Sniper From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Sniper

US Army sniper team shooting from within a room in Afghanistan with M24 SWS, 19 October 2006.

French Foreign Legion snipers using the Hecate II (front) and the FR-F2 (back) in Afghanistan A sniper is a marksman who shoots targets from concealed positions or distances exceeding the capabilities of regular personnel. Snipers typically have specialized training and distinct high-precision rifles. In addition to marksmanship, military snipers are trained in camouflage, field craft, infiltration, reconnaissance and [1] observation. Snipers are especially effective when deployed within the terrain of urban warfare, or jungle warfare.

Modern Warfare

An Army sniper from the Jalalabad Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) looks for enemy activity along the hilltops near Dur Baba, Afghanistan, November 2006. Different countries have different military doctrines regarding snipers in military units, settings, and tactics. Generally, a sniper's primary function in warfare is to provide detailed reconnaissance from a concealed position and, if necessary, to reduce the enemy's fighting ability by striking at high value targets (especially officers, communication and other personnel) and in the [5][6] process pinning down and demoralizing the enemy. Soviet Russian and derived military doctrines include squad-level snipers. See the "Soviet sniper" article for further details. Military snipers from the US, UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper [7] teams consisting of a shooter and spotter. A common practice is for a shooter and a spotter to take turns in order to avoid [6] eye fatigue. In most recent combat operations occurring in large densely populated towns such as Fallujah, Iraq, two teams would be deployed together to increase their security and effectiveness in an urban environment. German doctrine of largely independent snipers and emphasis on concealment developed during the Second World War have been most influential on modern sniper tactics, currently used throughout Western militaries (examples are specialized camouflage clothing, [8][9][10] concealment in terrain and emphasis on coup d'il). Typical sniper missions include reconnaissance and surveillance, target marking for air-strikes, counter-sniper, killing enemy commanders, selecting targets of opportunity, and even destruction of military equipment, which tend to require use of rifles in [6] the larger calibers such as the .50 BMG, like the Barrett M82, McMillan Tac-50, and Denel NTW-20. Snipers have increasingly been demonstrated as being useful by US and UK forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the [6] movement of infantry, especially in urban areas. Military sniper training aims to teach a high degree of proficiency in camouflage and concealment, stalking, observation and map reading as well as precision marksmanship under various operational conditions. Trainees typically shoot thousands of rounds over a number of weeks, while learning these core skills. Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways. The [6] most accurate position is prone, with a sandbag supporting the stock, and the stock's cheek-piece against the cheek. In the [6] field, a bipod can be used instead. Sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm (or both) to reduce stock movement. Some doctrines train a sniper to breathe deeply before shooting, then hold their lungs empty while they line up and take their [6] [6] shot. Some go further, teaching their snipers to shoot between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion. Accuracy The key to sniping is accuracy, which applies to both the weapon and the shooter. The weapon should be able to consistently [6] place shots within high tolerances. The sniper in turn must utilize the weapon to accurately place shots under varying [6] conditions.
[6]

A sniper must have the ability to accurately estimate the various factors that influence a bullet's trajectory and point of impact such as: range to the target, wind direction, wind velocity, altitude and elevation of the sniper and the target and ambient [6] temperature. Mistakes in estimation compound over distance and can decrease lethality or cause a shot to miss completely. Snipers zero their weapons at a target range or in the field. This is the process of adjusting the scope so that the bullet's points[6] of-impact is at the point-of-aim (centre of scope or scope's cross-hairs) for a specific distance. A rifle and scope should retain [6] its zero as long as possible under all conditions to reduce the need to re-zero during missions. A sandbag can serve as a useful platform for shooting a sniper rifle, although any soft surface such as a rucksack will steady a [6] rifle and contribute to consistency. In particular, bipods help when firing from a prone position, and enable the firing position to be sustained for an extended period of time. Many police and military sniper rifles come equipped with an adjustable [6] [6] bipod. Makeshift bipods known as shooting sticks can be constructed from items such as tree branches or ski poles. Accuracy and range depends on the cartridge used: Cartridge Maximum effective range
[37]

