Author's Accepted Manuscript

Analysis of natural fractures and effect of

deformation intensity on fracture density in
Garau formation for shale gas development
within two anticlines of Zagros fold and
thrust belt, Iran
PirehA. , AlaviS.A. , GhassemiM.R. , ShabanA.

www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

PII: S0920-4105(14)00376-3
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2014.11.016
Reference: PETROL2856

To appear in: Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering

Received date: 2 November 2013

Revised date: 14 October 2014
Accepted date: 15 November 2014

Cite this article as: PirehA. , AlaviS.A. , GhassemiM.R. , ShabanA. , Analysis of

natural fractures and effect of deformation intensity on fracture density in
Garau formation for shale gas development within two anticlines of Zagros
fold and thrust belt, Iran, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2014.11.016

This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for
publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of
the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and
review of the resulting galley proof before it is published in its final citable form.
Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which
could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal
pertain.
 Analysis of natural fractures and effect of deformation intensity on
fracture density in Garau Formation for shale gas development within two
anticlines of Zagros fold and thrust belt, Iran

Pireh, A. 11 Alavi, S. A.22 Ghassemi, M. R.33 Shaban, A.44

1. Research Institute of Petroleum Industry (R. I. P. I.) Iran
2. Geology department, Faculty of Earth science, Shahid Beheshti University.
3. Geological Survey of Iran.
4. NIOC Exploration Directorate.

1
. piraasad@gmail.com
2
. a-alavi@sbu.ac.ir
3
. ghassemi.m.r@gmail.com
4
. Alishaban2001@yahoo.com
Abstract

Shale-gas production depends on natural and hydraulic fractures to flow it to well. A major
part of source rocks in the Zagros Fold Belt were deposited during Neocomian time; the
lowermost part of the Garau Formation has charged the Early Cretaceous Petroleum System
of the Lurestan subzone which has a potential of being as a shale-gas resource. These source
rocks are widely distributed in the Lurestan Depression and in the NW part of the Dezful
Embayment.
Knowing factors which controls fracture intensity and fractures length in each area are
important in drilling into shale-gas resources. In this regard, a very dense and accurate field
data acquisition on fracture sets, orientation, length, as well as bedding thickness, texture and
lithology, was carried out in Early Cretaceous Garau Formation and basal Sarvak Formation
within two anticlines with different structural setting (Kabir-Kuh and Khoram-Abad).
According to our analyses, we have identified 2 fracture systems: 1) an orthogonal fracture
system: set A in Khoram-Abad anticline and sets A and B in the Kabir-Kuh anticline and a
longitudinal fracture set: set B in Khoram-Abad anticline and sets C and D in the Kabir-Kuh
anticline, 2) an oblique fracture system: sets C and D in Khoram-Abad anticline and set E in
the Kabir-Kuh anticline.
The normal faults and stylolites (prior to stylolitization) in the study area of Kabir-Kuh
anticline had formed in response to extension stress regime and the transverse fractures in the
study area of Khoram-Abad anticline, are Early Cretaceous to Late Oligocene in age, then the
transverse fractures and their orthogonal stylolites in Kabir-Kuh anticline and longitudinal
and oblique fracture systems in the Khoram-Abad anticline have formed from Early Miocene
to Middle Late Miocene, while longitudinal and oblique fracture sets in the Kabir-Kuh
anticline have formed since Middle Late Miocene.
We suggest that there have been two phases of counterclockwise rotations in orientation of
the stress fields that had produced these fractures. The rotations in the stress field have
probably occurred due to rotation of the Arabian plate during its convergence to the Eurasian
plate which had been changed the orientation of fractures. These rotations forming some
range of fractures with different attitude, that now with recent direction of impression apply
by the Arabian plate those fractures which generate in the past would have shown different
reaction. In our study area in addition to transverse fracture sets which originated near
parallel to maximum horizontal stress one set of oblique fractures is the second normal
fracture set which are reactivated in response to fluid pressures, prior to originate new
hydraulic fractures.
In the Lurestan structural province deformation intensity is increased from the Kabir-kuh
anticline in the southern part of the Lurestan structural province to the Khoram-Abad
anticline in northeastern part of the province. In the Kabir-Kuh anticline lithology has played
the most important role in fracture intensity, so that in some places even with increasing
bedding thickness, we observe an increase in fracture intensity instead of expected decreasing
fracture intensity. While in khoram-Abad anticline bedding thickness has the most important
effect on fracture intensity, and lithology has a minor role. In both investigated areas, fracture
length is increased with changing texture from mudstone to wackstone, and also from
wackstone to packstone.

                 

 
  
         
 1. Introduction
Natural gas is a critical component in the economic development of many countries in the
world (e.g., Ellsworth and Wang, 1999; Badruzzaman, 2000; Surdam et al., 2003) and is
expected to be the fastest growing sector of world energy consumption by 2020 (Law and
Curtis, 2002).
The fine-grained, clay- and organic carbon–rich rocks are both gas source and reservoir rock
components of the petroleum system (Martini et al., 1998). Gas is of thermogenic or biogenic
origin and stored as sorbed hydrocarbons, as free gas in fracture and intergranular porosity,
and as gas dissolved in kerogen and bitumen (Schettler and Parmely, 1990; Martini et al.,
1998).
Well completion practices employ hydraulic fracturing technology to access the natural
fracture system and to create new fractures. Less than 10% of shale-gas wells are completed
without some form of reservoir stimulation (Curtis, 2002).
Faults and fractures strongly influence the permeability architecture of most geologic
formations. Therefore, the ability to predict rock mass deformation deep underground—in
terms of both the deformation mechanisms, and the abundance and distribution of
deformation features (e.g., fractures and faults)—is important to a broad range of areas
including oil and gas exploration and production (Aydin, 2000; Knipe et al., 1998;
Manzocchi et al., 2010; Narr et al., 2006; Nelson, 2001).
Crustal stresses are generated by gravitational loading, thermal excursions, pore fluid
diffusion, elevation differences, and, of course, tectonic deformation. As such, crustal stress
can tell us a great deal about dynamic processes within the Earth particularly with regards to
plate tectonics where to a large degree we still do not fully understand what exactly drives or
impedes plate motions and fault movements. Stress states lead to the ultimate failure of rock
at many scales ranging from the largest earthquakes to the smallest micro-seismic events;
having better knowledge of stress states is crucial to understanding such seismicity.
Knowledge of in situ stress states has practical implications with regards to the stability and
safety of underground workings and boreholes, and the capacity to carry out hydraulic
stimulations for water or hydrocarbon recovery. With the rapid rise of enhanced recovery
from low permeability ‘tight’ sands and shale by hydraulic fracturing methods, the interest in
understanding and detecting stress states has grown rapidly in recent years (Schmitt et al.,
2012).
Because subsurface data such as cores, well and image logs do not provide enough
information to properly characterize the fracture network geometry or connectivity (e.g.
Angerer et al., 2003; Lynn, 2004a, 2004b) analogue outcrop studies are essential (Ahmadhadi
et al., 2008; Barbier et al., 2012a, 2012b; Beaudoin et al., 2011; Fischer et al., 2009; Gross,
1993; Gross et al., 1995; Hanks et al., 1997; Katz et al., 2006; Lacombe et al., 2011; Travé et
al., 2000; Wennberg et al., 2006, 2007). The role of folding, layering, and rock properties on
fracture development has been extensively studied in the past few years in order to
understand the factors that control the geometry of fracture networks (Barbier et al., 2012).
The Zagros fold-and-thrust belt of SW-Iran, which corresponds to the former Arabian
continental passive margin since the Permian–Triassic rifting and Neo-Tethyan oceanic
opening (Berberian and King, 1981; Stocklin, 1974), is a result of continental collision
between the Arabian and Iranian plates and the subsequent shortening in mid–late Cenozoic
times (e.g. Agard et al., 2005, 2006; Berberian et al., 1982; Jackson et al., 1995; McQuarrie et
al., 2003). Recent brittle tectonic studies and palaeostress reconstructions in the inner zones
of the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt revealed the stress states of the main successive tectonic
events (Navabpour et al., 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012), characterising major changes in the
stress fields from normal to thrust and strike-slip regimes since the oceanic opening up to the
continental collision.
In this study we gathered data from field to investigate factors which control fractures
orientation, density and length on the outcrops of study areas.

