 63
6.2 Machine Vision Fundamentals 65
6.3 Overview of Relevant Work: Current Trends in Machine Vision in IoT 67
6.3.1 Improved Perception for IoT 67
6.3.2 Improved Interpretation and Learning for IoT 68
6.4 A Generic Deep Learning Framework for Improved Situation Awareness 69
6.5 Evaluating the Impact of Deep Learning in Different IoT Related Verticals 70
6.5.1 Sensing Critical Infrastructures Using Cognitive Drone-Based Systems 70
6.5.2 Sensing Public Spaces Using Smart Embedded Systems 71
6.5.3 Preventive Maintenance Service Comparison Based on Drone High-Definition
Images 72
6.6 Best Practice 74
6.7 Summary 75
References 75
7 Data Representation and Reasoning 79

Maria Maleshkova and Nicolas Seydoux
7.1 Introduction 79
7.2 Fundamentals 80
7.3 Semantic IoT and Semantic WoT (SWoT) 81
7.4 Semantics for IoT Integration 82
7.4.1 IoT Ontologies and IoT-O 83
7.4.2 The Digital Twin Approach 85
7.5 Use Case 87
7.6 Summary 88
References 89
8 Crowdsourcing and Human-in-the-Loop for IoT 91

Luis-Daniel Ibáñez, Neal Reeves, and Elena Simperl
8.1 Introduction 91
8.2 Crowdsourcing 92
8.3 Human-in-the-Loop 95
8.4 Spatial Crowdsourcing 97
8.5 Participatory Sensing 99
8.6 Conclusion 100
References 101
9 IoT Security: Experience Is an Expensive Teacher 107

Paul Kearney
9.1 Introduction 107
9.2 Why Is IoT Security Different from IT Security? 108
9.3 What Is Being Done to Address IoT Security Challenges? 110
viii Contents
9.3.1 Governments 110

9.3.2 Standards Bodies 111
9.3.3 Industry Groups 112
9.4 Picking the Low-Hanging Fruit 113
9.4.1 Basic Hygiene Factors 113
9.4.2 Methodologies and Compliance Frameworks 115
9.4.3 Labeling Schemes and Consumer Advice 116
9.5 Summary 117
References 118
10 IoT Data Privacy 121

Norihiro Okui, Vanessa Bracamonte, Shinsaku Kiyomoto, and Alistair Duke
10.2 Basic Concepts in IoT Data Privacy 122
10.2.1 What Is Personal Data? 122
10.2.2 General Requirements for Data Privacy 123
10.2.3 Personal Data and IoT 124
10.2.4 Existing Privacy Preservation Approaches 126
10.2.5 Toward a Standards-Based Approach in Support of PIMS Business Models 128
10.3 A Data Handling Framework Based on Consent Information and Privacy
Preferences 129
10.3.1 A Data Handling Framework 129
10.3.2 Privacy Preference Manager (PPM) 130
10.3.3 Implementation of the Framework 131
10.4 Standardization for a User-Centric Data Handling Architecture 132
10.4.1 Introduction to oneM2M 132
10.4.2 PPM in oneM2M 133
10.5 Example Use Cases 133
10.5.1 Services Based on Home Energy Data 133
10.5.2 HEMS Service 133
10.5.3 Delivery Service 134
10.6 Conclusions 137
References 137
11 Blockchain: Enabling Trust on the Internet of Things 141

Giampaolo Fiorentino, Carmelita Occhipinti, Antonello Corsi, Evandro Moro, John
Davies, and Alistair Duke
11.2 Distributed Ledger Technologies and the Blockchain 143
11.2.1 Distributed Ledger Technology Overview 143
11.2.2 Basic Concepts and Architecture 145
11.2.2.1 Consensus Algorithm 148
11.2.3 When to Deploy DLT 149
11.3 The Ledger of Things: Blockchain and IoT 150
11.4 Benefits and Challenges 150
Contents ix
11.5 Blockchain Use Cases 152

11.6 Conclusion 154
References 154
12 Healthcare 159
Duarte Gonçalves-Ferreira, Joana Ferreira, Bruno Oliveira, Ricardo Cruz-Correia,
and Pedro Pereira Rodrigues
12.1 Internet of Things in Healthcare Settings 159
12.1.1 Monitoring Patient Status in Hospitals 160
12.1.2 IoT from Healthcare to Everyday Life 160
12.1.3 Systems Interoperability 161
12.2 BigEHR: A Federated Repository for a Holistic Lifelong Health Record 163
12.2.1 Why a Federated Design? 164
12.2.2 System Architecture 164
12.3 Gathering IoT Health-Related Data 165
12.3.1 From Inside the Hospitals 166
12.3.2 Feeding Data from Outside Sources 166
12.4 Extracting Meaningful Information from IoT Data 167
12.4.1 Privacy Concerns 167
12.4.2 Distributed Reasoning 167
12.5 Outlook 168
Acknowledgments 169
References 169
13 Smart Energy 173

Artemis Voulkidis, Theodore Zahariadis, Konstantinos Kalaboukas, Francesca
Santori, and Matevž Vučnik
13.2 Use Case Description 175
13.2.1 The Role of 5G in the Smart Grid IoT Context 177
13.3 Reference Architecture 178
13.4 Use Case Validation 182
13.4.1 AMI-Based Continuous Power Quality Assessment System 183
13.5 Conclusion 187
Acknowledgment 187
References 187
14 Road Transport and Air Quality 189

Charles Carter and Chris Rushton
14.2 The Air Pollution Challenge 191
14.3 Road Traffic Air Pollution Reduction Strategies 193
14.4 Monitoring Air Pollution Using IoT 194
14.5 Use Case: Reducing Emissions Through an IoT-Based Advanced Traffic
Management System 196
x Contents
14.6 Limitations of Average Speed Air Quality Modeling 201

14.7 Future Roadmap and Summary 202
References 203
15 Conclusion 207
John Davies and Carolina Fortuna
15.1 Origins and Evolution 207
15.2 Why Now? 207
15.2.1 Falling Costs and Miniaturization 208
15.2.2 Societal Challenges and Resource Efficiency 208
15.2.3 Information Sharing Comes of Age 208
15.2.4 Managing Complexity 208
15.2.5 Technological Readiness 208
15.3 Maximizing the Value of Data 209
15.4 Commercial Opportunities 209
15.5 A Glimpse of the Future 210
References 212
Index 213
xi
About the Editors
Professor John Davies is Chief Researcher in BT’s Research & Innovation Department,
where he leads a team focused on Internet of Things technologies. He has a strong track
record of researching and innovating and his current research interests include the appli-
cation of Internet of Things and semantic technologies to smart cities, smart transport,
business intelligence, and information integration. He currently leads BT’s contribution
to the UK flagship Manchester-based CityVerve IoT smart city programme as well as the
H2020 NRG-5 Smart Energy project and he co-wrote the Hypercat IoT standard. John has
authored several technical books and written over 90 scientific publications. He is the inven-
tor of several patents. He is a Fellow of the British Computer Society and a Chartered
Engineer. John is a visiting professor at a number of UK universities and holds a PhD in
Artificial Intelligence from the University of Essex, UK.
Carolina Fortuna is a Senior Research Fellow at the Jožef Stefan Institute. She received
her BSc in 2006 from the Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania, her PhD in
2013 in Slovenia, was a postdoctoral research associate at Ghent University 2014–2015
in Belgium, and a visiting researcher at Stanford University, USA, in 2017. Her research
is interdisciplinary focusing on semantic technologies with applications in modeling of
communication and sensor systems and on combining semantic technologies, statistical
learning and networks for analyzing large datasets. She has participated in multiple
collaborative research projects, taking leadership roles in several. She has co-authored over
50 peer-reviewed publications and gained industry insight by working with Bloomberg LP
(New York) and Siemens PSE (Romania).
xiii
List of Contributors
Simon Beddus Alistair Duke

British Telecommunications plc British Telecommunications plc
Ipswich Ipswich
UK UK
Vanessa Bracamonte Joana Ferreira