5.56x45mm NATO (.223 Remington) 300500 m 7.62x51mm (.308 Winchester) 7.62x54mmR 7 mm Remington Magnum .300 Winchester Magnum .338 Lapua Magnum .50 BMG (12.7x99mm NATO) 12.7x108mm (Russian) 14.5x114mm (Russian) 800-1,000 m 800-1,000 m 900-1,100 m 900-1,200 m 1,300-1,600 m 1,500-2,000 m 1,500-2,000 m 1,900-2,300 m

[edit] Targeting The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit and correct range estimation becomes absolutely critical at long ranges, because a bullet travels with a curved trajectory and the sniper must compensate for this by [6] aiming higher at longer distances. If the exact distance is not known the sniper may compensate incorrectly and the bullet path may be too high or low. As an example, for a typical military sniping cartridge such as 7.62x51mm NATO (.308 Winchester) M118 Special Ball round this difference (or drop) from 700 to 800 metres (770870 yd) is 200 millimetres (7.9 in). This means that if the sniper incorrectly estimated the distance as 700 meters when the target was in fact 800 meters away, the bullet will [6] be 200 millimeters lower than expected by the time it reaches the target. Laser rangefinders may be used, but are not preferred on the battlefield because a laser can be seen by both the sender and [citation needed] the receiver . One useful method is comparing the height of the target (or nearby objects) to their size on the mil dot scope, or taking a known distance and using some sort of measure (utility poles, fence posts) to determine the additional distance. The average human head is 150 millimeters (5.9 in) in width, average human shoulders are 500 millimeters (20 in) apart and the average distance from a person's pelvis to the top of their head is 1,000 millimeters (39 in).