2. Geological and structural settings

The study areas are located in the Lurestan province (SW Iran), which is part of the Zagros
fold-and-thrust belt (Figure 1). The Zagros mountain range is a collisional belt between the
Iranian block (belonging to Eurasia) and the Arabian plate, whose convergence started at the
beginning of the Late Cretaceous (Ricou, 1974; Berberian and King, 1981) and accelerated
during the Late Miocene and Pliocene (Stocklin, 1968). The convergence is still active at the
present-day, in a NNE–SSW direction (DeMets et al., 1990, 1994, 2010; McClusky et al.,
2000, 2003; Sella et al., 2002; Nilforoushan et al., 2003; Vernant et al., 2004). The Zagros
orogen generally consists of three parallel belts (Figure 1a). 1) To the northeast, the
Urumieh–Dokhtar magmatic assemblage (UDMA), 2) southwest of UDMA, the Zagros
imbricate zone (ZIZ) includes both the Sanandaj–Sirjan zone and the Zagros thrust zone of
Stocklin (1968) and 3) The Zagros fold–thrust belt (ZFTB), (the Zagros simple folded zone
of Falcon, 1974), extends parallel and to the southwest of the ZIZ (Figure 1; Alavi, 2004,
2007). From High Zagros in the North-Northeast of the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt to The
Zagros Foredeep in south-southwest of the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt, the rate of
deformation is decreased (Ameen, 1991; Falcon, 1974) or with increase of distance from
suture zone of the Zagros, the Zagros stress magnitude is declined (Ameen et al., 2010).
The Lurestan province is a part of Zagros simple folded zone. The Kabir-Kuh anticline is in
south of this province and is a fault propagation fold (Alavi, 2007). The Khoram-Abad
anticline is in northeast of this province and this anticline is a fault propagation fold, too.
The Garau Formation was defined at Tang-e Garau in Kabir-Kuh (James and Wynd 1965;
Bordenave and Sahabi 1971; Bordenave and Burwood 1995). It consists of a 700 m thick
interval, predominantly argillaceous, capped by Sarvak limestone (Bordenave and Hegre
2010).
The Garau Formation Known as the Early Cretaceous Petroleum system, in which excellent
source rocks were deposited in the lower part of the Garau Formation, during the Berriasian-
Valanginian period. The Garau source rocks are limited below by the thick Gotina
evaporates, and above by thick basinl marls that continued to be deposited until santonian
time in most of Lurestan (Bordenave and Hegre 2010).
The middle Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian) Sarvak Formation in southern Iran contains
more than 20% oil-in-place of Iranian oil reservoirs, forming the second most important
reservoir rocks after the Asmari Formation of the Oilgo-Miocene (Bordenave and Hegre
2010). In addition to its petroleum significance, the Sarvak Formation forms productive
groundwater aquifers feeding karstic springs in the Zagros region (Raeisi and Karami 1997;
Ahmadipour 2002).

3. Methodology of quantitative analysis

We used a 1D scan line technique at fifteen different stations located in outcrops of Garau
and base of Sarvak Formations in Khoram-Abad anticline (Figure 2) and twenty one different
stations located in outcrops of Garau and base of Sarvak Formations in Kabir-Kuh anticline
(Figure 3). In those two study area the spatial status of bedding and fracture, the Lithology,
texture and thickness of bedding in each stations were gathered.
Moreover, the fracture length was gathered qualitative from very short (vs) to very long (vl).
Whereas some of our stations were impassable, we couldn’t collect the trait and length of
fractures in these stations.
The main fracture sets has been identified based on the fracture plots and assuming a
dispersion of 30° for each fracture set (Ghosh and Mitra 2009), in the study areas. For
describing quantity of fractures in rocks, there have been different parameters. Fracture
intensity is most commonly determined from one-dimensional observation domains (i.e., scan
lines) by dividing the number of fractures (N) by the total length (L) of the scan line:
N
F=
L

However, the most common indication of fracture abundance reported in the literature is the
average spacing between fractures along a scan line (Huang and Angelier, 1989; Narr, 1991;
Gross, 1993; Ji and Saruwatari, 1998). Average spacing is the inverse of fracture intensity
(Ortega et al., 2006):
N
L
S; = 1 / N ¦ Si = = 1/ F
i =1 N

where Si is the spacing between the nearest neighbour fractures along the scan line. Due to
natural errors in fracture intensity which had been gathered from 1D scan line (Marshak And
Mitra, 1988), we modified strike and dips of fracture sets that was illustrated by Marshak and
Mitra, (1988) for determine fracture spacing.

4. Fracture orientation
Fracture orientations measured for the outcrops are displayed on rose diagrams and equal-
angel contour diagrams for each of the measured locations Figure 4a-f and Figure 5a-f). The
fracture data are also shown with bedding rotated to horizontal to show the orientations of
fractures relative to the bedding (Figure 4g-l and Figure 5g-l). The fold axis of the Khoram-
Abad anticline trends N55W and plunges 2° toward 305° and Kabir-Kuh anticline trends
N70W and plunges 6° toward 290° in the study areas. This orientation was determined from
the pole of the great circle through all of the poles to bedding.
Based on the fracture plots and assuming a dispersion of 30° for each fracture set (Gosh and
Mitra 2009), two systems of fractures were identified in the two locations that has studied.
The most dominant fracture system are a transverse set, which is normal to the fold axis and
bedding (transverse fractures (set A) of Khoram-Abad has a mean strike of 035° and dip of
80° southeast, transverse fractures (sets A and B) of Kabir-Kuh has a mean strike of 015° and
dip of 80° and 70° southeast and northwest subsequently), and a longitudinal set, which is
subparallel to the fold axis and normal to bedding (longitudinal fractures (set B) of Khoram-
Abad has a mean strike of 130° and dip of 72° southwest, longitudinal fractures (sets C and
D) of Kabir-Kuh has a mean strike of 105° and dip of 30° and 80° north and south
subsequently). The Khoram-Abad anticline in the study area has an oblique fracture system
(sets C and D) that the acute angle between this two sets that have strikes of 007° and 060°
with dips of 88° and 76° west and southeast subsequently, has bisected with the transverse
fractures set. One set of oblique fractures (set E) of Kabir-Kuh has a mean strike of 040° and
a dip of 80° northwest. In the two study areas, several additional sets are also present, but
these are much less abundant than these main sets. The average strikes of the fracture sets in
the two study area do not change significantly when the corresponding bedding dips are
rotated to horizontal Figure 3g-l and Figure 4g-l).

5. Types of fractures and determination the stress direction using them

5.1. Study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline
Dilational joints
Extensional joints with the fracture plane normal to the least principal stress ı3 during joint
formation (McClay, 1987).
Taken a total of 418 fractures from 9 stations, 92 (22%) fractures are open fracture type
(Dilational or Extensional) (Table 1). More open fractures has northeast - southwest strike
(towards 019˚), which are related to the A and B sets (Figure 6).
The direction of ı3 is the pole to the joint plane which contains the ı1 and ı2 axes. Extension
joints alone will not give ı1 and ı2 orientation (McClay, 1987). Characterized plunge and
strike of the open fractures pole based the mean plunge and strike of poles stereonett of these
surfaces (which is the same ı3). And the surface that this pole is its pole is determined by the
mean fracture surfaces of open fractures. Thereupon ı3 has a plunge of 3˚ to northwest (289˚).

Stylolites
Stylolites are surfaces of dissolution associated with contractional or shear starins. They
indicate volume loss and may form parallel/sub-parallel to bedding during burial
(compactional starin) (McClay, 1987). Tectonics stylolites may form at high angles to
bedding during folding, indicating a component of layer-parallel shortening. Stylolites form
perpendicular to ı1 (Ameen, Buhidma and Rahim, 2010; McClay, 1987).
From total of 418 fractures, 4 (Approximately 1%) fractures are stylolite. All of these
stylolites have a northeast-southwest (strike of 280º) azimuth that being in the C and D set
Figure 7).
Orientation of ı1 is the pole of stylolites which contains ı2 and ı3 (Ameen, Buhidma and
Rahim, 2010; McClay, 1987). Extension joints alone will not give ı2 and ı3 orientation. So ı1
plunge is 71º to south (190º).