KDDI Research, Inc. CINTESIS – Center for Health Technology
Saitama and Services Research
Japan Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade
do Porto
Charles Carter Porto
Smart Cities Journalist Portugal
London
UK Mike Fisher
British Telecommunications plc
Antonello Corsi Ipswich
Engineering Ingegneria Informatica Spa UK
Roma
Italy Giampaolo Fiorentino
Engineering Ingegneria Informatica Spa
Ricardo Cruz-Correia Roma
CINTESIS – Center for Health Technology Italy
and Services Research
Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Carolina Fortuna
do Porto Jožef Stefan Institute
Porto Ljubljana
Portugal Slovenia
John Davies Timotej Gale

British Telecommunications plc Jožef Stefan Institute
Ipswich Ljubljana
UK Slovenia
xiv List of Contributors
V. García Maria Maleshkova

Visiona Computer Science Institute
Madrid University of Bonn
Spain Bonn
Germany
Duarte Gonçalves-Ferreira
CINTESIS – Center for Health Technology J. M. Menéndez
and Services Research Grupo de Aplicación de
Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Telecomunicaciones Visuales
do Porto Universidad Politecnica de Madrid
Porto Madrid
Portugal Spain
Luis-Daniel Ibáñez Evandro Moro

Web and Internet Science Department British Telecommunications plc
University of Southampton Ipswich
Southampton UK
UK
Carmelita Occhipinti
Konstantinos Kalaboukas Cybernetics Lab
Singularlogic SA Cardito
Athens Italy
Greece
Norihiro Okui
Paul Kearney KDDI Research, Inc.
Department of Computer Science Saitama
Birmingham City University Japan
Birmingham
UK Bruno Oliveira
and CINTESIS – Center for Health Technology
Etisalat–BT Innovation Centere (EBTIC) and Services Research
Abu Dhabi Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade
United Arab Emirates do Porto
Porto
Shinsaku Kiyomoto Portugal
KDDI Research, Inc.
Saitama Paul Putland
Japan British Telecommunications plc
Ipswich
J. Lalueza UK
Visiona
Madrid
Spain
List of Contributors xv
Neal Reeves Elena Simperl

Web and Internet Science Department Web and Internet Science Department
University of Southampton University of Southampton
Southampton Southampton
UK UK
A. Rodrigo Salman Taherizadeh

Visiona Jožef Stefan Institute
Madrid Ljubljana
Spain Slovenia
Pedro Pereira Rodrigues Artemis Voulkidis

CINTESIS – Center for Health Technology Power Operations Ltd
and Services Research Swindon
Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade UK
do Porto
Porto Matevž Vučnik
Portugal Jožef Stefan Institute
Ljubljana
Chris Ruston Slovenia
Connected Places Catapult
London Theodore Zahariadis
UK TEI of Sterea Ellada
Lamia
N. Sánchez Greece
Visiona
Madrid Mohammad Hossein Zoualfaghari
Spain British Telecommunications plc
Ipswich
Francesca Santori UK
ASM
Terni
Italy
Nicolas Seydoux
Departments of SARA and MELODI
LAAS-CNRS, CNRS, INSA, IRIT
University of Toulouse
Toulouse
France
xvii
Foreword
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the next phase in the evolution of the Internet and will trans-
form our business and personal lives in many areas. IoT refers to the increasing trend for
many types of objects including vehicles, environmental sensors, traffic sensors, clothing,
and all kinds of consumer goods to be connected to the Internet and to have the ability to
sense, communicate, network, and produce new information. The information generated
by IoT devices is already exploited in a wide range of early applications: there are existing
uses in the field of transport, smart cities, retail, logistics, home automation, and industrial
control among others.
The IoT will generate massive volumes of data that flow to the computers for analysis,
resulting in the collection of much richer information and insights in real time and used by
automated systems to respond intelligently with appropriate actions.
The IoT has been a recurrent theme among commentators since the term was coined in
the late 1990s. It involves a radical new view of networked ICT and the relationship between
information systems and the physical world. The vision of IoT is that any physical object
can be given the ability to measure and respond to its environment and to communicate
with other objects or with computer systems anywhere in the world. This is now becoming
technologically feasible and commercially viable.
Recently, a number of technological and socioeconomic drivers for the IoT have emerged,
leading to expectations of very rapid growth over the next 5–10 years.
A key factor is the falling cost of essential components that will turn things into connected
devices. Gartner claims components such as Wi-Fi radios, GPS chips, or microcontrollers
will fall toward less than €1 each in the near term when purchased in volume.
Another driver is the fact that the efficient use of natural resources is becoming increas-
ingly important – with a new emphasis on costs and security of supply, as well as con-
cerns about sustainability. Governments and organizations are motivated to improve the
efficiency of their operations and are looking to technological solutions. Urbanization con-
tinues to increase globally, and cities are an efficient way to structure societies where natural
resources are constrained. The IoT has a central role to play in making more efficient and
effective use of finite resources. For example, traffic congestion is now estimated to cost the
UK economy more than £300 billion between 2013 and 2030. IoT applications providing
intelligent management and improved communication with road users have the potential
to reduce congestion – and hence pollution – significantly.
xviii Foreword
From a technological point of view, achieving the scale and connectivity envisaged for
the IoT depends on the ability to deploy and operate connected sensors, controllers, and
actuators cheaply and easily. Network access has rapidly improved, with a range of wired
and wireless access technologies now providing a wide coverage. In addition to cellular and
Wi-Fi networks, low power radio technologies well-suited to machine-to-machine commu-
nication patterns are becoming available. In addition, 5G networks with a much enhanced
bandwidth and latency characteristics will be deployed in the near future. Flexible comput-
ing infrastructures such as Cloud are now well established and offer the ability to deploy
applications on demand in any region of the world.
Worldwide, there are today approximately 1.5 billion PCs and more than 1 billion mobile
phones connected to the Internet. The IoT will greatly expand the number of connected
devices by facilitating a wide range of uniquely identifiable new devices to be connected.
An often-quoted estimate is that there will be 25 billion objects connected by 2020. These
new networked devices can use the Internet to publish data about their status and to receive
data from other devices and human users.
In short, the time is right for IoT.
IoT applications have a characteristic structure with three major layers: (i) collecting data
from or delivering messages to devices, (ii) enrichment of data to generate information
in context, and (iii) applications that process information and initiate appropriate actions.
These are primary activities in the IoT value chain with common requirements (e.g. secure
distribution, digital storage, and computational processing) that can be generically sup-
ported. This volume covers all the major technologies required to support this value chain,
including connectivity, security, data privacy and trust, and a range of AI and related tech-
niques for extracting valuable and actionable insight from the IoT data.
By reading the book, readers new to this area, albeit having some basic ICT background,
will become well acquainted with the concepts, components, technologies, and application
areas related to and enabled by IoT. Readers already having some acquaintance with IoT
will deepen their insight into IoT technologies as well as novel application areas.
March 2019 Prof. Tim Whitley