To determine the range to a target without a laser rangefinder, the sniper may use the mil dot reticle on a scope to accurately find the range. Mil dots are used like a slide rule to measure the height of a target, and if the height is known, the range can be as well. The height of the target (in yards) 1000, divided by the height of the target (in mils), gives the range in yards. This is only in general, however, as both scope magnification (7, 40) and mil dot spacing change. The USMC standard is that 1 mil (that is, 1 milliradian) equals 3.438 MOA (minute of arc, or, equivalently, minute of angle), while the US Army standard is 3.6 MOA, chosen so as to give a diameter of 1 yard at a distance of 1000 yards (or equivalently, a diameter of 1 meter at a range of [6] 1 kilometer.) Many commercial manufacturers use 3.5, splitting the difference, since it is easier to work with. Explanation: 1 MIL = 1 milli-radian. That is, 1 MIL = 1x10^-3 radian. But, 10^-3 rad x (360 deg/ (2 x Pi) radians) = 0.0573 degrees. Now, 1 MOA = 1/60 degree = 0.01667 degrees. Hence, there are 0.0573/0.01667 = 3.43775 MOA per MIL, where MIL is defined as a milli-radian. On the other hand, defining a mil-dot by the US Army way, to equate it to 1-yard (1 m) at 1,000 yards (1,000 m), means the Army's mil-dot is approximately 3.6 MOA. It is important to note that angular mil (mil) is only an approximation of a milliradian and different organizations use different approximations. At longer ranges, bullet drop plays a significant role in targeting. The effect can be estimated from a chart which may be memorized or taped to the rifle, although some scopes come with Bullet Drop Compensator (BDC) systems that only require the range be dialed in. These are tuned to both a specific class of rifle and specific ammunition. Every bullet type and load will have different ballistics. .308 Federal 175 grain (11.3 g) BTHP match shoots at 2,600 ft/s (790 m/s). Zeroed at 100 yards (100 m), a 16.2 MOA adjustment would have to be made to hit a target at 600 yards (500 m). If the same bullet was shot with 168 grain [6] (10.9 g), a 17.1 MOA adjustment would be necessary. Shooting uphill or downhill is confusing for many because gravity does not act perpendicular to the direction the bullet is traveling. Thus, gravity must be divided into its component vectors. Only the fraction of gravity equal to the cosine of the angle of fire with respect to the horizon affects the rate of fall of the bullet, with the remained adding or subtracting negligible velocity to the bullet along its trajectory. To find the correct zero, the sniper multiplies the actual distance to the range by this fraction and aims as if the target were that distance away. For example, a sniper who observes a target 500 meters away at a 45-degree angle downhill would multiply the range by the cosine of 45 degrees, which is 0.707. The resulting distance will be 353 meters. This number is equal to the horizontal distance to the target. All other values, such as windage, time-to-target, impact velocity, and energy will be calculated based on the actual range of 500 meters. Recently, a small device known as a [6] cosine indicator has been developed. This device is clamped to the tubular body of the telescopic sight, and gives an [6] indicative readout in numerical form as the rifle is aimed up or down at the target. This is translated into a figure used to compute the horizontal range to the target. Windage which plays a significant role, the effect increasing with wind speed or the distance of the shot. The slant of visible convections near the ground can be used to estimate crosswinds, and correct the point of aim. All adjustments for range, wind, [6] and elevation can be performed by aiming off the target, called "holding over" or Kentucky windage. Alternatively, the scope can be adjusted so that the point of aim is changed to compensate for these factors, sometimes referred to as "dialing in". The shooter must remember to return the scope to zeroed position. Adjusting the scope allows for more accurate shots, because the cross-hairs can be aligned with the target more accurately, but the sniper must know exactly what differences the changes [6] will have on the point-of-impact at each target range. For moving targets, the point-of-aim is ahead of the target in the direction of movement. Known as "leading" the target, the amount of "lead" depends on the speed and angle of the target's movement as well as the distance to the target. For this [6] technique, holding over is the preferred method. Anticipating the behavior of the target is necessary to accurately place the [6] shot. [edit] Hide sites and hiding techniques
[6]

The term "hide site" refers to a covered and concealed position from which a sniper and his team can conduct surveillance and/or fire at targets. A good hide conceals and camouflages the sniper effectively, provides cover from enemy fire and allows a wide view of the surrounding area. The main purpose of ghillie suits and hide sites is to break up the outline of a person with a rifle.

Many snipers use ghillie suits to hide and stay hidden. Ghillie suits vary according to the terrain into which the sniper wishes to blend. For example, in dry, grassy wasteland the sniper will typically wear a ghillie suit covered in dead grass. [edit] Tactics [edit] Shot placement Shot placement varies considerably with the type of sniper being discussed. Military snipers, who generally do not engage targets at less than 300 m (330 yd), usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest. These shots depend on tissue damage, organ trauma, and blood loss to make the kill. Police snipers who generally engage at much shorter distances may attempt more precise shot at particular parts of body or particular devices: in one event in 2007 in Marseille, a GIPN sniper took a shot from 80 m (87 yd) at the pistol of a policeman [39] threatening to commit suicide, destroying the weapon and preventing him from killing himself. Less lethal shots (at arms or legs) may be taken at criminals to sap their will to fight or reduce their mobility. In a high-risk or instant-death hostage situation, police snipers may take head shots to ensure an instant kill. The snipers aim for the "apricot", or the medulla oblongata, located inside the head, a part of the brain that controls involuntary movement that lies at the base of the skull. Some ballistics and neurological researchers have argued that severing the spinal cord at an area [citation needed] near the second cervical vertebra is actually achieved, usually having the same effect of preventing voluntary motor activity, but the debate on the matter remains largely academic at present. With moving targets it is necessary to lead the target to compensate for movement during the flight of the projectile. [edit] Targets