Bedding-parallel slip and its shear fabric

Like dilational and stylolites fractures, bedding-parallel slip is another mechanism of failure
in the study area. Figure 8 has shown a number of structure which relates to this failure.

Where bedding plane slip occurs, all fractures have been observed to terminate against it
(Stephenson et al., 2007). In Figure 8A, a number of fractures abut below and lower slip
surface. Fractures above the upper slip plane have initiated at the slip plane and terminate in
the middle of the bed. Also striae grooved in the surface of bedding shows bedding-parallel
slip (Figure 8B). In Figure 8C, shear within a 15 cm thick dolomite bed indicate spaced
disjunctive cleavage which shows that upper bed had been moved northward.

Syn-depositional Normal Fault

In some localities, the syn-depositional normal faults were strongly tilted due to folding and
thus look like low angle reverse faults, which might also be interpreted as evidence for a
postfolding compression. In such cases, back-tilting of the strata reconstructed the original
orientation of the normal faults (Figure 9).

Determine the relative age of fractures

Fractures in rocks are formed at different times and for different reasons. Depending on the
specific characteristics of a rock and the environment where a rock that will determine when
and what fractures occur (Price and Cosgrove, 1990). The oldest fractures are fractures of the
filling (Price and Cosgrove, 1990). Typically, in a system of perpendicular fractures, longest
fractures are oldest fractures (Price and Cosgrove, 1990; Bordet, Malo and Kirkwood; 2010).
So the A set of fractures is the oldest set (Figure 9 and Figure 10).
Given that young fractures typically close and do not the old fractures (This method has been
implemented by Bellahsan et al. 2006) and with older fractures create a model like to T or H
(McClay, 1987), As a result, transverse fractures are older than Longitudinal fractures (Figure
10) and longitudinal fractures are older than the oblique fractures (Figure 11).

Orientation of principal stresses

Orientation of principal stresses with use of stylolite and extensional fractures
Accordingly, ı1 is perpendicular to stylolites and ı3 is perpendicular to extensional fracture
(Figure 12a), based both maximum and minimum principal stresses we can easily be obtained
the principal moderate stress (ı2) in the study area and in the time of formations these two
sets of fractures (Figure 12a). Orientation of ı3 is the pole of that plane which contains ı2 and
ı1. Orientation of the plane that contains the ı2 and ı1 is:
N 70˚ W, 71˚ SW
Accordingly, the pole of that plane which contains the maximum principal stress (ı1) and
minimum principal stress (ı3) is been ı2, so ı2 has a plunge of 19º to north (020º) (Figure
10b).

Age of fractures associated with folding and change of orientation the pressure exerted
by Arabic plate on orientation of them
The oldest fractures (filled fractures) in this study area are being in the A and B sets (Figure
13a and b) which have a 25º strike. This fracture set is the longest fractures, too (Figure 14b).
The strike of these two sets in rose diagrams of not filled fractures which is normally younger
than filled fractures is approximately 15º. These two sets of fracture (A and B sets) are
transverse fractures which have formed prior to folding, as mentioned above. Based on
McQuarrie et al. (2003) and Navabpour et al. (2007) direction of stress implied from the
Arabian plate to Eurasian plate rotates from northwest direction to north direction, then we
suggest that first a series of A and B sets fractures with strike of approximately 25º had
formed which then filled with calcite and after this filling and with counterclockwise
rotations in direction of stress implies from Arabian plate, a series of another these two sets
of fractures with the newer strike (approximately 15º) with Stylolites which is perpendicular
to this new series of A and B sets, have been formed (Figure 14 a and b).
C and D sets fractures is longitudinal fractures and so mentioned above after transverse
fracture had been the oldest sets of this study area which the intensity of the fractures of these
sets decreased with further from crest of the fold. This decreased in longitudinal fracture
intensity from crest to limb which has incepted less curvature shows that these two fractures
sets has formed from curvature strain of folding (Figure 14d)
In this area which has studied, after longitudinal fractures, youngest sets of fractures is
oblique fractures, E set which their intensity increased with furthering from crest.
Based on changing manner of oblique fracture sets intensity and been younger this sets than
longitudinal fractures, we can say that this fracture sets has formed in response to folding
process.
In our study area had been thin-skinned phase of extension based on this reason:
1. In Figure 7 and Figure 15, Stylolite is older than extensional fracture because
extensional fractures are cutes with stylolite.
2. Olson and pollard (1989) have said that a combination of mode 1 and 2 of failure will
result in kinked or curving path, which Figure 7 B, which was located in our study
area, has showed this curving pattern in stylolites. it’s possible that stylolites first was
an open fractures which had been formed in response to extension then there had been
changed to stylolite in response to compression.
Properly a set of fractures had been formed in response to thin-skinned phase extension then
compression which initiated from plates convergence have changed that set of fracture to
stylolite (Figure 14a).

5.2. Khoram-Abad anticline

Fracture length and effects of Arabian plate rotation on that array
Fractures develop in rocks at many different times and for many different reasons. When and
what type of fracture develops depend upon the condition of a particular rock and the
environment in which it exists (Price and Cosgrove, 1990).
In general, the longest fractures form earliest within an orthogonal system (Price and
Cosgrove, 1990; Bordet, Malo and Kirkwood, 2010). Therefore in the two our study areas the
transverse fractures system (in the Kabir-Kuh anticline sets A and b, and in the Khoram-Abad
anticline set A) are inferred to be the initial fracture sets. Transverse fracture set in the two
study areas was present in the hinge, forelimb and backlimb of Kabir-Kuh and was present in
the hinge and backlimb of Khoram-Abad anticline, are interpreted as related to the NE-
oriented compression just prior to and during initial anticline growth. The Zagros fold-thrust
belt has formed since pre-late Miocene (Stockline., 1968; Stoneley., 1981). Therefore
transverse fracture system is Early Cretaceous to pre-late Miocene in age. The longitudinal
fracture set in the two study area (in the Kabir-Kuh anticline sets C and D, and in the
Khoram-Abad anticline set B) are found mainly within the hinge and are interpreted to have
formed in response to flexural stresses during folding. The oblique fracture system (in the
Khoram-Abad anticline sets C and D and in the Kabir-Kuh anticline set E) is present mainly
within the forelimb and backlimb of anticlines. Therefore the oblique fracture system formed
in association with folding. The longitudinal and oblique fracture systems in the two study
areas have formed since Late Miocene.
The direction of compression from Arabian plate to Eurasian plate that have formed the
Zagros fold belt, have rotated from NE to N (McQuarrie et al., 2003; Navabpoure et al.,
2007). This rotation has affected on the array of fractures in the two study areas. In the study
areas longitudinal fracture set that are the oldest fracture set has shown this rotation.
Histogram of the fractures corresponds to the length of that in the Khorram Abad anticline
(561 fractures), has been showed that short and very short fractures peak is in azimuth of 20
degree, but the peak of medium and high fractures is in of 50 degree azimuth (Figure 16).
Based on long fracture is older than short fractures due to deformation in the frontal Zagros
fold-thrust belt is moving towards the South West (homke et al., 2004), Then be the first in
northeastern Lurestan structural Subzone transverse fracture with 50 degree of And then
rotating the pressure applied by the Arabian plate, with an average 35-degree transverse
fractures formed and the deformation front migrated towards the South West, Garau
Formation and lower part of the Sarvak formation in the study area of the Kabir-Kuh
anticline Garau Formation and lower part of the Sarvak formation in the study area of
Khoram-Abad anticline later deformation is developed. So in the study area of Kabir-Kuh
anticline first transverse fractures of the formed along 25 degree then the rotation of the
Arabian plate formed transverse fracture with 15 degree.

