Principles of

Communications
BS Electronics Engineering
Engr. Christopher V. Maglaque, MEM
Assistant Professor 4
 Allocation:
Entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a given
frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial
or space radio communication services or the radio astronomy
service under specified conditions.
Allotment:
Communication Entry of a designated frequency channel in the agreed
plan, adopted by the ITU, for use by one or more nations for a
System terrestrial or space radio communication services in one or more
identified countries or geographic areas and under specified
conditions.
Assignment:
Authorization given by a nation for a radio station to use a
radio-frequency channel under specified conditions.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum illustrates the range of
frequencies applicable to electronic communication.
Figure 1.9a shows the entire electromagnetic spectrum
and Figure 1.9b shows the description of each spectrum. The
electromagnetic waves are signals that oscillates. It consists of
electric field and magnetic field. It is also characterized by its
Communication amplitude, frequency or phase.
System

Figure 1.9a: Electromagnetic Spectrum

 Electromagnetic Spectrum

FREQUENCY RANGE DESIGNATIONS

30 Hz to 300 Hz ELF (Extremely Low Frequencies)

300 Hz to 3 kHz VF (Voice Frequencies)
3 kHz to 30 kHz VLF (Very Low Frequencies)
30 kHz to 300 kHz LF (Low Frequencies)
Communication 300 kHz to 3 MHz MF (Medium Frequencies)

System 3 MHz to 30 MHz

30 MHz to 300 MHz
HF (High Frequencies)
VHF (Very High Frequencies)
300 MHz to 3 GHz UHF (Ultra High Frequencies)
3 GHz to 30 GHz SHF (Super High Frequencies)
30 GHz to 300 GHz EHF (Extremely High Frequencies)
300 GHz to 300 THz Infrared Light
300 THz to 3 PHz Visible Light
3 PHz to 30 PHz Ultraviolet Light
30 PHz to 300 PHz X Rays
300 PHz to 3 EHz Gamma Rays
3EHz to 30 EHz Cosmic rays
 It can be observed that the range of the electromagnetic
spectrum is defined by its frequency and wavelength.
Frequency is the number of cycles that occur in one
second (Hertz) while wavelength is the length travelled by one
cycle in meters. Figure 1.10a and Figure 1.10b shows an illustration
of frequency and wavelength.

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Figure 1.10a: Frequency of a wave Figure 1.10b: Wavelength of a wave

 WAVEFORM REPRESENTATION
1. Time Domain Representation
A standard oscilloscope is used to display the amplitude versus
time representation of the input signal

Communication
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 i. Frequency (f)
The number of times a particular phenomenon occurs in a
given period of time expressed in Hertz.
ii. Wavelength (λ)
Communication Wavelength is the distance between two points of similar
System cycles of a periodic wave or the distance traveled by an
electromagnetic wave during the time of one cycle typically
expressed in meters.
iii. Period (T)
The time required for one complete cycle of a repetitive
system, or simply the reciprocal of frequency.
 Relation between Wavelength, Frequency, and Period

Communication where:
System λ=wavelength in meters
c=speed of light (3x108)
f=frequency in Hz
T=period in sec
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1. Determine the wavelength of radio waves propagated using a
frequency of 30 MHz.

Communication
System 2. If the measured wavelength is 6m, calculate the frequency in
MHz.
 Example:
Find the wavelength of the following frequency:
a. 97.1 MHz
b. 590 kHz
c. 107.5 MHz
d. 2.2 GHz

Solutions:
!
The relationship between wavelength (λ) to frequency is 𝜆 =
Communication "

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 2. Frequency Domain Representation
A spectrum analyzer is used to display the amplitude versus
frequency representation of the input signal.

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The time and frequency domain representation of three sine waves
 Bandwidth (BW)
Bandwidth refers to the range of frequency in an
electromagnetic spectrum. It is the difference between the highest
frequency available in the spectrum to the lowest frequency.
𝑩𝑾 = 𝒇𝟐 − 𝒇𝟏
A channel bandwidth refers to the portion of electromagnetic
Communication spectrum occupied by the modulated signal. Commonly it refers to
the sidebands of the modulated signal. Figure 1.11 illustrate the
System bandwidth of the voice frequency (VF) spectrum.

Figure 1.11: Bandwidth of voice frequency spectrum

 Example:
1. Determine the bandwidth of high frequency spectrum.

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 Example:
Television has a 6 MHz bandwidth. Determine the lower side
frequency of channel 2 if the higher frequency is 60 MHz

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 TRANSMISSION FACILITIES
In terms of bandwidth, and in a contemporary digital context,
transmission facilities can be categorized as narrowband,
wideband, or broadband.
1. Narrowband
A single channel (64 Kbps) or some number of 64 Kbps channels (N
Communication ×64 Kbps), but less than wideband.

System 2. Wideband
Wideband is a multi-channel capacity that is between 1.544 Mbps
and 45 Mbps according to U.S. standards (2.048 Mbps-34 Mbps
according to European/international standards.)
3. Broadband
Broadband is a multi-channel capacity which is 45 Mbps according
to U.S. standards and 34 Mbps according to European/international
standards.
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS.
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means
that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as
Communication the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is
received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion,
System and noise.
1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise
 1. Attenuation
Type of transmission impairment in which the signal loses
strength due to the resistance and length of the transmission
medium.

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 2. Distortion
The alteration of information in which the original
proportions are changed, resulting from a defect in communication
system
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 3. Noise
Type of transmission impairment in which an outside
source such as crosstalk corrupts a signal.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS
1. Distress
A mobile station in distress is in-need of immediate
assistance.
2. Urgency
Communication
Radio messages with an urgency classification refer to a
System situation that requires immediate attention and might conceivably
become distress in nature.
3. Safety
Radio communications with a safety classification refer to
meteorological information, particularly about storms, hurricanes,
etc.
 MESSAGE PRIORITIES
1. Distress calls, messages, and traffic
2. Communications preceded by the urgency signal
Communication 3. Communications preceded by the safety signal
System 4. Communications relative to radio direction finding
5. Message relative to navigation of aircraft
6. Message relative to navigation, movements, and needs of ships
and official weather-observation messages
 OPERATIONAL WORDS
CODE MEANING
Roger I received your message.
I have completed transmitting and await your
Over reply.
Go ahead Same as over.
Communication Out
I have completed my communication and
do not expect to transmit again.
System I have no further traffic. (Sometimes
Clear used in place of Out)
Wait for another call or further
Stand by instructions.
I am changing from one part of the
message to another. (Also used to
request the received operator to indicate
Break
if he has received the portion of the
message transmitted thus far.)

Copy Respond to Break

 INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET

Communication
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Communication
System QUESTIONS???
Communication
THANK YOU & GOD BLESS
System
STAY SAFE!!!