Snipers can target personnel or materiel, but most often they target the most important enemy personnel such as officers or specialists (e.g. communications operators) so as to cause maximum disruption to enemy operations. Other personnel they might target include those who pose an immediate threat to the sniper, like dog handlers, who are often employed in a search for snipers. A sniper identifies officers by their appearance and behavior such as symbols of rank, talking to radio operators, sitting as a passenger in a car, having military servants, binoculars/map cases or talking and moving position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications. Since most kills in modern warfare are by crew-served weapons, reconnaissance is one of the most effective uses of snipers. They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement let them engage only high value targets of opportunity. Some rifles, such as the Denel NTW-20 and Vidhwansak are designed for a purely anti-materiel (AM) role, e.g. shooting turbine disks of parked aircraft, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, and the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. A sniper equipped with the correct rifle can target radar dishes, water containers, the engines of vehicles, and any number of other targets. Other rifles, such as the .50 caliber rifles produced by Barrett and McMillan are not designed exclusively as AM rifles, but are often employed in such a way, providing the range and power needed for AM applications in a lightweight package compared to most traditional AM rifles. Other calibers, such as the .408 Cheyenne Tactical and the .338 Lapua Magnum are designed to be capable of limited AM application, but are ideally suited as long range anti-personnel rounds. [edit] Relocating Often in situations with multiple targets, snipers use relocation. After firing a few shots from a certain position, snipers move unseen to another location before the enemy can determine where he or she is and mount a counter-attack. Snipers will frequently use this tactic to their advantage, creating an atmosphere of chaos and confusion. In other, rarer situations, relocation is used to eliminate the factor of wind.

[edit] Sound masking As sniper rifles are often extremely powerful and consequently loud, it is common for snipers to use a technique known as sound masking. When employed by a highly skilled marksman, this tactic can be used as a substitute for a noise suppressor. Very loud sounds in the environment, such as artillery shells air bursting or claps of thunder, can often mask the sound of the shot. This technique is frequently used in clandestine operations, infiltration tactics, and guerrilla warfare. [edit] External factors [edit] Wind Wind has a range of effects, the first being the effect of making the bullet deviate to the side. From a scientific perspective, the "wind pushing on the side of the bullet" is not what causes wind drift. What causes wind drift is drag. Drag makes the bullet turn into the wind, keeping the centre of air pressure on its nose. This causes the nose to be cocked (from your perspective) into the wind, the base is cocked (from your perspective) "downwind." So, (again from your perspective), the drag is pushing the bullet downwind making bullets follow the wind. A somewhat less obvious effect is caused by head or tailwinds. A headwind will slightly increase the relative velocity of the projectile, and increase drag and the corresponding drop. A tailwind will reduce the drag and the bullet drop. In the real world pure head or tailwinds are rare, since wind seldom is constant in force and direction and normally interacts with the terrain it is blowing over. This often makes ultra long range shooting in head or tailwind conditions difficult. [edit] Vertical angles The vertical angle (or elevation) of a shot will also affect the trajectory of the shot. Ballistic tables for small calibre projectiles (fired from pistols or rifles) assume that gravity is acting nearly perpendicular to the bullet path. If the angle is up or down, then the perpendicular acceleration will actually be less. The effect of the path wise acceleration component will be negligible, so shooting up or downhill will both result in a similar decrease in bullet drop. Often mathematical ballistic prediction models are limited to "flat fire" scenario's based on the rifleman's rule, meaning they can not produce adequately accurate predictions when combined with steep elevation angles over -15 to 15 degrees and longer ranges. There are however several mathematical prediction models for inclined fire scenarios available which yield rather [19] varying accuracy expectation levels. [edit] Ambient air density Air temperature, pressure, and humidity variations make up the ambient air density. Humidity has a counter intuitive impact. Since water vapor has a density of 0.8 grams per litre, while dry air averages about 1.225 grams per litre, higher humidity actually decreases the air density, and therefore decreases the drag. [edit] Long range factors [edit] Gyroscopic drift (Spin drift) Even in completely calm air, with no sideways air movement at all, a spin-stabilized projectile will experience a spin-induced sideways component. For a right hand (clockwise) direction of rotation this component will always be to the right. For a left hand (counterclockwise) direction of rotation this component will always be to the left. This is because the projectile's longitudinal axis (its axis of rotation) and the direction of the velocity of the center of gravity (CG) deviate by a small angle, which is said to be the equilibrium yaw or the yaw of repose. For right-handed (clockwise) spin bullets, the bullet's axis of symmetry points to the right and a little bit upward with respect to the direction of the velocity vector as the projectile rotates through its ballistic arc on a long range trajectory. As an effect of this small inclination, there is a continuous air stream, which tends to deflect the bullet to the right. Thus the occurrence of the yaw of repose is the reason for bullet drift to the right (for right-handed spin) or to the left (for left-handed spin). This means that the bullet is "skidding" sideways at any given moment, [20][21] and thus experiencing a sideways component.