6. Fractures reactivation
Bons et al., (2012) have shown that reactivation of pre-existing fault is needed lower stress to
reactivation than that stress which is needed to faulting an intact rock (Figure 17). Based on
this opinion knowledge of all of fracture sets in an area is important for determine the
direction of drilling in shale-gas resources.
In the Zagros orogeny the direction of compression which has implied by the Arabian plate
has rotated over the time and has formed difrent sets of fracture which has presented in prior
section of work.
In the newest direction of compression, compression in the study area of Khoram-Abad has
reactivated C set (Figure 18) which after rotaion of max. horizontal principal stress its
direction is nearly parallel to this max. stress.

7. Fracture density
7.1. Impact of various factors on the fracture density
Fractures of the amount depend on the thickness and lithology of layer (McClay, 1987).
Density of fractures with thick, lithology and texture of layering in each of the stations (21
stations and 15 stations in the study area of the Khoram-Abad anticline and the Kabir-Kuh
anticline of the study area) were obtained (Table 2 and Table 3).
There is a strong negative correlation between beds thickness and fracturing (e.g. Underwood
et al. 2003; Wenneberg et al. 2007), in general, the thicker the bed, the less fracturing would
suffer. Increasing strength and decreasing ductility of rock would lead to more closely spaced
fractures (Nelson, 2001).

7.2.Thickness effect on fracture density

Put the thick layering against density of fractures in the study area of the Khoram-Abad
anticline, the normal density with increasing thickness of the layers encountered fractures
(Figure 19). But in the study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline, the thickness increases with
increasing fracture density encountered (Figure 20), although given the high data dispersion
around the line passes.
 7.3. Influence of lithology on fracture density
Fractures of the stations in the study area of Khoram-Abad anticline, three lithology of marl,
limestone and cherty limestone, in the study area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline three lithology of
limestone, shaly limestone and cherty limestone are present. Based on (Ferrill and Morris,
2008), the limestone against marl and shaly limestone is more resistant, and Nelson (Nelson,
2001) despite the quartz grains in the layered substrate is known to be effective in increasing
competency. Thus the competency of layering in the study area of Khoram-Abad anticline,
respectively layered marl, limestone and cherty limestone, and the competency of layering in
the study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline, respectively shaly Limestone, limestone and cherty
limestone increase.
Placing the lithology against fracture density in both regions, while increasing competency of
layering the density of fractures is increases (Figure 21).

8. Texture effect on the fractures lengths

Fluid/gas flow in fractured rocks is controlled by the pattern of interconnected fractures.
Fracture elongation is one of the factors that increase coherence is fractures (Gosh and Mitra,
2009). Knowing the fracture elongation factor or factors in identifying areas with high
coherence is fractures helpful.
Khoram-Abad anticline in the study area, a total of 561 fractures were harvested, 23 (4.1%)
fractures in mudstone layers of texture, 363 (64.71%) fractures in wackstone layers of
texture, 147 (26.2%) fractures in Layer with texture of packstone and 28 (4.99%) fractures
there are layers of grainstone texture (Figure 22). Of this total number, 355 fractures are
medium and shorter length.
206 fractures of the long and very long, 4 (1.94%) fractures in mudstone layers of texture,
144 (69.9%) fractures in the layers wackstone texture, 41 (19.9%) fractures in the packstone
layers of texture and 17 (25.8 %) fractures are having been in layers of packstone texture
(Figure 22).
In the study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline, a total of 418 fractures were harvested, 34 (8.1%)
fractures in mudstone layers of texture, 256 (61.2%) fractures in the wackstone layers of
texture and 128 (30.6%) fractures remaining in the layers with texture of packstone (Figure
23). Of this total number, 370 fractures are medium and shorter length.
Long and very long fracture at 48, 28 (58.3%) fractures in the wackstone texture layers and
20 (41.7%) fractures are having been in layers of packstone texture (Figure 23).
In the two study area the long and very long fractures in the layers with larger size of that’s
grading are more pronounced.

Based on the study of Garu and basal of Sarvak formations in the their outcrops on the Kabir-
Kuh and Khoram-Abad anticline, the fractures length are increased with changes of the
texture from mudstone to wackstone, wackstone to packstone and packstone to grainstone
(Figure 24 and Figure 25). So we can say that in both regions the increase in grain size
creation the longer fractures.
Then during drilling within the basal Garau’s shale Formation which shale gas is produced
from it, beds which have a texture of mudstone will be the best choice for drilling than the
other textures because mudstone texture would have a lowest coherence of fractures and
grainstone that would have a highest coherence of fractures than the other textures would be
the worst choice for drilling than the other texture.

9. Discussion
The Zagros fold-thrust belt is the external part of an active orogenic wedge (the Zagros).
Complex shortening in the wedge began in the Late Cretaceous, and has migrated
southwestward into the northeastern Afro-Arabian continental margin, continuing today
(Alavi, 2007).
Hessami et al., (2001) have stated that the folding in the Zagros simply folded belt starts at
Late Eocene and moving toward southwest, deformation receives the foreland of this belt at
the Late Pliocene (Figure 26), On this basis, according to the study area of the Khoram-Abad
anticline is in the northeastern part and the study area of Kabir-Kuh Anticlines is in the
southwest of the Lurestan Subzone So it can be stated that the folding of the Khoram-Abad
anticline starts older than the folding in the kbir kuh anticline (Figure 26).

According to the long fractures is older than the shorter fractures and based upon the
deformation in the frontal Zagros fold - thrust belt has migration to the Southwest (Hessami
et al., 2001 ,homke et al., 2004), So we can say that from the Late Cretaceous to Oligocene in
northeastern Lurestan Subzone and in the study area of Khoram-Abad anticline, first
transverse fractures formed with strike of 50 ° And then with rotation of the applied pressure
from the Arabian plate, Transverse fractures with mean strike of 35 degree are formed. In this
time in the study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline, thin skinned extensional stress regime imply
therefore extensional fractures and normal faults had formed. Due to the deformation front
migrated towards the Southwest, from the Early Miocene to Middle part of the Late Miocene,
in the Garau and basal the Sarvak formations in the study area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline first
extensional fractures have stilolitizated and transverse fractures with the 25 degree strike are
formed then imposed by the rotation of the Arabian plate, Transverse fractures with the mean
strike of 15 degrees are formed and in the same time interval the number of longitudinal
fractures and oblique fractures which are fractures that formed from folding, in the study area
of the Khoram-Abad anticline had been formed. The study area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline
since the Middle Late Miocene has been folding and longitudinal and oblique fractures are
formed in this region and those existing fracture sets in the study area of Khoram-Abad
anticline has increased their frequency (Figure 27).
Convergence of the North - South direction of the Arabian and the Eurasian plates cause right
lateral movement along the Main recent Fault developed in the Northwest of the main Zagros
reverse fault since the Pliocene (Talebian and Jackson, 2002; Authemayou et al., 2006). This
counterclockwise rotation of the convergence, cause to have been formed the younger
transverse fracture with approximately north – south strike in the study area of the Kabir-Kuh
anticline.