Managing Director, BT Labs
Adastral Park
Martlesham
UK
xix
Acknowledgments
The editors wish to thank Dr. Andrew Reeves for proofreading a number of chapters, Paul
Deans for valuable input on graphical design, and Maruša Mazej for reworking the figures
and thereby improving the appearance and accessibility of the book.
Chapters 11 and 13 are partly based on work done on the NRG5 project, which received
funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme
under grant agreement No. 762013.
1
Introduction
John Davies 1 and Carolina Fortuna 2
1
2
The physical world is becoming ever more closely connected to information systems as sen-
sors and actuators are incorporated into a wide variety of physical objects – from highways
to pacemakers to cattle to running shoes to factories – and then connected to the Internet
via a range of wired and wireless networks. This is the Internet of Things (IoT) and it is
already generating massive volumes of data. The result is that much richer information can
be collected (in real time) and used by automated systems to provide actionable insight and
to respond to changing contexts with appropriate intelligent actions. IoT has rapidly moved
from the conceptual phase to widespread use in real-world applications in recent years.
The IoT will deliver significant innovation in many different areas, including future
cities, transport, health and social care, manufacturing, and agriculture. Sensors can now
be deployed at low cost to instrument the world to a far greater extent than has been
possible before. There is increasing recognition of the potential value in opening up data
resources so that they can be exploited more fully.
At the highest level, many of the IoT applications being considered appear similar –
involving the collection of information from a range of sensors and other sources, interpret-
ing this in a specific context, and then making better decisions that improve a behaviour or
a process. For instance, smart watches or other types of wearable sensing devices are able to
drive improvements in our behaviour toward a healthier daily routine. Merchandise track-
ing sensors can lead to a better understanding of supply chains and deliver optimization of
costs and minimization of carbon footprints. IoT has a unique potential for automating and
improving man-made systems and behaviours by enabling unprecedented understanding
and insight. For example, IoT data enabled a recent comprehensive global study across
111 countries on the impact of physical activity variation and the built environment on
health [1].
The IoT has been a recurrent theme among commentators since the term was coined
in the late 1990s. The concept has evolved from early work on Radio Frequency Identifier
(RFID) technology which represented a hardware related break-through that aimed to con-
nect everyday objects to a network. This perhaps constituted the first wave of the IoT, which
then developed beyond the initial hardware world innovation, and focused increasingly
The Internet of Things: From Data to Insight, First Edition. Edited by John Davies and Carolina Fortuna.
© 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 Introduction
ENVIRONMENT SENSORS CONNECTIVITY COMPUTATION APPLICATION
Light Sensor Wi-Fi Data Analytics Smart Street

Lighting
Bin Usage MESH Data Access Waste

Management
Vehicle UNB Interoperability Tracking Assets

Temeletry
Soil 5G Edge Smart

Moisture Computing Parking
Parking WPAN Cloud Driver

Sensor Computing Assist
RFID LORA
Trace
Privacy / Security / Trust
Figure 1.1 The IoT ecosystem.
on developing new types of sensors and sensing materials, as well as on developing new
communication technologies and protocols. As a result, a wide variety of new commu-
nication technologies emerged in the early years of the twenty-first century which were
able to support the ubiquitous deployment of a wide variety of sensors. We refer to this as
the second wave of IoT. In the last decade, the focus of IoT has shifted to data collection,
1.1 Stakeholders in IoT Ecosystems 3
processing and security aspects and this period is termed the third wave of IoT. This book
focuses primarily on this most recent wave and covers all key aspects including data man-
agement, processing, and analytics as well as security, privacy and trust as depicted in
Figure 1.1. Real-world examples are given that show the application of IoT technologies
in a number of different sectors.
1.1 Stakeholders in IoT Ecosystems

A number of different actors typically participate in any deployment of IoT technology
and we will refer to this set of stakeholders and the relationships between them as the IoT
ecosystem. Such stakeholders may play one or more different roles. These include sensor
providers, connectivity providers, information providers, application developers, analytics
service providers, platform providers, and end users of information and applications.
Information providers in IoT ecosystems are often owners of sensor deployments. The
primary purpose of their sensors may be for their own use but they may choose to make
some of their data available to others, either on a commercial basis, to meet their obliga-
tions (particularly for public sector organizations), or for the general good. Various data
processing platforms may also be information providers, even if they are not directly asso-
ciated with “Things.” We refer to these as derived information providers; while not being
the primary source of any information, they create value by combining data from multi-
ple sources, transforming or applying various analytical techniques. These additive data
sources could include: contextual (e.g. geographical, administrative) information; notifica-
tions of events such as traffic incidents and sporting fixtures; or, perhaps, rare events such
as anomalies in a production process.
In efficient IoT ecosystems, information providers should be able to easily publish their
services or data resources and advertise their availability via an easily accessible catalogue
so that potential users can independently discover and assess their utility. This scenario is
perhaps similar to the app stores that are commonplace today to make applications easily
available. It is important to note that making data available should not imply relinquishing
ownership rights; consequently, information providers also need the ability to define access
controls, together with terms and conditions for use of the data they publish.
Platform providers have a key enabling role in the IoT ecosystem. They do not directly
provide information or build dedicated services or applications but support stakeholders
in other roles by providing a set of functionalities that all can use. This allows other par-
ticipants in the ecosystem to focus on their own core activities and helps to accelerate
innovation in the ecosystem. Platform providers may provide computing and storage infras-
tructure, as well as analytics services, which could include artificial intelligence (AI) capa-
bilities such as summarization, enrichment, and reasoning.
Each platform provider will use specialist hardware and software tools and offer general-
purpose frameworks that an end user can exploit to define their own workflows. For
instance, an edge or cloud provider offers on demand compute and storage resources that
can be configured and modified on demand by users. Certain platform providers, typically
application domain experts, offer a more complete service, including consultancy services,
to support end users who may not have the necessary systems, data science, or analytics
expertise.
4 1 Introduction
Application developers produce applications that process the available data within a
specific context to produce actionable insight for end users. Application developers should
be able to discover what data and platform resources are available to them, what the key
features and costs of each resource are, and assess which ones meet the needs of the appli-
cations that they want to build. This includes both the information content of the resources
and practical considerations for the resources, such as dependability (accuracy, availability,
etc.), conditions of use, or commercial considerations.
End users participate in the ecosystem by using the information and applications that
are made available to them by other stakeholders. The end users can be private persons or
institutional decision makers. As the ultimate beneficiaries of the functionality provided by
the other stakeholders, it is important that their experience is positive and the ecosystem
delivers real value for them. An IoT ecosystem will not be sustainable without the trust of
its end users.
For individual end users, participation in the ecosystem is generally via an application.
Often this application will make use of information that is generated through their use
of the application, for example the user’s location is often used as a data source by appli-
cations on mobile phones. The situation where the individual is an information provider
needs to be addressed with care, particularly where personally identifiable or potentially
sensitive information may be involved. Open engagement with end users that ensures they
are properly informed and understand that they are included in the ecosystem is essential.
1.2 Human and IoT Sensing, Reasoning, and Actuation:

An Analogy
Along with IoT, artificial intelligence (AI) comprises an increasingly pervasive and impor-
tant set of technologies. Recent years have seen significant advances in AI in a number of
areas [2]. IoT and AI are inevitably interconnected, given the vast volumes of rich data gen-
erated by IoT and the ever-increasing capability of AI systems to analyze, extract insight,
and make decisions from that data. Thus, any discussion of the role and impact of AI would
be incomplete without consideration of the link to IoT and in this volume a number of
chapters are included that discuss the role of AI in IoT systems.
The vision of the IoT is that digital systems can be given the ability to sense, process,
and extract useful information and actionable insight from the world and respond to the
environment accordingly (typically via actuation). From an AI and robotics perspective, we
can make an analogy with human sensing/actuating capabilities and the five human senses
that receive inputs from the external environment. These stimuli are sent to the brain via
the nervous system, and finally the brain processes the stimuli as depicted in Figure 1.2. The
result is typically information generation and in some cases is also the initiation of action:
the brain transmits commands to muscles, which then trigger motion or speech, or another
appropriate response.
By analogy, the “things” in the IoT are the sense organs, which detect the stimuli. Devices
featuring microphones detect sound; ones featuring gas sensors are able to detect gases
such as volatile organic compounds; ones featuring cameras are able to record images or
videos; ones featuring accelerometers are able to record motion and vibrations; and so on.
1.3 Replicability and Re-use in IoT 5
Figure 1.2 Human versus IoT: the sense, process, and actuate analogy.
The sensed data can then be processed locally on the devices (“edge processing” in the ter-
minology of IoT) or sent via wireless or wired technology to data platforms (processing and
storage engines, such as the Information Exchange depicted in Figure 1.1). This model is
similar to how stimuli from sensory organs are sent via the nerves to the brain. These pro-
cessing and storage engines then process the received information and generate actionable
insight or other types of knowledge. In more advanced applications, systems can also initi-
ate an action such as adjusting a setting in a heating system, sending a tweet, or actuating
hardware controlling an industrial process.
One key distinction between the IoT and the way in which humans process and react
to sense data is that, while in the case of the humans the sensors and processors are
co-located, in the case of IoT the system is typically distributed as shown in Figure 1.2. This
analogy has inspired researchers and enthusiasts for decades, but, in spite of some reports
in the media, relevant sensorics, robotics, and AI technologies are still far from achieving
human capabilities.
1.3 Replicability and Re-use in IoT