The following variables affect the magnitude of gyroscopic drift:

Projectile or bullet length: longer projectiles experience more gyroscopic drift because they produce more lateral "lift" for a given yaw angle. Spin rate: faster spin rates will produce more gyroscopic drift because the nose ends up pointing farther to the side. Range, time of flight and trajectory height: gyroscopic drift increases with all of these variables.

Doppler radar measurement results for the gyroscopic drift of several US military and other very-low-drag bullets at 1000 yards (914.4 m) look like this: US military US military Palma Sierra M118 Special M193 Ball MatchKing Ball

Bullet type

LRBT J40 Match

Sierra MatchKing

Sierra MatchKing

LRBT J40 Match

LRBT J40 Match

Projectile weight 55 gr (in grain) Projectile .223 in / diameter (in 5.56 mm inches and mm) Gyroscopic drift 23.00 in / (in inches and 584 mm mm)

173 gr

155 gr

190 gr

220 gr

300 gr

350 gr

419 gr

.308 in / 7.62 mm

.308 in / 7.62 mm

.308 in / 7.62 mm

.308 in / 7.62 mm

.338 in / 8.59 mm

.375 in / 9.53 mm

.408 in / 10.36 mm

11.50 in / 292 mm

12.75 in / 324 mm

3.00 in / 76 mm

7.75 in / 197 mm

6.5 in / 165 mm

0.87 in / 22 mm

1.90 in / 48 mm

The table shows that the gyroscopic drift is rather variable and no clear trend is easily distinguishable. [edit] Magnus effect Spin stabilized projectiles are affected by the Magnus effect, whereby the spin of the bullet creates a force acting either up or down, perpendicular to the sideways vector of the wind. In the simple case of horizontal wind, and a right hand (clockwise) direction of rotation, the Magnus effect induced pressure differences around the bullet cause a downward (wind from the [22] right) or upward (wind from the left) force to act on the projectile, affecting its point of impact. The vertical deflection value tends to be small in comparison with the horizontal wind induced deflection component, but it may nevertheless be significant in winds that exceed 4 m/s (14.4 km/h or 9 mph). [edit] Magnus effect and bullet stability The Magnus effect has a significant role in bullet stability because the Magnus force does not act upon the bullet's center of gravity, but the center of pressure affecting the yaw of the bullet. The Magnus effect will act as a destabilizing force on any bullet with a center of pressure located ahead of the center of gravity, while conversely acting as a stabilizing force on any bullet with the center of pressure located behind the center of gravity. The location of the center of pressure depends on the flow field structure, in other words, depending on whether the bullet is in supersonic, transonic or subsonic flight. What this means in practice depends on the shape and other attributes of the bullet, in any case the Magnus force greatly affects stability [23][24] because it tries to "twist" the bullet along its flight path. Paradoxically, very-low-drag bullets due to their length have a tendency to exhibit greater Magnus destabilizing errors because they have a greater surface area to present to the oncoming air they are travelling through, thereby reducing their aerodynamic efficiency. This subtle effect is one of the reasons why a calculated Cd or BC based on shape and sectional density is of limited use.