10. Conclusions
Kabir-Kuh and Khoram-Abad anticlines in Lurestan structural province, due to its exposure
of Garu and Sarvak formations have been provided good chance to study of fractures since
the Cretaceous.
Outcrop of Garau and basal Sarvak formations in Kabir-kuh anticline and Khoram-Abad
anticline have two systems of fracture. The Kabir-Kuh anticline has two transverse fracture
sets with a dominant scattering, approximately. A number of these fracture have filled and is
the longest fractures. A set of longitudinal fractures which have a greatest intensity in
anticline crest. A set of oblique fractures which those directed in 30º than transverse fracture
set.
The Khoram-Abad anticline has a set of transverse fracture. A number of these fracture have
filled and is the longest fractures. A set of longitudinal fractures which have a greatest
intensity in anticline crest. Two sets of oblique fractures which those directed in 30º than
transverse fracture set.
From Early Cretaceous to Late Oligocene in the Khoram-Abad anticline we have a
compressional stress regime and a counterclockwise rotation of moving Arabian plate toward
Eurasia changes direction of principal stresses which had formed fractures in outcrops of
Garau and basal Sarvak formations in this region which first had formed Longest transvers
fractures then the direction of motion had rotated counterclockwise then formed shortest
transvers fractures. In this time in the study area of kabir-Kuh a thin-skined extensional stress
regime had impressed which had formed extension fractures and some normal faults.
Counterclockwise rotation of moving Arabian plate toward Eurasia changes direction of
principal stresses which had formed fractures in outcrops of Garau and basal Sarvak
formations in Kabir-kuh anticline. We proposed that from Early Miocene to Middle Late
Miocene, the stress form this motion, first had formed transvers fractures then this fractures
has filled and probably the direction of motion had rotated counterclockwise then formed
long transverse fracture sets without filling and stylolietes. Which since Early Miocene in the
Khoram-Abad anticline longitudinal and oblique fracture sets has formed.
Since Middle Late Miocene, in the Kabir-Kuh study area, first longitudinal fractures in crest
of the anticline then oblique fracture set had formed.
Counterclockwise rotation of the Arabic plate in both study area during the time of the
fracture transverse directions North East - South West fractures transverse to the direction
North North East - South South West are longer.
In the study area of Khoram-Abad anticline with increasing thickness and decreasing
competency of the layers, the fracture density is decreased but in the study area of Kabir-Kuh
anticline which has been less deformed than the Khoram-Abad anticline a major determinant
of fracture density is lithology. The effect of these factor is such that even the increased
thickness of the layers (typically the fracture density is increased by increasing the thickness
of the layers), Due to increased competency of the layers has been a change in lithology,
fracture density increases encounter.

Based on the study of Garu and base of Sarvak formations change the texture from mudstone
to wackstone, wackstone to packstone and packstone to grainstone is increased the fractures
length. So we can say that in both regions the increase in grain size creation the longer
fractures.
In the newest direction of compression, the compression in the study area of Khoram-Abad
has reactivated C set (Figure 18) which after rotaion of max. horizontal principal stress its
direction is nearly parallel to this max. stress. The transverse fractures set which was formed
recently and have a minumum angle to the compression (max. horizontal principal stress) is
needed the minimum of fluid presure to reactivation.
 References

Agard, P., Omrani, J., Jolivet, L., Mouthereau, F., 2005. Convergence history across Zagros (Iran):
constraints from collisional and earlier deformation. International Journal of Earth Sciences 94,
401–419.

Agard, P., Monié, P., Gerber, W., Omrani, J., Molinaro, M., Meyer, B., Labrousse, L., Vrielynck,
B., Jolivet, L., Yamato, P., 2006. Transient, synobduction exhumation of Zagros blueschists
inferred from P–T, deformation, time, and kinematic constraints: Implications for Neotethyan
wedge dynamics. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, B11401.

Ahmadahdi, F., Daniel, J.M., Azzizadeh, M., Lacombe, O., 2008. Evidence for pre-folding vein
development in the Oligo-Miocene Asmari Formation in the Central Zagros Fold Belt, Iran.
Tectonics 27, TC1016.

Ahmadipour, M. R. 2002. The role of Sarvak Formation in Supplying Pol-e Dokhtar town (Iran)
with drinking water. Acta Carsologica, 31, 93-103.

Alavi, M., 1994. Tectonics of the Zagros orogenic belt of Iran: new data and interpretations.
Tectonophysics 229, 211–238.

Alavi, M., 2004. Regional stratigraphy of the Zagros fold-thrust belt of Iran and its proforland
evolution. Am. J. Sci. 304, 1–20.

Alavi, M., 2007. Structures of the Zagros fold thrust belt in Iran. Am. J. Sci. 307, 1064–1095.

Ameen, M. S., 1991, Alpine geowarpings in the Zagros-Taurus range: Influence on hydrocarbon
generation, migration and accumulation: Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 14, no. 4, p. 417–
428.

Ameen, M, S., Buhidma, I, M., and Rahim, Z., 2010. The function of fracture and in-situ stresses in
Khuff reservoir performance, onshore fields, Saudi Arabia; AAPG Bulletin, v. 94, no. 1 p. 27 -
60.

Angerer, E., Lanfranchi, P., Rogers, S.F., 2003. Fractured reservoir modeling from seismic to
simulator: a reality? The Leading Edge 22, 684–689.

Authemayou, C., Chardon, D., Bellier, O., Malekzadeh, Z., Shabanian, E., and Abbassi, M.R.
(2006). Late Cenozoic partitioning of oblique plate convergence in the Zagros fold-and-thrust
belt (Iran). Tectonics, vol. 25, p. TC 3002.

Aydin, A., 2000. Fractures, faults, and hydrocarbon entrapment, migration, and flow. Marine and
Petroleum Geology 17, 797–814.

Barbier, M., Hamon, Y., Callot, J.P., Floquet, M., Daniel, J.M., 2012a. Sedimentary and diagenetic
controls on the multiscale fracturing pattern of a carbonate reservoir: The Madison Formation
(Sheep Mountain, Wyoming, USA). Marine and Petroleum Geology 29, 50–67.

Barbier, M., Hamon, Y., Doligez, B., Callot, J.P., Floquet, M., Daniel, J.M., 2012b. Stochastic joint
simulation of facies and diagenesis: a case study on early diagenesis of the Madison formation
(Wyoming, USA). Oil and Gas Science and Technology 67 (1), 123–145.

Barbier, M., Lepretre, R., Callot, J. P., Gasparrini, M., Daniel, J. M., Hamon, Y., Lacombe, O.,
Floquet, M., 2012. Impact of fracture stratigraphy on the paleo-hydrogeology of Madison
Limestone in two basement-involved folds in the Bighorn basin, (Wyoming, USA).
Tectonophysics 576-577, 116–132.
Beaudoin, N., Leprètre, R., Bellahsen, N., Lacombe, O., Amrouch, K., Callot, J.P., Emmanuel, L.,
Daniel, J.M., 2012. Structural and microstructural evolution of the Rattlesnake Mountain
Anticline (Wyoming, USA): new insights into the Sevier and Laramide orogenic stress build-
ups in the Bighorn Basin. Tectonophysics 576–577, 20–45 (this issue).

Bons, P. D., Elburg, M. A., Rivas, E. G., 2012. A review of the formation of tectonic veins and
their microstructures: Journal of Structural Geology 43, 33–62.

Berberian, M., King, G.C.P., 1981. Towards a paleogeography and tectonic evolution of Iran. Can.
J. Earth Sci. 18, 210–265.

Berberian, F., Muir, I.D., Pankhurst, R.J., Berberian, M., 1982. Late Cretaceous and early Miocene
Andean-type plutonic activity in northern Makran and Central Iran. Journal of the Geological
Society, London 139, 605–614.

Bordenave, M. L. And Burwood, R. 1995. The Albian Kazhdumi Formation of the Dezful
Embayment, Iran: one of the most efficient petroleum generating systems. In: Katz, B. J. (ed.)
Petroleum Source Rocks Series, Case Book in Earth Sciences. Springer, Berlin, 183-207.

Bordenave, M. L. And Hegre, J. A. 2010. Current distribution of oil and gas fields in the Zagros
Fold Belt of Iran and contiguous offshore as the result of the petroleum systems. Geological
Society, London, Special Publications, 330, 291-353.

Bordenave, M. L. And Sahabi, F. 1971. Geochemical project, Appraisal of Lurestan. Geology and
Exploraton Division, Iranian Oil Operating Companies, Report, 1182.

Bordet, E., Malo, M., and Kirkwood, D., 2010. A structural study of western Anticosti Island, St.
Lawrence platform, quebec: a fracture analysis that integrates surface and subsurface structural
data: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology., v. 58, no. 1, p. 36-55.

Curtis, J. B., 2002, Fractured shale-gas systems; AAPG Bulletin, v. 86, no. 11, p. 1921-1938.

DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G., Argus, D.F., Stein, S., 1990. Current plate motions. Geophys. J. Int.
101, 425–478.

DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G., Argus, D.F., Stein, S., 1994. Effect of recent revisions to the
geomagnetic reversal time scale on estimates of current plate motions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 21,
2191–2194.

DeMets, C., Gordon, R.G., Argus, D.F., 2010. Geologically current plate motions. Geophys. J. Int.
181, 1–80.

FALCON, N. L. 1974. Southern Iran: Zagros Mountains. In: SPENCER, A. (ed.) Mesozoic–
Cenozoic Orogenic Belts. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 4, 199–211.

Farzipour, A, S., Yassaghi., A., Sherkati, S., and Koyi. H., 2009. Basin evolution the Lurestan
region in the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt, iran: Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol. 32 (1), pp 5-
20.

Ferril, D. A., and Morris, A. P., 2008, Fault zone deformation controlled by carbonate mechanical
stratigraphy, Balcones fault system, Texas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 92, no.
3, p. 359-380.

Fischer, M.P., Higuera-Díaz, I.C., Evans, M.A., Perry, E.C., Lefticariu, L., 2009. Fracturecontrolled
paleohydrology in a map-scale detachment fold: insights from the analysis of fluid inclusions in
calcite and quartz veins: Journal of Structural Geology 31, 1490–1510.
Gosh, K,. and Mitra, S,. 2009, Structural controls of fracture orientations, intensity, and
connectivity, Teton anticline, Sawtooth Range, Montana; AAPG Bulletin, v. 93, no. 8, p. 995 -
1014.

Gross, M. R., 1993, The origin and spacing of cross joints: Examples from the Monterrey
Formation, Santa Barbara coastline, California: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 15, no. 6, p.
737– 751.

Gross, M., Fisher, M., Engelder, T., Greenfield, J.R., 1995. Factors controlling joint spacing in
interbedded sedimentary rocks: integrating numerical models with field observations from the
Monterey Formation, USA. In: Ameen, M.S. (Ed.), Fractography: fracture topography as a tool
in fracture mechanics and stress analysis. Geological Society Special Publication 92, 215–233.

Hanks, C.L., Lorenz, J., Teufel, L., Krumhardt, A.P., 1997. Lithologic and structural controls on
natural fracture distribution and behavior within the Lisburne Group, northeastern Brooks
Range and North Slope subsurface, Alaska. AAPG Bulletin 81, 1700–1720.

Hessami, K., Koyi, H.A., Talbot, C.J., Tabasi, H., and Shabanian, E. (2001). Progressive
unconformities within an evolving foreland fold-and-thrust belt, Zagros Mountains. Geological
Society, London, vol. 158, p. 969-981.

Homke, S., Vergés, J., Garcés, M., Emami, H., and Karpuz, R. (2004). Magnetostratigraphy of
Miocene–Pliocene Zagros foreland deposits in the front of the Push-e Kush Arc (Lurestan
Province, Iran). Earth and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 225, p. 397– 410.

Huang, Q., and J. Angelier, 1989, Fracture spacing and its relation to bed thickness: Geological
Magazine, v. 126, no. 4, p. 355–362.

Jackson, J.A., Haines, J., Holt, W., 1995. The accommodation of Arabian–Eurasia plate
convergence in Iran. Journal of Geophysical Research 100, 15,205–15,219.

James, G. A. and Wynd, J. G. 1965. Stratigraphic nomenclature of Iranian Oil Consortium

Agreement Area.

Ji, S., and K. Saruwatari, 1998, A revised model for the relationship between joint spacing and
layer thickness: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 20, no. 11, p. 1495– 1508.

Katz, D., Eberli, G., Swart, P., Smith, L., 2006. Tectonic–Hydrothermal brecciation associated with
calcite precipitation and permeability destruction in Mississippian carbonate reservoirs,
Montana and Wyoming. AAPG Bulletin 90, 1803–1841.

Knipe, R.J., Jones, G., Fisher, Q.J., 1998. Faulting, fault sealing and fluid flow in hydrocarbon
reservoirs: an introduction. In: Jones, G., Fisher, Q.J., Knipe, R.J. (Eds.), Faulting, Fault
Sealing and Fluid Flow in Hydrocarbon Reservoirs: Geological Society of London Special
Publication, 147, pp. vii–xxi.

Lacombe, O., Bellahsen, N., Mouthereau, F., 2011. Fracture patterns in the Zagros Simply Folded
Belt (Fars): new constraints on early collisional tectonic history and role of basement faults. In:
Lacombe, O., Grasemann, B., Simpson, G. (Eds.), Geodynamic evolution of the Zagros
Geological Magazine 148, 940–963.

Law, B. E., and Curtis, J. B., 2002. Introduction to unconventional petroleum systems; AAPG
Bulletin, v. 86, no. 11, p. 1851-1852.

Lynn, H.B., 2004a. The winds of change, anisotropic rocks — their preferred direction of fluid flow
and their associated seismic signatures — part 1. The Leading Edge 23, 1156–1162.
Lynn, H.B., 2004b. The winds of change, anisotropic rocks — their preferred direction of fluid flow
and their associated seismic signatures — part 2. The Leading Edge 23, 1258–1268.

Manzocchi, T., Childs, C., Walsh, J.J., 2010. Faults and fault properties in hydrocarbon flow
models. Geofluids 10, 94–113.

Marshak, S., and Mitra, G., 1988. Basic Methods of Structural Geology: Prentice – Hall.

Martini, A. M., L. M. Walter, J. M. Budai, T. C. W. Ku, C. J. Kaiser, and M. Schoell, 1998, Genetic
and temporal relations between formation waters and biogenic methane—Upper Devonian
Antrim Shale, Michigan basin, USA: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 62, no. 10, p.
1699–1720.

McClay, K. R., 1987. The mapping of Geological Structures: Geological Society of London
Handbook, 161p.

McClusky, S., Balassanian, S., Barka, A., Demir, C., Ergintav, S., Georgiev, I., Gurkan, O.,
Hamburger, M., Hurst, K., Kahle, H., Kastens, K., Kekelidze, G., King, R., Kotzev, V., Lenk,
O., Mahmoud, S., Mishin, A., Nadariya, M., Ouzounis, A., Paradissis, D., Peter, Y., Prilepin,
M., Reilinger, R., Sanli, I., Seeger, H., Tealeb, A., Toksoz, M., Veis, G., 2000. Global
positioning system constraints on plate kinematics and dynamics in the eastern Mediterranean
and Caucasus. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 5695–5719.

McClusky, S., Reilinger, R., Mahmoud, S., Ben Sari, D., Tealeb, A., 2003. GPS constraints on
Africa (Nubia) and Arabia plate motions. Geophys. J. Int. 155, 126–138.

Mcquarrie, N., Stock, J.M., Verdel, C., and Wernicke, B.p., 2003. Cenozoic evolution of Neotethys
and implications for the causes of plate motions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 30 (20).

Narr, W., and J. Suppe, 1991, Joint spacing in sedimentary rocks: Journal of Structural Geology, v.
13, p. 1037– 1048.

Narr, W., Schechter, D.W., Thompson, L.B., 2006. Naturally Fractured Reservoir Characterization.
Society of Petroleum Engineers, Richardson.

Navabpour, P., Angelier, J., and Barrier, E., 2007. Cenozoic post-collisional brittle tectonic history
and stress reorientation in the High Zagros Belt (Iran, Fars Province). Tectonophysics 432, 101-
131.

Navabpour, P., Angelier, J., Barrier, E., 2007. Cenozoic post-collisional brittle tectonic history and
stress reorientation in the High Zagros Belt (Iran, Fars Province). Tectonophysics 432, 101–
131.

Navabpour, P., Angelier, J., Barrier, E., 2008. Stress state reconstruction of oblique collision and
evolution of deformation partitioning in W-Zagros (Iran, Kermanshah). Geophysical Journal
International 175, 755–782.

Navabpour, P., Angelier, J., Barrier, E., 2010. Mesozoic extensional brittle tectonics of the Arabian
passive margin, inverted in the Zagros collision (Iran, interior Fars). Geological Society,
London, Special Publications 330, 65–96.