There are two important classes of sensor-based IoT applications – those that aim to moni-
tor and respond to time-sensitive conditions and those that collect data over a longer period
of time for analysis of a longitudinal dataset. In either case, much of the time and effort
involved can be spent on activities that are generic. It is advantageous to build new applica-
tions in an environment where these generic problems have already been solved by others,
with robust solutions available to all.
A key technical aspect of IoT is the need to work at a very large scale (many devices,
large volumes of data, and with ever-increased scope for automation). We are also seeing
increasing potential to share information much more widely. These needs are being driven
by ever-decreasing component costs and device miniaturization. As explained above, an
IoT ecosystem consists of a number of independent stakeholders, all sharing a common
interest in particular kinds of information and obtaining benefit from participation in the
ecosystem. This could be as a commercial provider of information or analytic services, as
an application developer or as an end user, for example.
Use of shared services and facilities generally involves a compromise – typically giving
up some level of direct control in return for reduced costs. In the case of today’s global
6 1 Introduction
communications networks (including the Internet), the case for common services is very
strong. Cloud computing and storage are also becoming widely accepted, although there
are still many situations where private infrastructure is preferred. The potential for an IoT
ecosystem to stimulate and enable innovation is clear, but all participants need to have con-
fidence in the value proposition and be convinced that it meets their needs. If this is not the
case then a sustainable ecosystem will not be possible. Areas of concern for participants
will include security and trust, respect for personal and commercial rights, dependability,
performance, the ability to comply with legal and regulatory obligations, and cost. Pre-
dictability, simplicity, and flexibility are additional important characteristics.
1.4 Overview
In this book, we address the entire vertical technology stack of IoT, with special emphasis
on the data aggregation, processing, management, analysis, and exploitation aspects.
Importantly, we also discuss recent developments in distributed trust, security, and pri-
vacy options. Currently we are at a critical point in the development of IoT. While there is a
clear need for sensor-based, data-driven decision making with the potential for significant
commercial and societal benefits, there are also increasing data misuse concerns that mali-
cious users could abuse, with such a system causing unintended actions and destabilizing
normal operation.
This book is comprised of two main parts. Firstly, it brings together a description of the
full technology stack of IoT with, as mentioned, a focus on the data-driven aspects. These
include data modeling, processing, and security. There is also discussion on the critical
related aspects of connectivity, privacy, and trust. The second part of the book explains how
this technology is being applied in practice and the benefits that it is delivering by providing
a number of chapters describing specific applications across a number of industry sectors.
The first part of the book can be seen as comprising three subparts. The first subpart,
formed of Chapters 2 and 3, introduces data collection (connectivity) and computational
infrastructure. The second subpart, comprised of Chapters 4 to 8 discusses the various
aspects of data processing. Finally, Chapters 9 to 11 discuss security, trust, and privacy chal-
lenges as related to IoT.
More specifically, Chapter 2 analyzes connectivity options for the IoT, with particular
focus on dedicated low-power wide-area network and cellular technologies. Enabling
low-power communications is perhaps the most important challenge for IoT devices,
which are often battery-operated. Chapter 3 introduces emerging edge computing archi-
tectures and technologies. Topics include data computation close to the network edge as
well as the challenge of the efficient management of large numbers of devices through
their lifecycle.
Chapter 4 discusses IoT data platforms and the need for data interoperability, so that data
coming from various IoT systems can be more easily integrated for developing informed
decision-making systems and thereby maximizing the value of IoT data. Chapter 5 focuses
on architectures and emerging technologies that enable the processing of streaming data.
IoT deployments in several application areas, especially for fault detection in critical
systems, should produce real-time insights for alerting and decision making, meaning
References 7
that specialized data stream processing systems are often required. Chapter 6 describes
the important role of computer vision in IoT, particularly in drone-operated scenarios
using relatively lightweight computation. Chapter 7 introduces structured knowledge
representation and reasoning technologies for IoT. This chapter can be seen as showing the
suitability of symbolic AI applied to IoT. Chapter 8 then overviews the role of humans in
crowdsourcing IoT data collection as well as data annotation and labeling for AI algorithms.
Chapter 9 discusses security challenges in an IoT world and provides general guidelines
for preventing undesired events. Chapter 10 considers distributed ledger technology, also
known as blockchain, as a possible trust enabler in an IoT ecosystem. Chapter 11 reviews
data privacy standards, regulations, and technologies that are relevant for particular types
of IoT-generated data such as in the healthcare domain.
The second part of the book comprises three chapters focused on the application of
IoT technologies in selected application areas: healthcare, energy, and air quality and
road transportation. Chapter 12 shows the important role of IoT data representation,
interoperability, and privacy in integrated digital infrastructures for hospitals. Chapter 13
shows the application of IoT technology and the need for trust and for real-time processing
systems in emerging smart grid energy systems. Finally, Chapter 14 discusses the role of
IoT in optimizing road transportation for improved air quality.
We conclude by discussing the future outlook for IoT and related technologies.
References
1 Althoff, T., Sosič, R., Hicks, J.L. et al. (2017). Large-scale physical activity data reveal
worldwide activity inequality. Nature 547 (7663): 336.
2 Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., and Hinton, G.E. (2012). Image net classification with deep
convolutional neural networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems.
9
Connecting Devices: Access Networks

Paul Putland
2.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we discuss the set of network access technologies used for the Internet
of Things (IoT). We describe the scope of “things” that can be connected and the wide range
of requirements placed on the networks to support the many different types of device. We
describe how existing networking technologies can support some of these devices and con-
nectivity requirements, and then look in detail at some of the new network technologies
and capabilities that are being developed specifically to support IoT.
The connectivity of IoT devices is achieved through the access network – that part of the
network which is concerned with moving data to and from a sensor or edge device into
a backhaul network, often via a gateway. The number and complexity of devices that can
be connected is enormous, covering a range of potential use cases and scenarios, and to
understand the range of requirements for access networks, there is a need to understand
the scope of the term “Thing.” Due to the wide range of devices and sensors that can be
used in IoT solutions, it is not possible to connect all potential devices using a single net-
working technology. Instead, a range of technology and networking options are available
to meet particular requirements – there is no single “best” solution for all scenarios. In order
to understand the technical choices in any particular environment, it is useful to under-
stand the key determining factors. We will examine the key requirements that determine
the choice of network, briefly look at how a range of existing network capabilities can meet
a large proportion of these needs, but then explore in more detail some of the newer net-
working technologies that are being developed specifically to support the uses that cases
demand from the IoT.
Traditional networks tend to fall into two main classes: voice and data. Voice services
require low latency and data rates, whereas data-based communications can have a range
of requirements on latency and data rates. IoT networks are inherently data networks, but
their requirements vary from traditional multimedia communications for which current
data networks have been principally designed. Furthermore, the scale of IoT in terms of the
number of connected devices is significantly greater than that for human-operated devices
10 2 Connecting Devices: Access Networks
(such as phones) for which traditional networks were originally designed. When designing
or selecting an appropriate connectivity technology for IoT, the key considerations are:
• Data rate. How much data needs to be transmitted and how often? Data rate requirements
can range from real-time video streaming from high-definition cameras, through to smart
parking sensors, which may only transmit 10 times a day or less, with each message only
being a small number of bits.
• Power availability. In the video scenario above, the camera requires a continuous power
feed, both for its own operation but also to support the network connection, whereas
a smart parking sensor that has been buried in the road surface would have to run off
a battery for several years. Although these are two examples at opposite ends of the
power requirements spectrum, they demonstrate that access to power is crucial for high-
throughput devices, whereas devices that are required to run off batteries for several years
will have lower bandwidth and throughput capabilities, and thus require different net-
working technology to support this.
• Range. Use cases vary from short distance, such as homes, offices, cars, and factories,
through to long ranges for wider area city networks, deep in-building penetration, or
rural use cases such as agriculture.
• Cost. Low-cost modules and networks are required for several use cases in order to sup-
port the business models to make deployment and operation of devices and sensors com-
mercially viable, so becomes a key factor in real-world deployments.
Starting from the new type of data delivery infrastructure required by IoT and these four
key considerations, we analyze well-established and traditional connectivity technologies
as well as emerging IoT-specific technologies. We discuss and illustrate the design trade-offs
with a focus on the emerging technologies dedicated to IoT requirements.
2.2 Overview of Access Networks
Several existing network capabilities, covering both fixed and wireless technologies, support
a number of the requirements for IoT networks. Short-range, energy-efficient, and typically
a high data rate can be delivered through (wireless) personal area networks (WPAN), which
include technologies such as Bluetooth and ZigBee. A mid-range high data rate can be deliv-
ered via a (wireless) local area network (WLAN), which typically means Wi-Fi, or by using
Ethernet over a fixed network. Long-range, energy-efficient, and low data rates can be deliv-
ered by new low-power wide area networks (LP-WANs), while long range flexible data rates
can be delivered through cellular networks, as depicted in Figure 2.1.
2.2.1 Existing Technologies Are Able to Cover a Number of IoT Scenarios

