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Colour preference
under white LEDs

Magazine for the PLD Alliance, official magazine of the Professional Lighting Design Convention
62

Can we standardise the human eye?

An assessment of colour preference under white LEDs by individuals with different iris colours.
Text: Dr. Karolina M. Zielinska-Dabkowska, PhD, Veronika Labancová, Dr. Amardeep M. Dugar, PhD

Does the iris colour of individuals have an impact on their preference of colour under white light emitting diodes (LEDs)?
To address this question, a study was conducted to examine how people with different iris colours respond to the colour and
brightness of three scene settings under illumination from LEDs.

1. Introduction
Various psychophysical factors
affect human colour discrimination
such as the crystalline lens, the
retina, the visual pathway, or the
visual cortex. Researchers (1–4)
argue that iris colour might also have
an influence on human colour
discrimination. The iris itself comprises
of two tissue layers: the innermost
layer comprises pigmented cells
known as the iris pigment epithelium;
the outermost layer, also referred to as
the anterior iridial stroma, comprises
mainly loosely arranged connective
tissue, fibroblasts and melanocytes
(5). The main factors that differentiate
iris colour are the density and
cellular composition of the stroma
(6). The melanocyte cells
aggregated in the anterior border
layer of the stroma store melanin in a
special organelle within their
cytoplasm, which is referred to as
the melanosome; white light is
absorbed and reflected as a
spectrum of wavelengths giving rise
to the three common iris colours
namely blue, green-hazel, and
brown: these are the result of low,
moderate and high melanin levels,
and the numbers of melanin
particles respectively (7).
The eye colour behaves in the colour vision has undergone years of from LEDs. This study explores the
same way as skin colour – the darker intense study and modelling, very role of iris colour in the preference
the skin or eyes, the more light is little evidence has been found on of colour under light emitted from
blocked (8). Therefore, people with the role of iris colour in the prefe- LEDs by attempting to answer these
dark eyes can better handle high rence of colour under light emitted questions.
glare situations, such as strong day-
light at noon but can barely see in
the dark even after adaptation due
to a relatively high concentration of
melanin, which absorbs both short
and long wavelengths of light (9).
On the other hand, people with blue
eyes might have a higher risk of
macular degeneration and other
diseases affected by light due to
more light rays passing through the
lens (10–12). However, this variation
in iris colours occurs only in white
Caucasians or their descendants,
and not in any other human race
with brown eyes (4,7,13).
But does the iris colour influence
human colour preference under light
from white LEDs? Do people with
brown eyes prefer colours under
light from white LEDs differently
than people with blue or green-hazel
eyes? And do the basic properties of
LEDs such as the Colour Rendering
Index (CRI) and luminous flux have
any relationship to iris colour and Figure 1: The distance from the observer to the objects and the location of the
colour preference? If so, what is that light sources was based on the viewing angle of the observer and the average
relationship? While human stereo height of the observer.

Figure 2: Experimental set-up in Wismar.
2. Methods
Participants were presented with an
experimental set-up and expected to
complete a questionnaire. Similar
experiments were conducted in two
different locations: Wismar/Germany
and London/UK.
The entire experiment in each
location lasted for approximately ten
hours. The experiment itself consisted
of three scenes generated by three
downlights with commercially
available LED modules, which varied
in CRI (80/95) and luminous flux
(1000lm/2000lm). A Correlated
Colour Temperature (CCT) of 3000K
was maintained for all three scenes.
2.1. Methods – Physical Set-up
It was important to define an easily
repeatable physical set-up of three
scenes as shown in Figure 1.
The visual composition of each
scene was to be kept as compact as
possible for easy comparability while
viewing so as to help participants to
evaluate scenes under the same
conditions. The three displays and
their corresponding three luminaires
were positioned at a distance of
1.20 metres from one another.
It was assumed that the lighting of
one scene would not impact the
others. As an additional precaution,
black cylinders were placed on the
luminaires to prevent light spill and
to avoid participants looking directly
into the luminaires. The viewing
angle was adjusted, based on the
height of an average person (1.65 to
1.70 metres). All lighting scenes
were static and switched on at the
same time. All luminaires performed
at 100 per cent output. The illumi-
nance levels of the realized scenes
were not considered as part of the
experiment, as the focus was more
on light source characteristics.
In Wismar, the experiment was
conducted in the Lighting Labor-
atory at Hochschule Wismar:
University of Applied Sciences,
Technology, Business and Design.
The laboratory in which the
experiment was carried out consists
of a room measuring 9.2 metres
(width) x 7.2 metres (length) x 9
metres (height). The ceiling, walls
and floor are made of untreated
concrete. The movable steel grid
ceiling with integrated luminaires
was lowered to a height of three
metres. Three display stands, each
measuring 40 x 40 centimetres and
at a typical ergonomic height for
stands and counters of 1.20 metres,
RESEARCH Colour preference 63
under white LEDs
Figure 3: Experimental set-up in London.
were used as the basis for the three
scenes as depicted in Figure 2.
In London, the experiment was
conducted inside a rented room
measuring 8.5 metres (width) x 8.5
metres (length) x 4 metres (height).
The luminaires were suspended
from a ceiling-mounted lighting
track at a height of three metres.
The ceiling and walls were painted
white and the floor was covered
with beige laminate wood panels.
The room set-up was very similar to
Wismar, the only difference being
that objects for all three lighting
scenes were placed on one long
table covered with a black tablecloth
instead of on separate stands, as
depicted in Figure 3. Figure 4: A line at a distance of 1.5
As a general precaution, parti- metres from the displayed objects was
cipants were permitted to view the marked on the floor. Participants were
displayed objects only from a speci- asked to position themselves behind
fied distance. To ensure this, a line at this line during the experiment to
a distance of 1.5 metres was drawn ensure exact viewing conditions for all
on the floor and participants were participants.
requested to view the three scenes
from behind this line, as depicted in
Figure 4. The distance of this line
from the scenes was based on the
viewing angle of the observer and
the average height of the observers.
The LED manufacturer Xicato donated
the three requested luminaire
64