Navabpour, P., Angelier, J., Barrier, E., 2011. Brittle tectonic reconstruction of palaeoextension
inherited from Mesozoic rifting in West Zagros (Iran, Kermanshah). Journal of the Geological
Society, London 168, 979–994.

Navabpour, P., Barrier, E., 2012. Stress states in the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt from passive
margin to collisional tectonic setting. Tectonophysics 581, 76–83.
Nelson, R. A., 1985, Geologic analysis of naturally fractured reservoirs: Houston, Texas, Gulf
Publishing, 320 p.

Nelson, R. A., 2001, Geologic analysis of naturally fractured reservoirs: Gulf Prof. Pub., Houston,
TX, 332 p.

Nilforoushan, F., Masson, F., Vernant, P., Vigny, C., Martinod, J., Abbassi, M., Nankali, H.,
Hatzfeld, D., Bayer, R., Tavakoli, F., Ashtiani, A., Doerflinger, E., Daignières, M., Collard, P.,
Chéry, J., 2003. GPS network monitors the Arabia–Eurasia collision deformation in Iran. J.
Geod. 77, 411–422.

Olson, J., and D. D. Pollard, 1989, Infering paleostresses from natural fracture patterns: Geology, v.
17, p. 345-348.

Ortega, O.J., Marrett, R.A., Laubach, S.E., 2006. A scale-independent approach to fracture intensity
and arithmetic mean spacing measurement. American Association of Petroleum Geologists
Bulletin 90, 193–208.

Price, N. J., and Cosgrove, J. W., 1990, Annalysis of geological structures; Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge, 502 p.

Price, N. J., 1966, Fault and joint development in brittle and semibrittle rocks: Oxford, Pergamon
Press, 176 p.

Raeisi, E. And Karami, G. 1997. Hydrochemographs of Berghan karst spring as indicators of

aquifer characteristics. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, 59, 112-118.

Ricou, L.E., 1974. L'évolution géologique de la région de Neyriz (Zagros iranien) et l'évolution
structurale des zagrides, Thèse. Université d'Orsay, France.

Schettler, P. D., and C. R. Parmely, 1990, The measurement of gas desorption isotherms for
Devonian shale: Gas Shales Technology Review, v. 7, no. 1, p. 4–9.

Schmitt, D. R., Currie, C. A., Zhang, L., 2012. Crustal stress determination from boreholes and rock
cores: Fundamental principles. Tectonophysics 580, 1–26.

Sella, G.F., Dixon, T.H., Mao, A., 2002. REVEL: a model for recent plate velocities from space
geodesy. J. Geophys. Res. 107 (B4), 11-1–11-32 ETG.

Stocklin, J., 1968. Structural history and tectonics of Iran: a review. AAPG Bull. 52, 1229–1258.

Stocklin, J., 1974. Possible ancient continental margin in Iran. In: Burk, C.A., Drake, C.L. (Eds.),
Geology of the Continental Margin. Springer, New York, pp. 873–887.

Talebian, M. and Jackson, J. (2002). Offset on the Main Recent Fault of NW Iran and implications
for the late Cenozoic tectonics of the Arabia–Eurasia collision zone. Geophysical Journal
International, vol. 150, p. 422–439.

Travé, A., Calvet, F., Sans, M., Vergès, J., Thirlwall, M., 2000. Fluid history related to the Alpine
compression at the margin of the south-Pyrenean Foreland basin: the El Guix anticline.
Tectonophysics 321, 73–102.

Underwood, C. A., Cooke, M.L., Simo, J.A., and Muldoon, M.A. 2003. Stratigraphic controls on
vertical fracture patterns in Silurian dolomite, northeastern Wisconsin. AAPG Bulletin, V. 87,
no. 1; pp. 121-142.

Wennberg, O.P., Svånå, T., Azizzadeh, M., Aqrawi, A.M.M., Brockbank, P., Lyslo, K.B., Ogilvie,
S., 2006. Fracture intensity vs. mechanical stratigraphy in platform top carbonates: the
 Aquitanian of the Asmari Formation, Khaviz anticline, Zagros, southwest Iran. Petroleum
Geoscience 12, 235–246.

Wennberg, O.P., Azizzadeh, M., Aqrawi, A.M., Blanc, E., Brockbank, P., Lyslo, K.B., Pickard, N.,
Salem, L.D., Svånå, T., 2007. The Khaviz Anticline — an outcrop analogue to giant fractured
Asmari Formation reservoirs in SW Iran. In: Jolly, R.J.H., Rawnsley, K., Sanderson, D.J.
(Eds.), Fractured Reservoirs.Geological Society of London. Special Publication 270, 23–42.

Vernant, P., Nilforoushan, F., Hatzfeld, D., Abbassi, M.R., Vigny, C., Masson, F., Nankali, H.,
Martinod, J., Ashtiani, A., Bayer, R., Tavakoli, F., Chéry, J., 2004. Present-day crustal
deformation and plate kinematics in the Middle East constrained by GPS measurement in Iran
and northern Oman. Geophys. J. Int. 157, 381–398.
 Table 1)

Fractures Cumulative
Frequency Percent
Type Percent

close 319 76.3 76.3

open 92 22.0 98.3
unknown 7 1.7 100.0
Total 418 100.0
 Table 2)

Parameters
Mean Modified
Texture
Station bed joint
Outcrops (Dunham Lithology
no. Thickness Density
Classification)
(cm) (Fr/m)
Garu 1 80 W Ch-li 1.96
Garu 2 50 W L 1.68
Garu 3 90 W L 3.34
Garu 4 40 W L 1.55
Garu 5 25 M L 3.11
Garu 6 90 W L 1.10
Garu 7 90 W L 1.21
Garu 8 55 W L 3.36
Garu 9 100 W Ch-li 3.61
Garu 10 60 P L 1.85
Garu 11 63 W Ch-li 2.69
Garu 12 25 W L 4.18
Garu 13 20 W M 1.37
Garu 14 15 W Ch-li 28.57
Garu 15 55 G L 0.69
Garu 16 70 W Ch-li 1.53
Garu 17 35 P L 1.76
Garu 18 20 W Ch-li 2.63
Sarvak 19 30 P Ch-li 4.90
Sarvak 20 20 P L 5.40
Sarvak 21 45 P L 2.79
Texture: W = wackestone; P = packstone; G = grainstone.
Lithology: L = limestone; M = marl; Ch-li = cherty limestone.
 Table 3)