Short- and mid-range wireless networks, such as Zigbee [1]/IEEE 802.15.4 [2], Bluetooth
[3], and Wi-Fi [4]/IEEE 802.11 [5] are suitable for scenarios where the device is close to
the receiving gateway, such as wearable devices, homes, offices, cars, and factories. Some
short-range solutions, such as Zigbee, are also capable of meshing to form longer range net-
works, and have a master controller every so often that is linked back to other networks.
2.2 Overview of Access Networks 11
Battery Life Data Rate
year LPWAN 1 KB
month 1 MB
W(PAN)
W(LAN)
100 MB
day CELLULAR
Range
1m 1 km 10 km
Figure 2.1 Range, battery life, and data rate for network technologies.
In both cases, once the data reaches a router/hub, then the data is transferred to a back-
haul network.
Mesh networks, some of them proprietary using closed protocols, can also be used for
IoT applications, but because each node must continuously scan for incoming messages
and then re-transmit to the next node, they are power hungry and can only be used where
there is power available for each node. Some smart street lighting solutions use mesh net-
works, as there is power available at each lamp post, and lamp posts are reasonably close
together.
Cellular (2G/3G/4G) networks [6] standardized by the 3GPP [7] provide mid- to long-
range capabilities. Initially they have been designed for voice communications, subse-
quently enabled for data communications, while the next generation (5G) of cellular
networks are enabling very diverse application requirements, including those for IoT.
Satellite communications [8] are increasingly being used to connect remote devices, such
as monitoring in the polar regions or in other remote areas such as oceans, and are widely
used for location services via GPS. Being rather expensive and battery consuming, such
networks are typically used for critical or very special applications.
Wired networks are also used for IoT. For instance, a CCTV camera can be considered
to be an IoT device, in that data could be sent to a central platform and then accessed by
applications and analytics software. Other examples where sensors are connected by fixed
wires are in the retail environment, where sensors may track movements of people through
a store and to measure dwell times.
However, there are two areas where the network requirements cannot be delivered by
existing technologies and have led to the creation of new technologies, specifically designed
for the IoT, and the rest of this chapter will focus on these. The first of these is designed to
support devices that support long-range, low data rate, low-power devices, while the second
area is for very low latency/high-throughput scenarios, such as autonomous vehicles inter-
acting with the environment, or for human/machine interaction, such as remote surgery.
2.3 Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN)

As the name suggests, Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) technologies [9, 10] are
required for devices that need long-range and low-power consumption in the end device,
although they are also associated with low data rates, and use cases where there are a large
number of devices, such as dense deployments in cities or buildings. Technologies such
as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and Zigbee do not provide the range required, and standard cellu-
lar machine to machine (M2M) networks are too expensive for many of the use cases and
consume too much power to allow battery operation for multiple years.
There are several competing technologies in the LPWAN space and we will quickly look
at some of the key choices to be made. The first criteria is the choice of spectrum frequency,
whether to use licensed or unlicensed spectrum, and how to use it. Licensed spectrum is
owned by mobile operators, and the technology is very heavily standards based. New stan-
dards can take a significant time to appear, so while new standards to support LPWANs were
being developed by the relevant standards bodies for the mobile operators, the initial forays
into IoT networks were in the unlicensed spectrum, which also has the cost advantage of
being free.
The range of a wireless network is predominantly driven by two factors: the output power
of the transmitter and the frequency of the radio spectrum used. For a fixed output power,
lower frequencies travel further, so in general LPWANs tend to operate at lower frequencies,
typically less than 1 GHz. For comparison, Wi-Fi operates at 2.4 and 5 GHz.
From a commercial perspective, one of the key considerations to enable ecosystems to
grow and then for vendors to sell equipment into scale markets is access to spectrum across
large geographic areas in designated frequency bands. On a global level, such a band is
available at 2.4 GHz, and some companies, such as Ingenu [11], use this band, but most
solutions are in bands that are less than 1 GHz to assist long-range coverage. In the EU,
there is a band available at 868 MHz – the so-called ISM (Industrial, Scientific, Medicine)
band – and in the USA, there is a similar band at 915 MHz. Several competing technologies
[12] have been developed to take advantage of these spectrum bands, such as Sigfox [12],
LoRaWAN [13], and Weightless [14].
Although this spectrum is unlicensed, it is still bound by rules and any system must
operate under conditions set by the local regulator. Since it is a shared spectrum, any sin-
gle device cannot have exclusive access to the network, and the technologies use various
approaches to enable fair use of the spectrum. Some protocols use a “listen then talk”
approach to avoid collisions, but this has an impact on battery life, while others just trans-
mit and wait for an acknowledgment, and if no acknowledgment is received, the device
then resends according to pre-set algorithms. There are also restrictions set by local regu-
lators, typically covering duty cycle and output power. In the UK, these are governed by
Ofcom, and include conditions that limit the maximum output power (14 dBm) and duty
cycle (the amount of time a device can transmit) to 1% for the 868 MHz band, although there
are variations based on exact frequency used and whether the device is a gateway or sensor.
The impact of these rules, plus the fact that it is a shared spectrum, limit the use of unli-
censed spectrum to those use cases where absolute quality of service is not essential, due
to the limits on the number of messages that can be transmitted and the fact that some
messages may not get delivered due to collisions or interference. For example, in a large
2.3 Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN) 13
car park with perhaps 500 spaces, missing the arrival or departure of one or two cars a day
does not invalidate the overall service. If the quality of service is a key requirement for a
particular use case, then using a licensed spectrum is the preferred option.
In terms of power usage, there are several options to conserve battery life. Powering the
radio transmitter to send data is the main energy drain, so one way to conserve power is to
use an asynchronous protocol, in which the end device does not need to constantly interact
with the network so can spend longer periods asleep with the radio powered down. Long
range (LoRa) [12, 13] is a technology that uses this approach. Another key factor is the trans-
mit current used to power the radio. Cellular modulation [6, 15] needs a linear transmitter
for the modulation, and these require significantly more power than non-linear modulation
systems, such as LoRa.
The next criterion is the approach taken to maximize range, given the constraints on
power output and choice of spectrum. In general, this is achieved by lowering the data rate.
Link budget is a function of the propagation loss and receiver sensitivity, and LPWAN tech-
nologies generally have higher receiver sensitivities of around −130 dBm compared with the
−90 to −110 dBm for existing cellular technologies. Since decibels are a logarithmic scale,
this difference equates to being able to detect a signal ∼ 10 000 times weaker. To achieve high
receiver sensitivity, you need a slow modulation rate, as Information Theory [16] states that
the energy per bit is the main factor in the probability of a message being received. If you
slow the modulation rate by half, at the same output power you are essentially putting twice
as much energy into each symbol, thus doubling the receiver sensitivity (increase of 3 dB).
It is for this reason that LPWANs have very low data rates compared to normal cellular
systems, since receiver sensitivity is a critical factor to obtain a long range.
There are also differences in the use of the actual spectrum, such as using an ultra-narrow
band or spread spectrum. Ultra-narrow Band (UNB) [17] systems transmit the signal in a
small amount of spectrum, usually less than 1 kHz, and are particularly suited for small
amounts of data. The link budget increases with the Power Spectral Density (PSD), and in
a UNB system the PSD is increased due to the transmit power only using a small amount
of spectrum. There is a challenge with UNB systems if the end device is moving fast, as the
Doppler Effect can induce frequency variations that are relatively large compared to the
signal bandwidth, which makes detection and demodulation of the signal more difficult.
Weightless and Sigfox are examples of UNB systems.
Spread spectrum [18, 19] is a technique in which the signal is transmitted on a bandwidth
that is much bigger than the original frequency, typically using ∼125 kHz of spectrum. The
primary reasons for this are to decrease interference and increase security. The original
signal is only detectable when all the signals across all the bandwidths have been processed,
which both increases security and leads to processing gain. Processing gain is defined as the
ratio of the bandwidth used to send the signal to the original signal bandwidth frequency. In
some LPWAN systems it is possible to have signal to noise ratios that are negative, meaning
that the signal is below the noise floor, but the processing gain at the receiver means that
the signal can be detected if you are explicitly looking for it. LoRa is an example of a system
that uses a chirp [20] spread spectrum.
The amount of spectrum used also affects noise. Noise is randomly spread throughout
any spectrum used, which gives an advantage to UNB systems as the noise is effectively
lower than it is for wider band technologies and these UNB systems operate on positive
signal to noise ratios. However, the higher noise floor associated with spread spectrum sys-
tems that use larger amounts of spectrum are offset by the processing gain and can work
with negative signal to noise ratios. Spread spectrum systems are less efficient in terms of
the use of spectrum as they need more bandwidth to transmit the signal, which may cause
issues when the goal is to maximize the amount of data sent in any given spectrum. Sys-
tems using licensed spectrum, where the cost of the spectrum may run into hundreds or
thousands of million pounds, are optimized for spectrum utilization, which has cost and
power implications on the end device. By comparison, some LPWAN systems using unli-
censed spectrum have optimized the end device for lowest cost and longer battery life, at
the expense of spectrum utilization.
There are several LPWAN networking technologies; some of the key ones are discussed
in the following subsections.
2.3.1 Long-Range (LoRa) Low-Power Wide Area Network