[edit] Poisson effect Another minor cause of drift, which depends on the nose of the projectile being above the trajectory, is the Poisson Effect. This, if it occurs at all, acts in the same direction as the gyroscopic drift and is even less important than the Magnus effect. It supposes that the uptilted nose of the projectile causes an air cushion to build up underneath it. It further supposes that there is an increase of friction between this cushion and the projectile so that the latter, with its spin, will tend to roll off the cushion and move sideways. This simple explanation is quite popular. There is, however, no evidence to show that increased pressure means increased friction and unless this is so, there can be no effect. Even if it does exist it must be quite insignificant compared with the gyroscopic and Coriolis drifts. Both the Poisson and Magnus Effects will reverse their directions of drift if the nose falls below the trajectory. When the nose is off to one side, as in equilibrium yaw, these effects will make minute alterations in range. [edit] Coriolis drift Coriolis drift is caused by the Coriolis effect and the Etvs effect. These effects cause drift related to the spin of the Earth, known as Coriolis drift. Coriolis drift can be up, down, left or right. Coriolis drift is not an aerodynamic effect. It is a result of flying from one point to another across the surface of a rotating planet (Earth). The direction of Coriolis drift depends on the firer's and target's location or latitude on the planet Earth, and the azimuth of firing. The magnitude of the drift depends on the firing and target location, azimuth, and time of flight. [edit] Coriolis effect The Coriolis effect causes subtle trajectory variations caused by a rotating reference frame. The coordinate system that is used to specify the location of the point of firing and the location of the target is the system of latitudes and longitudes, which is in fact a rotating coordinate system, since the planet Earth is a rotating sphere. During its flight, the projectile moves in a straight line (not counting gravitation and air resistance for now). Since the target is co-rotating with the Earth, it is in fact a moving target, relative to the projectile, so in order to hit it the gun must be aimed to the point where the projectile and the target will arrive simultaneously. When the straight path of the projectile is plotted in the rotating coordinate system that is used, then this path appears as curvilinear. The fact that the coordinate system is rotating must be taken into account, and this is achieved by adding terms for a "centrifugal force" and a "Coriolis effect" to the equations of motion. When the appropriate Coriolis term is added to the equation of motion the predicted path with respect to the rotating coordinate system is curvilinear, corresponding to the actual straight line motion of the projectile. For an observer with his frame of reference in the northern hemisphere Coriolis makes the projectile appear to curve over to the right. Actually it is not the projectile swinging to the right but the earth (frame of reference) rotating to the left which produces this result. The opposite will seem to happen in the southern hemisphere. The Coriolis effect is at its maximum at the poles and negligible at the equator of the Earth. The reason for this is that the Coriolis effect depends on the vector of the angular velocity of the Earth's rotation with respect to xyz - coordinate system [25] (frame of reference). For small arms, the Coriolis effect is generally insignificant, but for ballistic projectiles with long flight times, such as extreme long-range rifle projectiles, artillery and intercontinental ballistic missiles, it is a significant factor in calculating the trajectory. [edit] Etvs effect The Etvs effect changes the apparent gravitational pull on a moving object based on the relationship between the direction of movement and the direction of the Earth's rotation. It causes subtle trajectory variations. It is not an aerodynamic effect and is latitude dependent, being at its most significant at equatorial latitude. Eastward-traveling objects will be deflected upwards (feel lighter), while westward-traveling objects will be deflected downwards (feel heavier). In