Parameters
Mean Modified
Texture
Station bed joint
Outcrops (Dunham Lithology
no. Thickness Density
Classification)
(cm) (Fr/m)
Garu 1 100 W L 2.36
Garu 2 100 M L 5.47
Garu 3 100 M L 7.20
Garu 4 90 W L 3.88
Garu 5 200 W L 14.50
Garu 6 20 P L 5.27
Garu 7 100 P L 3.61
Garu 8 20 M Sh-li 2.10
Garu 9 28 P L 2.25
Garu 10 30 W Sh-li 16.67
Sarvak 11 200 M Ch-li 58.82
Sarvak 12 150 W L 2.78
Garu 13 75 M L 4.98
Sarvak 14 30 W L 7.10
Sarvak 15 43 M L 2.23
Texture: M = mudstone; W = wackestone; P = packstone.
Lithology: L = limestone; Sh-li = shaly limestone; Ch-li = cherty limestone.
Table 1) the frequency of fractures based on the type of open or close of them.
Table 2) parameters corresponding to each of stations that are fractures obtained
in the study area of the Khoram-Abad anticline.
Table 3) parameters corresponding to each of stations that are fractures obtained
in the study area of the Kabir-kuh anticline.
Figure 1) (a) Subdivisions of the Zagros Belt (after Alavi, 2007). (b) The study
areas are located within the Lurestan province that is a part of the Zagros simply
folded zone (modified from farzi pur, 2009).
Figure 2) Geological map of the Khoram-Abad anticline with cross section
along stations, and (b) the Kabir-Kuh anticline in the study areas, which
showing the location of each station (st.).
Figure 3) Geological map of the Kabir-Kuh anticline with cross sections along
stations.
Figure 4. a-c) Rose diagrams (upper plot) showing the strikes of (a) transverse,
(b) longitudinal, and (c) oblique fractures. d-f) contour diagrams (lower
hemisphere, equal-area projection) showing poles to planes of fractures and
bedding (lower plot). (d) Transverse fractures. (e) Longitudinal fractures. (f)
oblique fractures. FA = the local orientation of the fold axis, plunging 2° toward
305°. g-l) Rose diagrams and contour diagrams of the orientation of transverse,
longitudinal, and oblique fractures with bedding rotated to horizontal. (In the
study area of Khoram-Abad anticline).
Figure 5 . a-c) Rose diagrams (upper plot) showing the strikes of (a) transverse,
(b) longitudinal, and (c) oblique fractures. d-f) contour diagrams (lower
hemisphere, equal-area projection) showing poles to planes of fractures and
bedding (lower plot). (d) Transverse fractures. (e) Longitudinal fractures. (f)
oblique fractures. FA = the local orientation of the fold axis, plunging 6° toward
290°. g-l) Rose diagrams and contour diagrams of the orientation of transverse,
longitudinal, and oblique fractures with bedding rotated to horizontal. (In the
study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline).
Figure 6) there is two sets of open fractures with one strike (the strike of
approximately 020 degrees) and two different dip at station No. 11, marked with
blue and yellow, also a set of closed fractures (with its 165 degrees) is marked
with red color.
Figure 7) there have been stylolite fractures that formed perpendicular to the
layers, and are perpendicular to the extension fractures (fractures filled with
calcite).
Figure 8) indicating the existence of different structures of bedding-parallel slip.
A) Abutting of fractures against planes of bedding-parallel slip. B) striae
grooved in the surface of bedding. C) Spaced disjunctive cleavage which shows
that upper bed had been moved northward.
Figure 9) reverse faults in the present-day folded strata, interpreted as pre-
folding conjugate normal faults by back-tilting the strata to initial in southern
limb of Kabir-Kuh anticline between stations no. 11 and no.12.
Figure 10) Two sets of transverse fractures (the A set) and longitudinal (the B
set) which are marked with blue and yellow, respectively, (Station No. 6, which
has a bedding dip of 80 degrees to 210 degrees) with rose diagram and
stereonett of bedding and fractures with Considering the length of the fracture.
Figure 11) two sets of longitudinal (C and D sets) and oblique (E set) fractures
in station no. 5, which show that longitudinal fractures sets is older than oblique
fractures set in the study area of Kabir-Kuh anticline.
Figure 12) Stereonett of stylolite and it’s maximum stress which has formed it,
and extensional fractures and it’s minimum stress which had been one of
principal stresses in time of forming this fractures, B) intermediate principal
stress which is the pole of great circle of minimum and maximum principal
stresses.
Figure 13) Rose diagram of fracture generally gathered from all stations in the
study area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline, A) Rose diagram of all fractures, B) Rose
diagram of the long and very long fractures.
Figure 14) structural schematic map of the study area of kabir-kuh anticline. A)
First a set of fracture had formed in response to thin-skinned extension, B)
These fractures which had formed first have been changed to stylolite fractures
then a number of A and B sets had formed which would be filled later and, C)
then rotation of the Arabian plate formed another number of these two sets
which is younger than those. During folding, D) first longitudinal fractures (C
and D sets) had formed, and then this direction of the Arabian stress
(approximately north-south direction) had formed oblique fracture sets (E set).
Figure 15) thin section from the Garau Fromation which shows stylolite is older
than transverse fracturing in the Kabir-Kuh anticline.
Figure 16) Histogram of the fractures length (vl = very long, l = long, m =
medium, s = short, vs = very short) corresponds to the frequency and azimuth of
them in the study area of Khoram-Abad anticline.
Figure 17) Mohr-Griffith-Coulomb failure in anisotropic rocks. The failure
behaviour of a rock with a plane of weakness (cleavage in this example) is
given by two failure envelopes: one for the intact rock and one for the cleavage
or pre-existing faults. Whether failure occurs along the plane of weakness (left)
or not (right), depends on the orientation of this plane (small circle), relative to
the stress field (from Bons P.D. et al., 2012).
Figure 18) thin section from the study area of Khoram-Abad anticline, which
there has been C set of oblique fracture, has reactivated after counterclockwise
rotation of the Arabian plate and acts as micro dextral fault and displaces D set
fractures.
Figure 19) Graph showing the relationship between thickness of the layers
against density of fractures in the study area of the Khoram-Abad anticline.
Figure 20) Graph showing the relationship between thickness of the layers
against density of fractures in the study area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline.
Figure 21) Graphs showing the relationship between fracture density and
lithology in a) the study of the Khoram-Abad anticline, where the marl lithology
instead of the number 1, number 2 limestone and cherty limestone the number 3
is used, b) the study area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline, where the shaly limstone
lithology instead of the number 1, number 2 limestone and cherty limestone the
number 3 is used. (In both charts from number 1 to number 3 consistencies is an
increase).
Figure 22) Circular diagram of the frequency distribution of long and very long
fractures that having been formed in various textures in the study area in the
Khoram-Abad anticline.
Figure 23) Circular diagram of the frequency distribution of long and very long
fractures that having been formed in various textures in the study area in the
Kabir-Kuh anticline.
Figure 24) Some of fractures which cut scan lines which distinct their length in
stations number of 3 (with mudstone texture) and 10 (with wackstone texture) in
Kabir-Kuh anticline.
Figure 25) Some of fractures which cut scan lines which distinct their length in
station number of 7 in Kabir-Kuh anticline (with packstone texture) and station
number of 15 (with grainstone texture) in Khoram-Abad anticline.
Figure 26) Summary of the increments of progressive growth recorded by syn-
sedimentary structures in the Simply Folded Zone az it widened from end
Eocene to the present. The deformation front of the Zagros Simply Folded Zone
has been driving the foreland basin in front of it as it has propagated
episodically to the southwest since end Eocene. Shading lightens successively
through strips of frontal folds that become younger southwestward (modified
from Hesami et al., 2001) where the study areas are shown in that (A = area of
the Khoram-Abad anticline, B = area of the Kabir-Kuh anticline).
Figure 27) Summary of the structural development of the Garau Formation and
lower part of the Sarvak formation in the study areas of the Khoram-Abad
anticline (KA) and the Kabir-Kuh anticline (KK).

Factors affecting fracture density in the two regions with different deformation
rate is different.
Factors affecting the length of the fractures in the two regions with different
deformation rate is the same.
Fracturing age determination based on folding.

Relationship between fracture length and the stress exerted by the Arabian plate.

Rotation of Arabian plate and discussion its effect on orientation of fractures.

Figure1

Figure 1)
Figure 2

Figure 1)
Figure 3

Figure 1)
Figure 4

Figure 1)
Figure 5

Figure 1)
Figure 6

Figure 1)
Figure 7

Figure 1)
Figure 8

Figure 1)
Figure 9

Figure 1)
Figure 10

Figure 1)
Figure 11

Figure 1)
Figure 12

Figure 1)
Figure 13

Figure 1)
Figure 14

Figure 1) structural schematic map of the study area of kabir-kuh anticline. A) First a set of
fracture had formed in response to thin-skinned extension, B) These fractures which had
formed first have been changed to stylolite fractures then a number of A and B sets had
formed which would be filled later and, C) then rotation of the Arabian plate formed another
number of these two sets which is younger than those. During folding, D) first longitudinal
fractures (C and D sets) had formed, and then this direction of the Arabian stress
(approximately north-south direction) had formed oblique fracture sets (E set).
Figure 15

Figure 1)
Figure 16

Figure 1)
Figure 17

Figure 1)
Figure 18

Figure 1)
Figure 19

Figure 1)
Figure 20

Figure 1)
Figure 21

(a) (b)
Figure 1)
Figure 22

Figure 1)
Figure 23

Figure 1)
Figure 24

Figure 1)
Figure 25

Figure 1)
Figure 26

Figure 1)
Figure 27

Figure 1)