LoRaWAN [12, 13] is based on the LoRa protocol from Semtech [21], which operates at
the physical layer. LoRaWAN covers the higher-level protocols that enable interoperation
between different vendors of device modems, gateways, and Network and Application
Servers, and is specified by the LoRa Alliance [16], which is a non-profit association set
up by various organizations to standardize and drive the global adoption of LoRaWAN.
LoRa itself is a spread spectrum technology, using chirped FM modulation. LoRaWAN
supports different spreading factors and different bandwidths depending on requirements
and coverage. Higher spreading factors provide the largest range (best receiver sensitivity),
but at the cost of lower data rates and longer time on air (lower battery life). There are
also different programmable bandwidths available in the specification, the trade-off in this
case is that a narrower bandwidth has increased sensitivity, but needs a longer time on air
to transmit the data, and hence reduces battery life. LoRaWAN has three device classes,
named A, B, and C. C is for devices that have continuous power, but most devices are class
A, which are battery powered. LoRaWAN is an asynchronous protocol, meaning the end
devices control when they send data and when they can sleep, providing extended battery
life over other technologies that are synchronous and where the device regularly has to
connect to the network even when no data are being sent.
2.3.2 Sigfox Low-Power Wide Area Network

Sigfox [12, 13] is another LPWAN solution, in this case named after the company that owns
the technology. Sigfox takes an approach that is based on using a narrowband (200 kHz)
spectrum channel, which provides long range and low noise, but only at a very low data
rate of 100 bits per second. As such, Sigfox is particularly suited to very low data messages,
as the uplink message is limited to a payload of 12 bytes and the device will be on air for an
average of two seconds to transmit an entire frame (26 bytes in total). Sigfox uses a mixture
of DBPSK and GFSK modulation, and each message is 100 Hz wide. Sigfox relies on a fre-
quency hopping algorithm for message delivery, as each device sends each message three
times on three different frequencies.
LoRa Sigfox Weightless Ingenu

Bandwidth Various, between 125 KHz 200 KHz 12.5 KHz 1 MHz
and 500 KHz
Approximate peak 50 kb/s 100 b/s 100 Kb/s 150 kb/s
uplink rates
Approximate Rural 1 to 4 km 1 to 6 km 1 to 4 km 1 to 3 km
Range Urban Up to 15 km Up to 30 km Up to 15 km Up to 10 km
Figure 2.2 Illustrative performance data for unlicensed LPWAN technologies.
2.3.3 Weightless Low-Power Wide Area Network

Another LPWAN technology is Weightless [15] and actually consists of three protocols. The
original is Weightless-W, which leveraged TV Whitespace, which was developed by a com-
pany called Neul. That was then supplemented with Weightless-N, an unlicensed spectrum
narrowband protocol based on technology from NWave. Work has also started on a variation
called Weightless-P, based on technology donated by M2COMM. It is also worth mention-
ing Ingenu as another provider in this space. Unlike others, it operates in the 2.4 GHz band
so can operate globally without any changes on a regional basis, unlike the other companies
mentioned.
Some of the characteristics of the main LPWAN technologies operating in unlicensed
spectrum are summarized in the table in Figure 2.2.
2.4 Cellular Technologies

The other main network technologies for IoT are offered by from mobile network operators
using a licensed spectrum and are based on industry-wide standards (3GPP [7]/GSMA [22]).
There are several standards that can be used to support IoT devices:
• Extended Coverage – GSM (EC-GSM). This is an IoT-optimized GSM network, which can
be deployed in existing GSM networks. This is deployed via a software upgrade within
existing 2G, 3G, and 4G networks, but it is expected that other technologies, such as those
discussed in the remainder of this section, will dominate in the majority of geographical
areas.
• Narrow Band Internet of Things (NB-IoT, also called LTE-M2). NB-IoT is based on a
subset of the LTE standards, using OFDM modulation for the downlink and SC-FDMA
for uplink. NB-IoT is designed to lower the power consumption of devices, and increase
system capacity, spectrum efficiency, and range, having a 20-dB improvement in link
budget versus GSM. As the name suggests, the technology works in very narrow spec-
trum bands (200 kHz), and co-exists with 2G, 3G, and 4G mobile networks by operating
in guard bands or dedicated spectrum. It draws upon the features of mobile networks,
such as security, authentication networks, data integrity, and mobile equipment identi-
fication. NB-IoT is a synchronous protocol, with devices regularly synchronizing to the
cellular network. This regular connection consumes power and so reduces battery life, so
while still offering very long battery life is not quite as battery efficient as asynchronous
EC-GSM NB-loT (also called Cat-M1 (also called

Cat-NB1) LTE-M or enhanced
Machine Type
Communications
(eMTC)
Deployment options In-band GSM LTE in band or guard In-band LTE

band
Bandwidth 200 MHz 180 MHz 1.4 MHz
Approximate Peak Uplink 20 Kb/s 20 Kb/s 375 Kb/s
rates
Downlink 20 Kb/s 20 Kb/s 300 Kb/s
Figure 2.3 Illustrative performance data for licensed LPWAN technologies.
protocols such as LoRa. However, NB-IoT does have advantages over LoRa for use cases
where low latency or higher data throughput are key requirements.
• LTE-M (also called LTE-M1 or CAT-M1). This is essentially the second generation of LTE
chips built for IoT applications (after Cat-0) and has higher throughput and lower battery
life than NB-IoT, but the chipset is likely to cost more. The maximum system bandwidth
is 1.4 MHz (as opposed to Cat-0’s 20 MHz) and has specific use cases for LPWAN appli-
cations where there is a need for higher bandwidth and/or the ability to support voice
calls. An example of this may be in a lift, where there is a requirement to move from a
data link for the alarm and then a requirement to support a voice call. LT-M is compatible
with existing LTE networks, meaning rollout is mainly software upgrades, so relatively
cheap (Figure 2.3).
2.4.1 Emerging 5G Cellular Technology