addition, objects traveling upwards or downwards will be deflected to the west or east respectively. The principle behind these counterintuitive variations during flight are explained in more detail in the equivalence principle article dealing with the physics of general relativity. For small arms, the Etvs effect is generally insignificant, but for long range ballistic projectiles with long flight times it can become a significant factor in accurately calculating the trajectory. [edit] Equipment factors Though not forces acting on projectile trajectories there are some equipment related factors that influence trajectories. Since these factors can cause otherwise unexplainable external ballistic flight behaviour they have to be briefly mentioned. [edit] Lateral jump Lateral jump is caused by a slight lateral and rotational movement of a gun barrel at the instant of firing. It has the effect of a small error in bearing. The effect is ignored, since it is small and varies from round to round. [edit] Lateral throw-off Lateral throw-off is caused by mass imbalance in applied spin stabilized projectiles or pressure imbalances during the transitorily flight phase when a projectile leaves a gun barrel. If present it causes dispersion. The effect is unpredictable, since it is generally small and varies from projectile to projectile, round to round and/or gun barrel to gun barrel. [edit] Maximum effective small arms range The maximum practical range of all small arms and especially high-powered sniper rifles depends mainly on the aerodynamic or ballistic efficiency of the spin stabilised projectiles used. Long-range shooters must also collect relevant information to calculate elevation and windage corrections to be able to achieve first shot strikes at point targets. The data to calculate these [27] fire control corrections has a long list of variables including :
[26]

ballistic coefficient of the bullets used height of the sighting components above the rifle bore axis the zero range at which the sighting components and rifle combination were sighted in bullet weight actual muzzle velocity (powder temperature affects muzzle velocity, primer ignition is also temperature dependent) range to target supersonic range of the employed gun, cartridge and bullet combination inclination angle in case of uphill/downhill firing target speed and direction wind speed and direction (main cause for horizontal projectile deflection and generally the hardest ballistic variable to measure and judge correctly. Wind effects can also cause vertical deflection.) air temperature, pressure, altitude and humidity variations (these make up the ambient air density) Earth's gravity (changes slightly with latitude and altitude) gyroscopic drift (horizontal and vertical plane gyroscopic effect often known as spin drift - induced by the barrels twist direction and twist rate) Coriolis effect drift (latitude, direction of fire and northern or southern hemisphere data dictate this effect) Etvs effect (interrelated with the Coriolis effect, latitude and direction of fire dictate this effect) lateral throw-off (dispersion that is caused by mass imbalance in the applied projectile) aerodynamic jump (dispersion that is caused by lateral (wind) impulses activated during free flight at or very near the [28] muzzle) the inherent potential accuracy and adjustment range of the sighting components the inherent potential accuracy of the rifle

the inherent potential accuracy of the ammunition the inherent potential accuracy of the computer program and other firing control components used to calculate the trajectory

The ambient air density is at its maximum at Arctic sea level conditions. Cold gunpowder also produces lower pressures and hence lower muzzle velocities than warm powder. This means that the maximum practical range of rifles will be at it shortest at Arctic sea level conditions. The ability to hit a point target at great range has a lot to do with the ability to tackle environmental and meteorological factors and a good understanding of exterior ballistics and the limitations of equipment. Without (computer) support and highly accurate laser rangefinders and meteorological measuring equipment as aids to determine ballistic solutions, long-range [29] shooting beyond 1000 m (1100 yd) at unknown ranges becomes guesswork for even the most expert long-range marksmen.

Interesting further reading: Marksmanship Wikibook

[edit] Using ballistics data Here is an example of a ballistic table for a .30 calibre Speer 169 grain (11 g) pointed boat tail match bullet, with a BC of 0.480. It assumes sights 1.5 inches (38 mm) above the bore line, and sights adjusted to result in point of aim and point of impact matching 200yards (183m) and 300yards (274m) respectively. 100yd (91m) 2512 766 200yd (183m) 2331 710 300yd (274m) 2158 658 400yd (366m) 1992 607 500yd (457m) 1834 559