Figure 5: Colour measurement summary of Xicato LED modules: XSM 8030 – 2000 C, XSM 9530 – samples with specific LED parameters,
1000 B, XSM 8030 – 1000 B with 350 nm to 750 nm, measurements taken using a GL Optic mini- as depicted in Figures 5 and 6, and
spectrometer, Type MSM1/ DE. This information, although originally provided by Xicato, was checked Table 1. The involvement of Xicato
and validated using the GL Spectrosoft software program. as a partner company was based on
their reputation as a worldwide
leader in producing highquality LED
modules with excellent colour
rendering properties. The selected
light sources vary in two basic
parameters: colour rendering index
[CRI] and luminous flux [lm].
However, each of the downlights
had the same beam angle, thereby
providing a similar beam spread for
the three scenes. Three identical
compositions of different cubes
were designed to enable participant
evaluation of colour and brightness
preference. The CRI method
comprising a mixture of basic and
additional colour samples, as
depicted in Figure 7, was used
considering its wide acceptance as
an approach for evaluating colour
rendition of white light sources (14).
Nine large cubes (5 x 5 x 5 centi-
metres) of saturated colours (three
each of TCS09 Strong red, TCS010
Strong yellow and TCS012 Strong
blue) and eighteen small cubes (3 x
Figure 6: Comparative spectral power distribution (SPD) curves of Xicato modules: XSM 8030 – 2000 3 x 3 centimetres) of pastel shades
C, XSM 9530 – 1000 B, XSM 8030 – 1000 B with halogen, fluorescent and ceramic metal halide lamps (three each of TCS02 Dark greyish
as well as reference illuminant D65 from the Commission Internationale de L’Eclairage (CIE). yellow, TCS03 Strong yellow green,
TCS05 Light bluish green, TCS07
Light violet, TCS011 Strong green
and White) were arranged in the
Scene type Scene 1 Scene 2 Scene 3
composition depicted in Figure 8.
Light source XSM 8030 – 2000 C XSM 9530 – 1000 B XSM 8030 – 1000 B TCS09, TSC10, TCS012 were used
characteristics (XSM 80 Series) (XSM Artist Series) (XSM 80 Series) primarily because they are the most
Luminous flux (lm) 2000 1000 1000 commonly used colours in day-to-
day activities and participants
CRI [Ra] 80 [81.3] 95 [97.6] 80 [80.4]
can easily relate to these colours.
CCT (K) 3000 3000 3000 TCS011 was used because it is an

Table 1: The different characteristics of the Xicato light sources used in the three scene settings.
 RESEARCH Colour preference 65
under white LEDs

Light Dark Strong Moderate Light Light

greyish greyish yellow yellowish bluish Light Light reddish
red yellow green green green blue violet purple

Light Moderate
Strong Strong Strong Strong yellowish olive
red yellow green blue pink green

Figure 7: CIE–recommended basic and additional colour samples for testing CRI.