The other new technology that is starting to appear is 5G,1 a term that encompasses the
next (fifth) generation of cellular networks. There are several technical advances occurring
to enable 5G networks:
• The security module evolving to be an embedded SIM (eSIM), which is a SIM card directly
connected (soldered) to a circuit board in a device during manufacture. For devices where
there is no need to replace the SIM card, this is cheaper than installing a SIM card later,
and improves reliability by avoiding the need for a connector and improves security as
the eSIM can be provisioned remotely and the mobile operator changed without the need
to physically change a SIM card.
• The need for additional frequency bands to support higher bandwidths.
• Migration from dedicated networking hardware to Network Function Virtualization
(NFV), which means network capability can increasingly be delivered by software
running on generic hardware
• Placing some functionality closer to the edge of the network, to reduce latency for
delay-critical services.
The ambition for 5G is that by using these new technologies, 5G networks will be able
to be rapidly deployed or modified to support a range of different use cases, since the key
1 http://www.3gpp.org/release-15.
features of the network will be able to be configured by changing software on general

purpose servers, rather than using dedicated hardware. An example of this is network
slicing, in which virtualization technologies are used to create logical network slices
to support multiple different requirements without the need to change the underlying
physical infrastructure – in effect, creating “multiple networks” from one physical deploy-
ment. These different network slices can then be dedicated to support use cases that have
different Service Level Agreement (SLA), latency, security, or reliability requirements to
other services running over the same common physical infrastructure.
Some of the key use cases enabled by 5G networks are:
• Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB). Provision of higher data rates to mobile devices to
support uses such as ultra-high definition video, virtual reality, interactive gaming.
• Ultra-reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC). This is for mission critical use
cases where quality of service and low latency are essential, such as industrial automa-
tion, remote surgery, traffic safety and control, and autonomous vehicles.
• Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC). This is to support the huge numbers
of devices that will be connected in the future, including smart homes and buildings,
smart agriculture, and asset tracking.
From an IoT perspective, the latter two are of interest.

URLLC use cases include those where very low network latency (<10 ms) is needed, such
as autonomous vehicles, factory automation, and remote surgery, amongst others, while
mMTC is targeting situations where extremely dense device deployment (up to 1 million
connections per square kilometer) is required, or a battery life of up to 10 years. This can
include use cases such as asset tracking, smart buildings, and smart agriculture.
To support these requirements for flexibility and agile programmability, 5G networks
will use new network capabilities such as network slicing and virtualization technologies.
Network slicing allows multiple logical networks dedicated to different services and service
types to be built on top of a common physical infrastructure that allows different operational
models such as security, reliability, or latency between each slice and also provides isolation
between slices, which is important for high assurance and overload control. NFV enables
Comparative Price
CELLULAR
high
M2M
NB - loT
LPWAN
low
Quality of service
low high
Figure 2.4 Price and quality of service for various network technologies.
the operator to meet a range of different network requirements using the same physical
infrastructure quickly and easily via software re-configuration.
Figure 2.3 shows the relative cost and quality of service associated with the different tech-
nologies discussed above that are used for long-range connectivity. The most cost-effective
solution, with the lowest quality of service, is generally provided by LPWAN technologies,
such as LoRaWAN, Sigfox, and Weightless. NB-IoT is also referred to under the LPWAN
banner, but drawn out separately here as the use of a licensed spectrum enables a higher
quality of service to be provided, albeit potentially at a higher price. The highest quality of
service comes from traditional cellular technologies, but again this is at the expense of price
(and power requirements) (Figure 2.4).
2.5 Conclusion
The emergence of the IoT and the consequent requirement to connect large numbers of
digital devices with a range of characteristics has led to a number of IoT access network
technologies being developed.
In this chapter, we have described the current and emerging access network options for
the transmission of IoT data. Each option has different characteristics with respect to cost,
quality, reliability, power, range, and the volume of data for which it is designed. The selec-
tion of a particular access network solution for a given scenario should be based on a careful
analysis that considers the trade-offs between quality of service and price.
References
1 Zigbee Alliance. https://www.zigbee.org. (Accessed 17 April 2019).
2 IEEE 802.15.4-2015. IEEE standard for low-rate wireless networks. https://standards.ieee
.org/standard/802_15_4-2015.html.
3 Bluetooth Special Interest Group. https://www.bluetooth.com.
4 Wi-Fi. https://www.wi-fi.org.
5 IEEE IEEE 802.11TM Wireless Local Area Networks. http://www.ieee802.org/11.
6 Sauter, M. (2010). From GSM to LTE: An Introduction to Mobile Networks and Mobile
Broadband. Wiley.
7 3GPP. http://www.3gpp.org/about-3gpp.
8 Maini, A.K. and Agrawal, V. (2011). Satellite Technology: Principles and Applications.
Wiley.
9 https://www.theiet.org/sectors/information-communications/topics/ubiquitous-
computing/articles/lpwan.cfm.
10 Farrell, S. (2017). Lpwan overview. Internet Engineering Task Force, Internet-Draft
draft-ietf-lpwan-overview-01.
11 http://www.ingenu.com.
12 Vejlgaard, B. et al. (2017). Coverage and capacity analysis of Sigfox, LoRa, GPRS, and
NB-IoT. 2017 IEEE 85th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring). IEEE.
13 https://www.sigfox.com/en/sigfox-iot-technology-overview.
References 19
14 https://lora-alliance.org/about-lorawan.
15 http://www.weightless.org.
16 Das, S.K. (2013). Mobile Handset Design. Wiley.
17 Shannon, C.E. (1984). A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical
Journal, July and October.
18 Deslandes, V., Thomas, N. et al. (2015). Ultra narrow band technique for low power
wide area communications. 2015 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBE-
COM). IEEE. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7417420.
19 Dixon, R.C. (1994). Spread Spectrum Systems: With Commercial Applications, vol. 994.
New York: Wiley.
20 https://www.semtech.com/lora.
21 https://www.techopedia.com/definition/9509/spread-spectrum.
22 https://www.gsma.com.
21
Edge Computing
Mohammad Hossein Zoualfaghari 1 , Simon Beddus 1 , and Salman Taherizadeh 2
1 British Telecommunications plc, Ipswich, UK
2
3.1 Introduction
Today, hyper-scale cloud computing [1] from the likes of Amazon, Google, and Azure offers
a very cost-effective solution for storage, processing, and analysis of Internet of Things (IoT)
data. The economics of cloud provision relies on a limited number of huge datacenters that
are normally located many hundreds of miles away from IoT devices. This model of opera-
tions works well for many applications such as web browsing and email, which are tolerant
of network packet loss, latency, and jitter typical of cloud computing.
For those applications that need predictable network reliability, security, and low-latency
data processing, the edge computing model [2] offers an answer. Edge computing pro-
vides data processing geographically close to assets such as sensors, actuators, IoT objects,
and humans. Colocation reduces distances, latency, and in many cases solution complexity
that results in a better outcome for customers and end-users. Edge video analytics pro-
cessing can eliminate the need to stream video data to cloud-based service, thus reducing
the network load.
Since edge resources are typically in a private network, customers may also choose edge
computing due to factors such as having added control of data privacy and the reliability
of mission critical applications. Another benefit of edge computing is that local processing
can significantly reduce wide area network (WAN) traffic, which can be a major factor when
WAN connectivity is costly or sparse.
Conventionally, edge computing is used for hosting business-critical industrial, retail,
and IoT applications. Increasingly with the advent of network security function virtualiza-
tion, edge computing can be used for hosting virtual network functions (VNFs) and secu-
rity features. In addition, the unique position of edge computing also allows the operation
of other features such as IoT security and VNFs. In this role, the edge device or devices can
be viewed as a miniaturized private cloud.
Practically, edge computing devices can be located in the customer’s premises or at the
edge of the communication service provider’s (CSP) network adjacent to the access
network. Customer premises-based devices will normally be dedicated to the customer
whereas within the CSP domain the infrastructure will be shared by a number of customers.
22 3 Edge Computing
Commonly, edge computing devices are based on an X86 architecture in the form
of industrialized power controls (PCs) and blade systems. Smaller advanced RISC machine
(ARM)-based devices occupy the lower end of the performance spectrum, and the popular
Raspberry Pi [3], BeagleBoard [4], and pcDuino3 Nano [5] are such examples.
3.2 Edge Computing Fundamentals