Range

ft/s Velocity m/s

2700 823

Zeroed for 200 yards (184 m) in Height mm -38 51 0 -213 -617 -1245 -1.5 2.0 0 -8.4 -24.3 -49.0

Zeroed for 300 yards (274 m) in Height mm -38 122 142 0 -333 -889 -1.5 4.8 5.6 0 -13.1 -35.0

This table demonstrates that, even with a fairly aerodynamic bullet fired at high velocity, the "bullet drop" or change in the point of impact is significant. This change in point of impact has two important implications. Firstly, estimating the distance to the target is critical at longer ranges, because the difference in the point of impact between 400 and 500 yd (460 m) is 2532in (depending on zero), in other words if the shooter estimates that the target is 400yd away when it is in fact 500yd away the shot will impact 2532in (635813mm) below where it was aimed, possibly missing the target completely. Secondly, the rifle should be zeroed to a distance appropriate to the typical range of targets, because the shooter might have to aim so far above the target to compensate for a large bullet drop that he may lose sight of the target completely (for instance being outside the field of view of a telescopic sight). In the example of the rifle zeroed at 200 yd (180 m), the shooter would have to aim 49in or more than 4ft (1.2m) above the point of impact for a target at 500yd.

For short range target shooting on ranges up to 50 meters (55 yd) aerodynamics is relatively unimportant and velocities are low. As long as the bullet is balanced so it does not tumble, the aerodynamics are unimportanta bullet manufactured by Sierra Bullets that was cannelured according to military specifications for this project. [edit] Non-military defensive purposes The rules of engagement for non-military use of firearms usually require that a life, or in some jurisdictions, property, must be in immediate danger, for shots to be fired. Under such circumstances, the goal is to incapacitate the target as quickly as possible, to prevent the harm from being done. [edit] Wind flags Outdoor shooting ranges sometimes have wind flags, positioned between the firing line (where the shooters are) and the targets. Shooters observe these flags to make an estimate of wind speed, which is then converted into lateral minute of angle point of aim corrections or, alternatively, windage holdoff corrections. The flag method is the most common method used to estimate wind speed. A flag blowing in the wind will naturally blow away from the flagpole, with the angle of the bottom of the flag to the flagpole increasing with increasing windspeed. To estimate the wind speed in mph, the angle in degrees between the bottom of the flag to the flagpole at the mid-range position between the shooter and the target is divided by 4. For example, an angle of 60 degrees between the bottom of a flag and a flagpole [5] would be estimated as a 15 miles per hour (24 km/h) windspeed. The clock method is then used to determine full value, half value, or no value corrections in minute of angle for this wind. Aligning the target at the 12 o' clock position or direction, with the 6 o' clock direction being directly behind the shooter, winds at 3 or 9 o'clock are equated to full value, winds at 1,2,4,5,7,8,10,11 o'clock are equated to half value, and winds at 12 and 6 [6] o'clock are equated to no value. The minute of angle correction (full value) is then commonly estimated as ((Range meters/ 100) times Wind mph) / C, where C is a constant. The constant C equals 15 for ranges from 100 to 500 meters, 14 for 600 meters, 13 for 700800 meters, 12 for [7] 900 meters, and 11 for 1,000 meters. For full value winds, this full windage correction is used. For half value winds, the minute of correction in windage given by this formula is halved; for no value winds, no minute of angle correction in windage is [8] required. Multiple flags are required for two reasons. First, the wind speed closest to the mid-point of range has the greatest effect on [9] the projectile. In addition, the wind at one part of the range will not always be the same at another part. Wind flags are not always actual flags, sometimes streamers are used, small triangle flags, or even pin wheels. Factors such as the range length and expected strength of the wind determine the best type of flag to use. When no flags are available, a small leaf or other small light object can be dropped from shoulder height, and the object is then pointed at by the shooter; the angle between his arm and his torso can provide an equivalent wind speed estimation as a wind flag, although it will not be at the [10] mid-range location along the bullet's trajectory.