indicator for correct rendering of the
wavelength range between 520 nm
and 560 nm, which is crucial for
haemoglobin reflectance and
therefore skin colour of humans.
TCS013 was not used, despite the
fact that it best represents the
Caucasian skin colour, based on the
assumption that participants from
other ethnic origins might not be
able to relate to this colour as their
natural skin colour. A differential
selection in textures, with the large
cubes having a semi-glossy finish
and the small cubes having a matt
finish, was primarily done to provide
visual hierarchy and to generate
interest in the composition.
2.2. Methods –
Sample Population
Given that the intention was to ob-
tain feedback from a wide range of
people with different iris colours, a
generic invitation applicable to a
general population was prepared.
However, the participants were
sampled from two different geo-
graphical and cultural locations in
order to counter the validity of the
study. While there are various
different kinds of validity, the three
important ones include: internal,
external and construct validity.
Internal validity refers to whether
the effects observed in a study are
due to the manipulation of the inde-
pendent variable and not some
other factor. External validity refers
to the extent to which the results of
a study can be generalised to other
settings (situations), other people
(population) and over time (histori-
cal). Construct validity refers to the Demographics Wismar London
extent to which a test captures a
Age group
specific theoretical construct or trait.
Of the 133 people who agreed to 18 to 29 19 36
participate in the experiments 30 to 39 11 30
conducted in the two locations, 40 to 49 13 9
55 were from Wismar and 78 were
from London. The participants from 50 to 59 12 3
Wismar included students and Gender
staff from the university, while the Male 28 46
parti-cipants from London included
Female 27 32
members of the general public as
well as staff and guests from a Eye colour
restaurant located in the adjacent Blue 24 27
building. Table 2 lists a brief demo-
Green-hazel 10 24
graphic analysis of the 133 partici-
pants from Wismar and London. Brown 21 27
The majority [> 34%] of participants
involved in both experiment set-ups Table 2: Overview of participant demographics from Wismar and London.
were between the ages of 18 and
29.
2.3. Methods – Questionnaire
A questionnaire was designed which
first asked participants to study the
three scenes visually, and select
their most and least preferred sce-
nes in terms of colour quality. It then
asked participants to select their
most and least preferred scenes in
terms of brightness quality. These
questions were compiled on the
basis that participants might have a
differential preference for the three
scenes based on their individual iris
colours. Although literature already
reveals that people with different iris
colours respond differently to
different brightness conditions, the Figure 8: The displayed objects consisted of nine large cubes in saturated colours
test for brightness preference was and eighteen small cubes in pastel colours, based on CIE recommendations.
also included as a control test to
evaluate the overall validity of the
experiment.
66

3. Results and Analysis
The Chi-Square Test Calculator was
used to calculate the p-values and
analyse the statistical significance of
the quantitative data obtained on
colour and brightness preferences.
When a hypothesis test is performed,
the p-value or calculated probability
helps in determining the statistical
significance of the results. Hypothe-
sis tests are used to test the validity
of a claim that is made about a popu-
lation. A no-change claim is called
the Null hypothesis, which in this
case states that there is no relation-
ship between iris colour and colour
preference under the light emitted
by LEDs. The Alternative hypothesis
is believed if the null hypothesis is
concluded to be untrue, which in
this case states there is a relationship
between iris colour and colour
preference.
All hypothesis tests ultimately use
a p-value to weigh the strength of
the evidence (what the data reveals
about the respective population).
The p-value is a number between
0 and 1 and interpreted in the
following way: a small p-value
(typically ≤ 0.05) indicates strong
evidence against the null hypo-
thesis, so it is rejected; a large
p-value (> 0.05) indicates weak
evidence against the null hypothesis,
so it is accepted.
As the ratios of the number of
participants with different eye
colours varied considerably between
Wismar and London, it was decided
to perform these tests on the entire
set of 133 participants, instead of
treating them as two separate
samples. While the same test of the
individual samples from Wismar and
London was also conducted
separately as a pre-cautionary
measure, it yielded similar results.
3.1. Results and Analysis –
Colour Preference
Table 3 lists the descriptive and
inferential statistics obtained for the
participants’ preference for colour
quality. Participants rated the
appearance of Scene 2 with the 95
CRI – 1000lm LED module as their
most preferred scene. Participants
rated Scene 3 with the 80 CRI –
1000lm LED module as their least
preferred scene. However, no
conclusive evidence was found to
relate participant preferences for
colour quality based on their iris
colours as p > 0.05 for both tests.
The analysis of colour preferences
showed that participants prefer
coloured objects illuminated using
higher CRI light sources. It is
interesting to note that Scene 1 with
the 80 CRI – 2000lm LED module re-
ceived almost the same number of
votes as Scene 2 with the 95 CRI –
1000lm LED module. This implies
that CRI might not be the most
accurate metric for measuring
people’s preference for the colour
rendering properties of light
sources.
3.2. Results and Analysis –
Brightness Preference
Table 4 lists the descriptive and
inferential statistics obtained for the
participants’ preference for bright-
ness quality. Participants rated the
appearance of Scene 1 with the 80
CRI – 2000lm LED module as their
most preferred scene. Participants
rated Scene 3 with the 80 CRI –
1000lm LED module as their least
preferred scene. However, no