Edge computing deployments typically may feature a four-node arrangement, as depicted
in Figure 3.1, which includes:
• IoT devices. These are relatively simple networked devices such as sensors and actuators
that are installed close to the data source or control interfaces. IoT devices represent a rich
set of sensors, actuators, and objects that are connected to the customer edge device via
a multitude of interfaces; for example, 3G, 4G, 5G, Wi-Fi, PCIe, USB, or Ethernet within
an edge computing application scenario.
• Customer edge device. These devices receive data from and send commands to IoT
devices. Customer edge devices provide limited local storage, processing, and network-
ing functions. Edge devices may be installed in the customer’s or CPS’s premises. Each
customer edge device also provides a wireless access service for the sensors and actuators
within its transmission range. At the edge of the network, customer edge devices are typ-
ically aimed at sensor data acquisition, data collection, data filtering, data normalization,
and command or control of sensors and actuators.
• Mobile edge compute (MEC). These servers are capable of reducing transmission costs
and providing fast interactive responses in the computation off-loading service. However,
in comparison to the traditional cloud-based resource located at the backbone network,
which always benefits from an enormous computation capacity, the MEC server may
suffer from resource limitation. At this level, MEC servers can be focused on data aggre-
gation, data compression, and data transformation.
• Centralized IoT platform. This provides a powerful central storage and processing
capability for IoT use cases delivering important capabilities such as data interoperability
and uniform data access, and is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. It also supports
management functions that allow IoT devices to be remotely managed. It should be noted
that centralized cloud computing continues to remain a significant part of the edge com-
puting model. Cloud-based infrastructures, whether private or public, as well as MEC
servers complement each other to provide a mutually beneficial and interdependent ser-
vice continuum. Some functions are more beneficial to be carried out on the cloud side,
while others are more suited to the edge side.
3.2.1 Edge Compute Strategies

As shown in Figure 3.1, an edge computing service can be deployed in either customer
premises or CSP premises. Thus, at a high level, there are essentially two main edge com-
pute strategies:
(i) The Customer Premises Edge Compute (C-PEC) strategy relates to the computing
device or devices being installed on the customer’s premises or on their assets adjacent
3.2 Edge Computing Fundamentals 23
Centralized loT
Platform
loT Devices Customer Edge Device Mobile Edge Compute loT Cloud
Figure 3.1 Edge compute ecosystem’s topology.
to their sensors, local area network (LAN), and IoT objects. Characteristics of this
approach are a very low latency (sub 10 ms), dedicated devices typically running
applications for a single tenant, and moderate compute workloads. Benefits of this
approach are that data can remain on the premises, and hence the customer has more
control over the security of an end-to-end service. C-PEC strategy is the most improved
computing model that is able to support IoT scenarios more satisfactorily compared
to the existing cloud computing paradigm. This is because employing this strategy is
aimed at analyzing time-sensitive data closer to the location where sensor data are
generated, and thus, in some scenarios, reducing network traffic communications
as well. Although this edge strategy is primarily focused on customer premises, it
could be applied to smart vehicles or smartphones. For instance, a smartphone when
adjacent to sensors can act as a processor of local IoT data.
(ii) The Communication Service Provider Premises Edge Compute (CSP-PEC) strategy
relates to the computing resources such as MEC [2] servers being installed in the CSP’s
domain, and in the case of 5G adjacent to eNodeB and the Radio Access Network
(RAN). This strategy could be viewed as a low latency cloud service enabling latency
intolerant applications that are located reasonably close to sensors. Characteristics of
this approach are low latency (sub 20 ms), devices that run applications for multiple
tenants, and compute workloads are high. Benefits of the MEC style systems is that
they represent large compute installations and as such can offer cloud size scaling to
customers as necessary. Resources employed within CSP premises may require more
processing, storage, and communication capacity than resources at customer premises
level at the edge.
In some cases, these two strategies are complementary. There will be some organizations
that need a higher level of control over data privacy and integrity of applications offered
by C-PEC solution. At the same time, there will be instances when cloud scale processing
will be more critical, particularly in the context of variable workloads. Moreover, a particu-
larly strong use case for MEC is the automotive sector, whereby cars can communicate with
one another over 5G RAN and coordinate actions via MEC-based applications. The authors
anticipate that in the future the approaches will co-exist, and the role of MEC will be funda-
mental in enabling C-PEC solutions to migrate compute loads during times of high demand.
There are conditions where compute loads need to be off-loaded from a customer
edge device to an MEC server when the customer edge device is overloaded and it has a
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From Data to Insight

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for

Cover Design: Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Chennai, India

About the Editors xi

2 Connecting Devices: Access Networks 9

3.2.1 Edge Compute Strategies 22

4 Data Platforms: Interoperability and Insight 37

5 Streaming Data Processing for IoT 51

6 Applied Machine Vision and IoT 63

7 Data Representation and Reasoning 79

8 Crowdsourcing and Human-in-the-Loop for IoT 91

9 IoT Security: Experience Is an Expensive Teacher 107

9.3.1 Governments 110

10 IoT Data Privacy 121

11 Blockchain: Enabling Trust on the Internet of Things 141

11.5 Blockchain Use Cases 152

13 Smart Energy 173

14 Road Transport and Air Quality 189

14.6 Limitations of Average Speed Air Quality Modeling 201

About the Editors

Simon Beddus Alistair Duke

Vanessa Bracamonte Joana Ferreira

John Davies Timotej Gale

V. García Maria Maleshkova

Luis-Daniel Ibáñez Evandro Moro

Neal Reeves Elena Simperl

A. Rodrigo Salman Taherizadeh

Pedro Pereira Rodrigues Artemis Voulkidis

March 2019 Prof. Tim Whitley

ENVIRONMENT SENSORS CONNECTIVITY COMPUTATION APPLICATION

Light Sensor Wi-Fi Data Analytics Smart Street

Bin Usage MESH Data Access Waste

Vehicle UNB Interoperability Tracking Assets

Soil 5G Edge Smart

Parking WPAN Cloud Driver

Privacy / Security / Trust

Figure 1.1 The IoT ecosystem.

1.1 Stakeholders in IoT Ecosystems

1.2 Human and IoT Sensing, Reasoning, and Actuation:

1.3 Replicability and Re-use in IoT

Connecting Devices: Access Networks

2.2 Overview of Access Networks

2.2.1 Existing Technologies Are Able to Cover a Number of IoT Scenarios

Battery Life Data Rate

2.3 Low-Power Wide Area Network (LPWAN)

2.3.1 Long-Range (LoRa) Low-Power Wide Area Network

2.3.2 Sigfox Low-Power Wide Area Network

LoRa Sigfox Weightless Ingenu

Figure 2.2 Illustrative performance data for unlicensed LPWAN technologies.

2.3.3 Weightless Low-Power Wide Area Network

2.4 Cellular Technologies

EC-GSM NB-loT (also called Cat-M1 (also called

Deployment options In-band GSM LTE in band or guard In-band LTE

Figure 2.3 Illustrative performance data for licensed LPWAN technologies.

2.4.1 Emerging 5G Cellular Technology

features of the network will be able to be configured by changing software on general

From an IoT perspective, the latter two are of interest.

3.2 Edge Computing Fundamentals

3.2.1 Edge Compute Strategies