Scenes Scene 1 Scene 2 Scene 3 p χ2 (df = 2) Scenes Scene 1 Scene 2 Scene 3 p χ2 (df = 2)
Observed cell totals, Observed cell totals,
(expected cell totals) and (expected cell totals) and
[Chi-square statistics [Chi-square statistics
for each cell] for each cell]
Most Eye Brown 24 21 7 0.700 2.195 Most Eye Brown 26 15 10 0.286 5.017
pre- colour (21.50) (22.68) (7.82) pre- colour (22.24) (20.32) (8.44)
ferred [0.29] [0.12] [0.09] ferred [0.64] [1.39] [0.29]
scene Green- 12 scene Green- 11 16 3
11 6
hazel (11.99) (12.65) (4.36) hazel (13.08) (11.95) (4.96)
[0.00] [0.21] [0.62] [0.33] [1.37] [0.78]
Blue 19 26 7 Blue 21 22 9
(21.50) (22.68) (7.82) (22.68) (20.72) (8.60)
[0.29] [0.49] [0.09] [0.12] [0.08] [0.02]
Totals 55 58 20 Totals 58 53 22

Least Eye Brown 15 9 24 0.197 6.025 Least Eye Brown 15 8 28 0.631 2.578
pre- colour (14.08) (8.30) (25.62) pre- colour (13.04) (6.90) (31.06)
ferred [0.06] [0.06] [0.10] ferred [0.30] [0.17] [0.30]
scene Green- 13 scene Green- 8 2 20
2 18
hazel (9.68) (5.71) (17.62) hazel (7.67) (4.06) (18.27)
[1.14] [2.41] [0.01] [0.01] [1.05] [0.16]
Blue 11 12 29 Blue 11 8 33
(15.25) (8.99) (27.76) (13.29) (7.04) (31.67)
[1.18] [1.01] [0.06] [0.40] [0.13] [0.06]
Totals 39 23 71 Totals 34 18 81

Table 3: Chi-square statistics for the most and least preferred scenes in terms Table 4: Chi-square statistics for the most and least preferred scenes in terms
of colour. of brightness.

conclusive evidence was found to
relate participant preferences for
brightness based on their iris colours
as p > 0.05 for both tests. The analy-
sis for brightness pre-
ference shows that participants
prefer coloured objects illuminated
using a higher luminous flux. It is
interesting to note that Scene 2 with
the 95 CRI – 1000lm LED module re-
ceived almost the same amount of
votes as Scene 1 with the 80 CRI –
2000lm LED module. This implies
that a high CRI can be considered as
a suitable alternative to high
luminous flux for improving the
perceived brightness of objects.
4. Conclusions
Three broad conclusions can be
drawn from this study. Firstly, there
seems to be no statistically
significant relationship between
colour preference from LED light
sources and iris colour. However,
given the fact that the test for
brightness preference also yielded
similar results could imply that
future tests should consider
additional parameters such as light
sources with more natural and
vibrant colour rendering properties,
comparisons with daylight, and
larger sample sizes to yield more sta-
tistically significant results.
Secondly, CRI does not appear to
be an accurate metric for measuring
people’s preference for the colour
rendering properties of light
sources. The two scenes illuminated
using a higher CRI – lower luminous
flux, and lower CRI – higher
luminous flux, produced almost the
same results, leading to the
possibility that a different metric
might be required for measuring
peoples’ preference of the colour
rendering properties of light
sources.
Thirdly, using light sources with
a higher CRI can influence the
perceived brightness of objects.
The two scenes illuminated using
a higher CRI – lower luminous flux,
RESEARCH
and lower CRI – higher luminous
flux, produced almost the same
results leading to the possibility that
these two properties of light sources
are more closely related than initially
obvious. Future testing could lead
to more tangible results, such as
energy savings through the use of
higher CRI – lower luminous flux
light sources in lit environments
where perceived brightness is of
primary concern.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Roger Sexton and
Patrick van der Meulen from
Xicato for providing the necessary
data, equipment and infrastructure
for conducting the tests.
The authors also thank Lisa Woods
for help with the statistical data
analysis.
Colour preference 67
under white LEDs
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